Ch 9 & 10 Things to study. LEARNING DISABILITIES Educational Issues:Educational Issues: –1975: laws passed requiring all public schools to serve disabled

Ch 9 & 10

Things to study

LEARNING DISABILITIESLEARNING DISABILITIES• Educational Issues:Educational Issues:

– 1975: laws passed requiring all public schools to serve disabled 1975: laws passed requiring all public schools to serve disabled childrenchildren

– Law requires disability students to receive:Law requires disability students to receive:• IEP (Individualized Education Plan):IEP (Individualized Education Plan): written statement that written statement that

is specifically tailored for the disabled studentis specifically tailored for the disabled student• LRE (Least Restrictive Environment):LRE (Least Restrictive Environment): a setting that is as a setting that is as

similar as possible to that of non-disabled childrensimilar as possible to that of non-disabled children• Inclusion:Inclusion: educating a child with special education needs in educating a child with special education needs in

the regular classroomthe regular classroom

©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

LEARNING DISABILITIESLEARNING DISABILITIES

• Definition of learning disability includes three components:Definition of learning disability includes three components:– Minimum IQ levelMinimum IQ level– Significant difficulty in a school-related areaSignificant difficulty in a school-related area– Exclusion of severe emotional disorders, second-language Exclusion of severe emotional disorders, second-language

background, sensory disabilities, and/or specific neurological background, sensory disabilities, and/or specific neurological deficitsdeficits

• Boys are identified three times more frequently Boys are identified three times more frequently than girlsthan girls

• Most common form involves reading (i.e., dyslexia)Most common form involves reading (i.e., dyslexia)


LEARNING DISABILITIESLEARNING DISABILITIES• Possible Causes:Possible Causes:

– Genetics (many tend to run in families)Genetics (many tend to run in families)– Environmental influencesEnvironmental influences– Problems in integrating information from multiple Problems in integrating information from multiple

brain regionsbrain regions– Difficulties in brain structures and functionsDifficulties in brain structures and functions

• Intervention:Intervention:– Improving reading ability through intensive Improving reading ability through intensive

instructioninstruction


LEARNING DISABILITIESLEARNING DISABILITIES• ADHDADHD

– Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity impulsivity

– Number of children diagnosed has increased substantiallyNumber of children diagnosed has increased substantially• Possible Causes:Possible Causes:

– GeneticsGenetics– Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal developmentBrain damage during prenatal or postnatal development– Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal

developmentdevelopment– Later peak for cerebral cortex thickeningLater peak for cerebral cortex thickening


HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASEDISEASE

• Middle and late childhood is usually a time of Middle and late childhood is usually a time of excellent health excellent health – Injuries are the leading cause of death during middle Injuries are the leading cause of death during middle

and late childhoodand late childhood• Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe

injuryinjury– Cancer is the 2Cancer is the 2ndnd leading cause of death in children 5– leading cause of death in children 5–

14 years old 14 years old • Most common child cancer is leukemiaMost common child cancer is leukemia

– Many elementary-school children already possess risk Many elementary-school children already possess risk factors for cardiovascular disease factors for cardiovascular disease


HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASEDISEASE

• Overweight Children:Overweight Children:– Being overweight as a child is a risk factor for being obese as an Being overweight as a child is a risk factor for being obese as an

adultadult• Girls are more likely than boys to be overweightGirls are more likely than boys to be overweight

– Changes in diet and total caloric intake may be one reason for Changes in diet and total caloric intake may be one reason for increasing obesity ratesincreasing obesity rates

– Raises risks for many medical and psychological problemsRaises risks for many medical and psychological problems• Pulmonary problems, diabetes, high blood pressurePulmonary problems, diabetes, high blood pressure• Low self-esteem, depression, exclusion from peer groupsLow self-esteem, depression, exclusion from peer groups


COGNITIVE CHANGESCOGNITIVE CHANGES

• Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage:Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage:– Ages 7 to 11Ages 7 to 11– Children can perform concrete operations and reason logicallyChildren can perform concrete operations and reason logically

• Reasoning can only be applied to specific, concrete examplesReasoning can only be applied to specific, concrete examples– Ability to classify things into different sets and consider their Ability to classify things into different sets and consider their

interrelationshipsinterrelationships– Seriation: Seriation: the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative

dimensiondimension– Transitivity:Transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to the ability to logically combine relations to

understand certain conclusions understand certain conclusions


COGNITIVE CHANGESCOGNITIVE CHANGES• Evaluating Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage:Evaluating Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage:

– Piaget proposed that various aspects of a stage should emerge Piaget proposed that various aspects of a stage should emerge togethertogether• Some concrete abilities do not appear at the same timeSome concrete abilities do not appear at the same time

– Education and culture exert stronger influences on children’s Education and culture exert stronger influences on children’s development than Piaget believeddevelopment than Piaget believed

• Neo-Piagetians:Neo-Piagetians: argue that Piaget got some things right, but that argue that Piaget got some things right, but that theory needs considerable revisiontheory needs considerable revision– More emphasis on attention, memory, and strategy useMore emphasis on attention, memory, and strategy use


MEMORYMEMORY• Memory:Memory: long-term memory increases with age during middle and long-term memory increases with age during middle and

late childhoodlate childhood• ExpertsExperts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular

content areacontent area– Influences how they organize, represent, and interpret Influences how they organize, represent, and interpret

informationinformation– Affects ability to remember, reason, and solve problemsAffects ability to remember, reason, and solve problems– Older children usually have more expertise about a subject than Older children usually have more expertise about a subject than

younger children do younger children do


MEMORYMEMORY• Two important strategies: creating mental images and elaborating Two important strategies: creating mental images and elaborating

on informationon information• Elaboration:Elaboration: engaging in more extensive processing of engaging in more extensive processing of

informationinformation• Fuzzy Trace Theory:Fuzzy Trace Theory: two types of memory representations: two types of memory representations:

– Verbatim memory trace: Verbatim memory trace: precise details of informationprecise details of information– Gist:Gist: central idea of information central idea of information

• Older children begin to use gist more; contributes to fuzzy Older children begin to use gist more; contributes to fuzzy tracestraces

• Fuzzy traces are more enduring than verbatim tracesFuzzy traces are more enduring than verbatim traces


THINKINGTHINKING• Critical Thinking:Critical Thinking: thinking reflectively and thinking reflectively and

productively, and evaluating evidenceproductively, and evaluating evidence– Few schools really teach critical thinkingFew schools really teach critical thinking

• Creative Thinking:Creative Thinking: the ability to think in novel and the ability to think in novel and unusual ways, and to come up with unique solutions unusual ways, and to come up with unique solutions to problemsto problems– Convergent thinking:Convergent thinking: produces one correct answer produces one correct answer– Divergent thinking:Divergent thinking: produces many different produces many different

answers to the same questionanswers to the same question


THINKINGTHINKING

• Strategies for Fostering Creativity:Strategies for Fostering Creativity:– Encourage brainstormingEncourage brainstorming– Provide environments that stimulate creativityProvide environments that stimulate creativity– Don’t overcontrol studentsDon’t overcontrol students– Encourage internal motivationEncourage internal motivation– Build children’s confidenceBuild children’s confidence– Guide children to be persistent and delay gratificationGuide children to be persistent and delay gratification– Encourage children to take intellectual risksEncourage children to take intellectual risks– Introduce children to creative peopleIntroduce children to creative people


INTELLIGENCEINTELLIGENCE• Intelligence:Intelligence: problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and

adapt to life’s everyday experiencesadapt to life’s everyday experiences• Individual Differences:Individual Differences: stable, consistent ways in which people are stable, consistent ways in which people are

different from each otherdifferent from each other• Intelligence Tests:Intelligence Tests:

– Binet Tests:Binet Tests: designed to identify children with difficulty learning in designed to identify children with difficulty learning in schoolschool• Mental age (MA): Mental age (MA): an individual’s level of mental development an individual’s level of mental development

relative to othersrelative to others• Intelligence quotient (IQ):Intelligence quotient (IQ): a person’s mental age divided by a person’s mental age divided by

chronological age, multiplied by 100chronological age, multiplied by 100– Stanford-Binet Tests: Stanford-Binet Tests: revised version of the Binet testrevised version of the Binet test

• Scores approximate a normal distribution—a bell-shaped curveScores approximate a normal distribution—a bell-shaped curve– Wechsler Scales: Wechsler Scales: give scores on several composite indicesgive scores on several composite indices

• Three versions for different age groupsThree versions for different age groups


INTELLIGENCEINTELLIGENCE• Types of Intelligence (continued):Types of Intelligence (continued):

– Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind:Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind:• Verbal:Verbal: ability to think in words and use language to express ability to think in words and use language to express

meaningmeaning• Mathematical:Mathematical: ability to carry out mathematical operations ability to carry out mathematical operations• Spatial:Spatial: ability to think three-dimensionally ability to think three-dimensionally• Bodily-Kinesthetic:Bodily-Kinesthetic: ability to manipulate objects and be ability to manipulate objects and be

physically adeptphysically adept• Musical:Musical: sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone• Interpersonal:Interpersonal: ability to understand and interact effectively ability to understand and interact effectively

with otherswith others• Intrapersonal:Intrapersonal: ability to understand oneself ability to understand oneself• Naturalist: Naturalist: ability to observe patterns in nature and understand ability to observe patterns in nature and understand

natural and human-made systemsnatural and human-made systems


DIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORESDIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORES• Using Intelligence Tests:Using Intelligence Tests:

– Avoid stereotyping and expectationsAvoid stereotyping and expectations– Know that IQ is not the sole indicator of competenceKnow that IQ is not the sole indicator of competence– Use caution in interpreting an overall IQ scoreUse caution in interpreting an overall IQ score

• Extremes of Intelligence:Extremes of Intelligence:– Mental Retardation:Mental Retardation: a condition of limited mental ability in a condition of limited mental ability in

which an individual has a low IQ (typically below 70) and has which an individual has a low IQ (typically below 70) and has difficulty adapting to everyday lifedifficulty adapting to everyday life• Can be mild, moderate, or severeCan be mild, moderate, or severe• Can have an organic cause, or it can be social and cultural in Can have an organic cause, or it can be social and cultural in

originorigin


DIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORESDIFFERENCES IN IQ SCORES

– Extremes of Intelligence (continued):Extremes of Intelligence (continued):• Giftedness:Giftedness: people who have 130 IQ or higher and/or people who have 130 IQ or higher and/or

superior talent for somethingsuperior talent for something• Three criteria:Three criteria:

» PrecocityPrecocity» Marching to their own drummerMarching to their own drummer» A passion to masterA passion to master

• Giftedness is likely a product of both heredity and Giftedness is likely a product of both heredity and environmentenvironment

• Many experts argue that education programs for gifted Many experts argue that education programs for gifted children need a significant overhaulchildren need a significant overhaul


Moral Development

Moral Personality:• Three possible components:

– Moral identity: moral notions and moral commitments are central to our lives

– Moral character: people with the willpower, desires, and integrity to stand up to pressure and behave morally

– Moral exemplars: people who have lived exemplary moral lives

©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

GenderGender Stereotypes – broad categories that reflect

general impressions and beliefs about males and females– Children’s gender stereotyping increase from

preschool through fifth grade– Boys stereotypes tend to be more rigid than girls

Gender Similarities and Differences• Differences are averages• There is considerable overlap between the sexes• Differences may be biological, sociocultural, or both


GenderPhysical Development• Women have about twice as much body fat as men;

men are about 10% taller than women• Women have a longer life expectancy and are less

likely to develop physical or mental disorders• Hormonal Differences

• Female brains are smaller but have more folds• Part of hypothalamus responsible for sexual behavior is

larger in males• Corpus callosum is larger in females• Area of parietal lobe that aids visuospatial skills is

larger in males• Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show

more activity in females©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

GenderSocioemotional Development• Aggression:

– Boys are more physically aggressive than girls– Girls show as much verbal aggression as boys– Girls engage in relational aggression more often

than physical aggression• Emotion:

– Girls admit to feeling sadness, shame, and guilt; boys tend to deny that they experience these emotions

– Males show less emotional self-regulation• Prosocial Behavior:

– Females engage in more prosocial behavior than males


GenderGender Role Classification• Masculinity and femininity used to be described as a

continuum– This view challenged by the concept of androgyny

(presence of positive masculine and feminine traits in the same person)

• Androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy– Desirability depends on context


GenderGender in Context• Helping Behavior:

– Females are more likely to help people take care of their children and personal problems; males are more likely to help a woman with a flat tire

• Both are helpful in their own way, depending on the context

• Emotions:– Males are more likely to show anger to strangers

and to turn anger into aggressive behavior– Females are more likely to discuss emotions in

terms of relationships and are more likely to express fear and sadness


Parent-Child Relationships• Parents spend less time with children during middle and

late childhood• Parents serve as gatekeepers and provide scaffolding

as children learn to regulate their own lives– Parents have a strong influence on child’s school

achievement and extracurricular activities– Parents use less physical forms of punishment as

children age– Transfer of control from parent to child results in

coregulation


Stepfamilies• Number of remarriages involving children has grown

steadily in recent years• About half of all children from a divorced family

will have a step-parent within 4 years• Only 1/3 of stepfamily couples stay remarried

• More than 75% of adolescents in established stepfamilies describe their relationships with stepparents as “close” or “very close”

• Children from simple stepfamilies (stepmother, stepfather) typically show better adjustment than those in complex (blended) stepfamilies

• Children in stepfamilies show more adjustment problems than children in non-divorced families


Peers• Positive relationships with peers are especially

important in middle and late childhood

• Developmental Changes:• Reciprocity becomes increasingly important in

peer interchanges during elementary school• Size of peer group increases• Peer interaction is less closely supervised by

adults• Children’s preference for same-sex peer groups

increases until about age 12


Peers• Popular Children:

– Give out reinforcements– Listen carefully; maintain open lines of

communication with peers– Are happy– Control their negative emotions– At like themselves– Show enthusiasm and concern for others– Are self confident without being conceited


Peers• Neglected Children:

– Engage in low rates of peer interaction– Often described as shy

• Rejected Children:– Often have more serious social adjustment

problems than neglected children– Often find that rejection increases

aggressive behavior over time• More impulsive• More emotionally reactive• Fewer social skills


Social Cognition• Social Cognition: thoughts about social matters

– Children go through 5 steps in processing social information:

• Decode social cues• Interpret• Search for a response• Select an optimal response• Enact

• Social knowledge is also involved– Children need to know

• What goals to pursue in ambiguous situations• How to initiate and maintain a social bond• What scripts to follow to get children to be their friends


Bullying• Boys and younger middle school students are most likely to be affected– Child victims often tend to:

• Be lonely and have difficulty making friends• Be anxious, socially withdrawn, aggressive

– Child bullies often tend to:• Have low grades in school• Use alcohol and/or tobacco

• Outcomes of bullying:– More likely to experience depression and attempt suicide– More health problems (headaches, dizziness, sleep

problems, anxiety)


Friends• Children’s friendships are typically characterized by

similarity

• Six functions:– Companionship– Stimulation– Physical support– Ego support– Social comparison– Affection and intimacy

• Developmental advantages occur when children have socially skilled and supportive friends


Schools• Contemporary Approaches:

– Constructivist Approach: learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their own knowledge and understanding

• Emphasis on collaboration and active learning– Direct-Instruction Approach: structured, teacher-

centered approach• Teacher direction and control• High teacher expectations for students’ progress• Maximum time spent by students on academic tasks• Efforts by teacher to keep negative affect to a

minimum• Combination of both approaches may be best


Schools• Accountability:

– Government and U.S. public are demanding increased accountability from schools

• Spread of state-mandated tests• Many states have identified objectives for students

• No Child Left Behind Legislation (2002):– Advocates argue that testing will:

• Improve student performance• Encourage teachers to spend more time teaching

the subjects that are tested• Raise expectations for students• Identify poorly performing schools, teachers, and

administrators• Improve confidence in schools


Schools• No Child Left Behind Legislation (2002):

– Critics argue that :• Using a single test as the sole indicator of students’

progress presents a very narrow view of students’ skills

– Test do not measure creativity, motivation, persistence, flexible thinking, social skills

• Teachers spend too much class time “teaching to the test”

• Gifted students are neglected in favor of raising the achievement level of children who are not doing well

• Each state is allowed to set their own standard for passing tests


Schools• Minority and low-SES students face more barriers to

learning:– Parents may not set high educational standards– Parents may not know how to help children with

schoolwork– Students may not have resources to pay for educational

materials and expenses– Students often live in high-risk neighborhoods

• Most low-SES area schools tend to have:– Students with lower test scores, lower graduation rates,

and lower college-attendance rates– Young teachers with less experience– Curriculum that encourages rote learning– Old and undesirable buildings– Fewer resources


Schools

• Ethnicity in Schools:– Almost one-third of all African American and

Latino students attend schools in the 47 largest city school districts in the U.S., compared with only 5 percent of all White and 22 percent of all Asian-American students

– Many inner-city schools are still segregated, grossly underfunded, and do not provide adequate learning opportunities

– Segregation is still a problem outside of inner cities


Schools

• African American and Latino students are less likely than White or Asian American students to be in college prep programs, and are more likely to be in remedial or special education programs

• Asian American students take more advanced math and science courses than any other group

• African American students are twice as likely as Latinos, Native Americans, or Whites to be suspended from school

• Some experts believe that teachers accept a low level of performance from children of color


Schools

• Strategies for Improving Relationships Among Ethically Diverse Students:– Make a “jigsaw” classroom– Encourage positive personal contacts with other

students– Reduce bias– View the school and community as a team– Be a competent cultural mediator


Schools

• Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Achievement:– American children are more achievement-oriented than

their counterparts in many other countries– Relatively poor performance of American children in

math and science, especially compared to Asian countries

• Importance of Mindset:– Fixed Mindset: belief that abilities can’t be changed– Growth Mindset: belief that abilities can change and

improve with effort


Documents

Ch 9 & 10 Things to study. LEARNING DISABILITIES Educational Issues:Educational Issues: –1975: laws passed requiring all public schools to serve disabled