CHAPTER 8 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

In Chapters 4 and 5 we saw how to use calculus and thecomputer in order to predict the motion of a projectile.We saw that if we knew the initial position and velocityof an object, and had a formula for its accelerationvector, then we could predict its position far into thefuture.

To go beyond a discussion of projectile motion, todevelop a general scheme for predicting motion, twonew concepts are needed. One is mass, discussed inchapter 6, and the other is force, to be introduced now.We will see that once we know the forces acting on anobject, we can obtain a formula for the object’s accel-eration and then use the techniques of Chapters 4 and5 to predict motion. This scheme was developed in thelate 1600s by Isaac Newton and is known as NewtonianMechanics.

Chapter 8Newtonian Mechanics

8-2 Newtonian Mechanics

FORCEThe concept of a force—a push or a pull—is not asstrange or unfamiliar as the acceleration vector we havebeen discussing. When you push on an object you areexerting a force on that object. The harder you push, thestronger the force. And the direction you push is thedirection of the force. From this we see that force is aquantity that has a magnitude and a direction. As aresult, it is reasonable to assume that a force is de-scribed mathematically by a vector, which we willusually designate by the letter F.

It is often easy to see when forces are acting on anobject. What is more subtle is the relationship betweenforce and the resulting acceleration it produces. If Ipush on a big tree, nothing happens. I can push as hardas I want and the tree does not move. (No bulldozersallowed.) But if I push on a chair, the chair may move.The chair moves if I push sideways but not if I pushstraight down.

The ancient Greeks, in particular, Aristotle, thoughtthat there was a direct relationship between force andvelocity. He thought that the harder you pushed on anobject, the faster it went. There is some truth in this ifyou are talking about pushing a stone along the groundor pulling a boat through water. But these examples,which were familiar problems in ancient time, turn outto be complex situations, involving friction and viscousforces.

Only when Galileo focused on a problem withoutmuch friction – projectile motion – did the importantrole of the acceleration vector become apparent. Later,Newton compared the motion of a projectile (the applethat supposedly fell on his head) with the motion of theplanets and the moon, giving him more examples ofmotion without friction. These examples led Newtonto the discovery that force is directly related to accelera-tion, not velocity.

In our discussion of projectile motion, and projectilemotion with air resistance, we have begun to see therelation between force and acceleration. While aprojectile is in flight, and we can neglect air resistance,the projectile’s acceleration is straight down, in thedirection of the earth as shown in Figure (1). As westand on the earth, we are being pulled down by gravity.While the projectile is in flight, it is also being pulleddown by gravity. It is a reasonable guess that theprojectile’s downward acceleration vector g is causedby the gravitational force of the earth.

When we considered the motion of a particle at con-stant speed in a circle as shown in Figure (2), we sawthat the particle’s acceleration vector pointed towardthe center of the circle. A simple physical example ofthis circular motion was demonstrated when we tied agolf ball to a string and swing it over our head.

a0

0 1

2

3

a1

a2

a3

rstr

ing

a

golf ball

Figure 2The acceleration of the ball is in the same direction asthe force exerted by the string. (Figure 3-28)

Figure 1The earth's gravitational force produces a uniformdownward gravitational acceleration. (Figure 3-27)

8-3

While swinging the golf ball, it was the string pullingon the ball that kept the ball moving in a circle. (Let goof the string and the ball goes flying off.) The string iscapable of pulling only along the length of the string,which in this case is toward the center of the circle.Thus the force exerted by the string is in the directionof the golf ball’s acceleration vector. This makes oursecond example in which the particle’s accelerationvector points in the same direction as the force exertedon it.

The example of projectile motion with air resistance,shown in Figure (3), presented a more complex situa-tion. In our study of the motion of a Styrofoamprojectile, we had two forces acting on the ball. Therewas the downward force of gravity, and also the forceexerted by the wind we would feel if we were ridingalong with the ball. We saw that gravity and the windeach produced an acceleration vector, and that theball’s actual acceleration was the vector sum of the twoindividual accelerations. This is an important clue as tohow we should handle situations where more than oneforce is acting on an object.

THE ROLE OF MASSOur three examples, projectile motion, motion in acircle, and projectile motion with air resistance, alldemonstrate that a force produces an acceleration in thedirection of the force. The next question is – how muchacceleration? Clearly not all forces have the sameeffect. If I shove a child’s toy wagon, the wagon mightaccelerate rapidly and go flying off. The same shoveapplied to a Buick automobile will not do very much.

There is clearly a difference between a toy wagon anda Buick. The Buick has much more mass than thewagon, and is much less responsive to my shove.

In our recoil definition of mass discussed in Chapter 6and illustrated in Figure (4), we defined the ratio of twomasses as the inverse ratio of their recoil speeds

m1m2

= v2v1

The intuitive idea is that the more massive the object,the slower it recoils. The more mass, the less respon-sive it is to the shove that pushed the carts apart.

Think about the spring that pushes the cart apart in ourrecoil experiment. Once we burn the thread holding thecarts together, the spring pushes out on both carts,causing them to accelerate outward. If the spring ispushing equally hard on both carts (later we will seethat it must), then we see that the resulting accelerationand final velocities are inversely proportional to themass of the cart. If m1 is twice as massive as m2, it getsonly half as much acceleration from the same springforce. Our recoil definition and experiments on masssuggests that the effectiveness of a force in producingan acceleration is inversely proportional to the object’smass. For a given force, if you double the mass, you getonly half the acceleration. That is the simplest relation-ship between force and mass that is consistent with ourgeneral experience, and it turns out to be the correctone.

3

"wind"

v3

ag

air

a3

a air3 = g + a

AVBVA

B

Figure 4Definition of mass. When two carts recoil fromrest, the more massive cart recoils more slowly.

Figure 3Gravity and the wind each produce anacceleration, g and aair respectively.The net acceleration of the ball is thevector sum of the two accelerations.

8-4 Newtonian Mechanics

NEWTON’S SECOND LAWWe have seen that a force F acting on a mass m,produces an acceleration a that 1) is in the directionof F , and 2) has a magnitude inversely proportionalto m. The simplest equation consistent with theseobservations is

a = Fm (1)

Equation (1) turns out to be the correct relationship, andis known as Newton’s Second Law of Mechanics.(The First Law is a statement of the special case that,if there are no forces, there is no acceleration. That wasnot obvious in the late 1600s, and was therefore statedas a separate law.) A more familiar form of Newton’ssecond law, seen in all introductory physics texts is

F = ma (1a)

If there is any equation that is essentially an icon for theintroductory physics course, Equation (1a) is it.

At this point Equation (1) or (1a) serves more as adefinition of force than a basic scientific result. We can,for example, see from Equation (1a) that force has thedimensions of mass times acceleration. In the MKSsystem of units this turns out to be kg(m/sec2), acollection of units called the newton. Thus we can saythat we push on an object with a force of so manynewtons. In the CGS system, the dimensions of forceare gm(cm/sec2), a set of units called a dyne. A dyneturns out to be a very small unit of force, of the order ofthe force exerted by a fly doing push-ups. The newtonis a much more convenient unit. The real confusion isin the English system of units where force is measuredin pounds, and the unit of mass is a slug. We willcarefully avoid doing Newton’s law calculations inEnglish units so that the student does not have to worryabout pounds and slugs.

At a more fundamental level, we can use Equation (1)to detect the existence of a force by the acceleration itproduces. In projectile motion, how do we know thatthere is a gravitational force Fg acting on the projectile?Because of the gravitational acceleration. The accel-eration a due to gravity is equal to g (9.8 m/ sec2

directed downward), thus we can say that the gravita-tional force Fg that produces this acceleration is

Fg = mg gravitational force

on a mass m(2)

where m is the mass of the projectile.

m2Fgm1

Fg

r

Figure 5The gravitational force between small massesis proportional to the product of the masses,and inversely proportional to the square of theseparation between them.

8-5

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITYNewton went beyond using the second law to defineforce; he also discovered a basic law for the gravita-tional force between objects. With Newton’s law ofgravity combined with Newton’s second law, we canmake detailed predictions about how projectiles, satel-lites, planets, and solar systems behave. This combina-tion, where one has an explicit formula for gravitationalforces, and the second law to predict what accelerationsthese forces produce, was one of the most revolution-ary scientific discoveries ever made.

Newton’s so-called universal law of gravitation canmost simply be stated as follows. If we have two smallmasses of mass m1 and m2, separated by a distance r asshown in Figure (5), then the force between them isproportional to the product m1m2 of their masses, andinversely proportional to the square of the distance rbetween them. This can be written as an equation of theform

Fg = G

m1m2r2

Newton's lawof gravity

(3)

where the proportionality constant G is a number thatmust be determined by experiment.

Equation (3) itself is not the whole story, we must makeseveral more points. First, and very important, is thefact that gravitational forces are always attractive; m1is pulled directly toward m2, and m2 directly towardm1. Second, the strength of these forces are equal, evenif m2 is much bigger than m1, the force of m2 on m1 isthe same in strength as the force of m1 on m2. That iswhy we used the same symbol Fg for the two attractiveforces in Figure (5).

Newton’s law of gravity is called the universal law ofgravitation because Equation (3) is supposed to applyto all masses anywhere in the universe, with the samenumerical constant G everywhere. G is called theuniversal gravitational constant, and has the numeri-cal value, in the MKS system of units

G = 6.67 × 10–11

m3

kg sec2

universalgravitationalconstant

(4)

We will discuss shortly how this number was firstmeasured.

Exercise 1

Combine Newton’s second law F = ma with the law ofgravity Fg = Gm1m2 r2Gm1m2 r2 and show that the dimen-sions for G in Equation (4) are correct.

Big ObjectsIn our statement of Newton’s law of gravity, we werecareful to say that Equation (3) applied to two smallobjects. To be more explicit, we mean that the twoobjects m1 and m2 should be small in dimensionscompared to the separation r between them. We canthink of Equation (3) as applying to two point particlesor point masses.

What happens if one or both of the objects are largecompared to their separation? Suppose, for example,that you would like to calculate the gravitational forcebetween you and the earth as you stand on the surfaceof the earth. The correct way to do this is to realize thatyou are attracted, gravitationally, to every rock, tree,every single piece of matter in the entire earth asindicated in Figure (6). Each of these pieces of matteris pulling on you, and together they produce a netgravitational force Fg which is the force mg that wesaw in our discussion of projectile motion.

Figure 6You are attracted to every piece of matter in the earth.

8-6 Newtonian Mechanics

It appears difficult to add up all the individual forcesexerted by every chunk of matter in the entire earth, toget the net force Fg. Newton also thought that this wasdifficult, and according to some historical accounts,invented calculus to solve the problem. Even withcalculus, it is a fairly complicated problem to add up allof these forces, but the result turns out to be very simple.For any uniformly spherical object, you get the cor-rect answer in Newton’s law of gravity if you think ofall the mass as being concentrated at a point at thecenter of the sphere. (This result is an accidentalconsequence of the fact that gravity is a 1/r2 force, i.e.,that it is inversely proportional to the square of thedistance. We will have much more to say about thisaccident in later chapters.)

Since the earth is nearly a uniformly spherical object,you can calculate the gravitational force between youand the earth by treating the earth as a point masslocated at its center, 4000 miles below you, as indicatedin Figure (7).

Galileo’s ObservationAs we mentioned earlier, Galileo observed that, in theabsence of air resistance, all projectiles should have thesame acceleration no matter what their mass. Thisleads to the striking result that, in a vacuum, a steel balland a feather fall at the same rate. Now we can see thatthis is a consequence of Newton’s second law com-bined with Newton’s law of gravity.

Using the results of Figure (7), i.e., calculating Fg byreplacing the earth by a point mass me located adistance re below us, we get

Fg =

Gmme

re2

(5)

for the strength of the gravitational force on a particleof mass m at the surface of the earth. Combining thiswith Newton’s second law

Fg = mg or Fg = mg (6)

we get

mg =Gmme

r2(7)

The important result is that the particle’s mass mcancels out of Equation (7), and we are left with theformula

g =Gme

re2

(8)

for the acceleration due to gravity. We note that gdepends on the earth mass me , the earth radius re, andthe universal constant G, but not on the particle’s massm. Thus objects of different mass should have the sameacceleration.

Fg Fg

em=

r ear

th

earth

Figure 7The gravitational force of the entire earth actingon you is the same as the force of a point particlewith a mass equal to the earth mass, located at theearth's center, one earth radius below you.

8-7

THE CAVENDISH EXPERIMENTA key feature of Newton’s law of gravitation is that allobjects attract each other via gravity. Yet in practice,the only gravitational force we ever notice is the forceof attraction to the earth. What about the gravitationalforce between two students sitting beside each other, orbetween your two fists when you hold them close toeach other? The reason that you do not notice theseforces is that the gravitational force is incredibly weak,weak compared to other forces that hold you, trees, androcks together. Gravity is so weak that you wouldnever notice it except for the fact that you are on top ofa huge hunk of matter called the earth. The earth massis so great that, even with the weakness of gravity, theresulting force between you and the earth is big enoughto hold you down to the surface.

The gravitational force between two reasonably sizedobjects is not so small that it cannot be detected, it justrequires a very careful experiment that was first per-formed by Henry Cavendish in 1798. In the Cavendishexperiment, two small lead balls are mounted on theend of a light rod. This rod is then suspended on a fineglass fiber as shown in Figure (8a).

As seen in the top view in Figure (8b), two large leadballs are placed near the small ones in such a way thatthe gravitational force between each pair of large andsmall balls will cause the rod to rotate in one direction.Once the rod has settled down, the large lead balls aremoved to the position shown in Figure (8c). Now thegravitational force causes the rod to rotate the otherway. By measuring the angle that the rod rotates, andby measuring what force is required to rotate the rod bythis angle, one can experimentally determine the strengthof the gravitational force Fg between the balls. Then byusing Newton’s law of gravity

Fg = Gm1m2

r2

applied to Figure (9), one can solve for G in terms of theknown quantities Fg, m1, m2 and r2. This was the waythat Newton’s universal constant G, given in Equation(4) was first measured.

glass fiber

small lead balls

a) Side view of the small balls.

Fg

Fg

b) Top view showing two large lead balls.

c) Top view with large balls rotated to new position.

Fg

Fg

r

m1

m2Figure 9

Figure 8The Cavendish experiment. By moving the large leadballs, the small lead balls are first pulled one way, thenthe other. By measuring the angle the stick holding thesmall balls is rotated, one can determine thegravitational force Fg.

8-8 Newtonian Mechanics

SATELLITE MOTIONThe key idea that led Newton to his universal law ofgravitation was that the moon, while traveling in itsorbit about the earth, was subject to the same kind offorce as an apple falling from a tree. We have seen thata projectile in flight, such as an apple, accelerates downtoward the center of the earth. The moon, in its nearlycircular orbit around the earth, also accelerates towardthe center of the earth, as illustrated in Figure (10).Newton proposed that the accelerations of the fallingapple and of the orbiting moon were both caused by thegravitational pull of the earth.

"Weighing” the EarthOnce you know G, you can go back to the formula(8) for the acceleration g due to gravity, and solve forthe earth mass me to get

me =gre

2

G=

9.8 m/sec2 × 6.37 × 106m2

6.67 × 10–11m3/kg sec2

= 6.0 x 1024kg (9)

As a result, Cavendish was able to use his value for Gto determine the mass of the earth. This was the firstdetermination of the earth’s mass, and as a result theCavendish experiment became known as the experi-ment that “weighed the earth”.

Exercise 2

The density of water is 1 gram/ cm3. The average densityof the earth’s outer crust is about 3 times as great. UseCavendish’s result for the mass of the earth to decide ifthe entire earth is like the crust. (Hint —the volume of asphere of radius r is 4 34 3π r3). Relate your result to whatyou have read about the interior of the earth.

Inertial and Gravitational MassThe fact that, in the absence of air resistance, allprojectiles have the same acceleration— the fact thatthe m’s canceled in Equation (7), has a deeper conse-quence than mere coincidence. In Newton’s secondlaw, the m in the formula F = ma is the mass definedby the recoil definition of mass discussed in Chapter 6.Called inertial mass, it is the concept of mass that weget from the law of conservation of linear momentum.

In Newton’s law of gravity, the projectile’s mass m inthe formula Fg = Gmm e/re

2 is what we should callthe gravitational mass for it is defined by the gravita-tional interaction. It is the experimental observationthat the m’s cancel, the observation that all projectileshave the same acceleration due to gravity, that tells usthat the inertial mass is the same as gravitational mass.This equivalence of inertial and gravitational mass hasbeen tested with extreme precision to one part in abillion by Etvös in 1922 and to even greater accuracyby R. H. Dicke in the 1960s.

Figure 10When we swing a golf ball in a circle, the ballaccelerates toward the center of the circle, in thedirection it is pulled by the string. Similarly, themoon, in its circular orbit about the earth,accelerates toward the center of the earth, in thedirection it is pulled by the earth's gravity.

Moon

F

V

Golf ball

F

V

String

Earth

8-9

The moon, being farther away from the center of theearth should be expected to feel a weaker gravitationalforce and therefore have a weaker acceleration. Fromdirect calculation Newton could determine how muchweaker the moon’s acceleration was, and thus deter-mine how the gravitational acceleration and forcedecreases with distance.

To repeat Newton’s calculation, we know that theapple on the surface of the earth has an accelerationgapple = 9.8 m/sec2. To determine the magnitudeof the moon’s orbital acceleration toward the earth,

gmoon orbit , we can use the formula derived in Chap-ter 3 for uniform circular motion, namely

a = gmoon orbit =

v2r

uniformcircularmotion

(3-12)

To calculate the speed v of the moon, we note that themoon takes 27.32 days or 2.36 x 106 seconds for onecomplete orbit. The radius of the moon orbit is 3.82x 108 meters, so that

vmoon =orbital circumference

time for one orbit= 2πrtorbit

=2π × 3.82 × 108 meters

2.36 × 106 sec

= 1.02 × 103 msec (10)

or very close to 1 kilometer per second. Substitutingthis value of v into the formula v2/r, gives

gmoon orbit =1.02 × 103 m/sec

2

3.82 × 108 m

= 2.70 × 10–3m

sec2

(11)

The ratio of the moon’s orbital acceleration to theapple’s acceleration

gmoon orbitgapple

=2.70 × 10-3 m/sec2

9.8 m/sec2

= 2.71 × 10 - 4(12)

I.e., the moon’s acceleration is 27 thousand timesweaker than the apple’s.

To understand the meaning of this result, let us lookat the square of the ratio of the distances from theapple to the center of the earth, and the moon to thecenter of the earth. We have

rapple to center of earth

rmoon orbit

2

=6.37 × 106 m

3.82 × 108 m

2

= 2.78 × 10-4 (13)

which, to the accuracy of our work, is the same as theratio of accelerations.

Equating the results in Equations (12) and (13), weget

gmoon orbitgapple

=re2

rmoon orbit2

gmoon orbit =

gapple × re2

rmoon orbit2 ∝

1rmoon orbit

2 (14)

Where gapple × re2 can be thought of as a constant.

From such calculations Newton saw that the gravita-tional acceleration of the moon, and thus the gravita-tional force, decreased as the square of the distancefrom the moon to the center of the earth. This was howNewton deduced that gravity was a 1/r2 force law.

Exercise 3

How far above the surface of the earth do you have tobe so that, in free fall, your acceleration is half that ofobjects near the surface of the earth?

8-10 Newtonian Mechanics

Other SatellitesTo explain to the world the similarity of projectile andsatellite motion, that both the apple and the moon weresimply falling toward the center of the earth, Newtondrew the sketch shown in Figure (11). In the sketch,Newton shows a projectile being fired horizontallyfrom the top of a mountain, and shows what wouldhappen if there were no air resistance. If the horizontalvelocity were not too great, the projectile would go ashort distance along the typical parabolic path we havestudied in the strobe labs. As the projectile is fired fasterit would travel farther before hitting the ground. Fi-nally we reach a point where the projectile keeps fallingtoward the earth, but the earth keeps falling away andthe projectile goes all the way around the earth withouthitting it.

Another perspective of the same idea is illustrated inFigures (12) and (13). Figure (12) is a strobe photo-graph showing two steel balls launched simultaneously,one being dropped straight down and the other beingfired horizontally. The photograph clearly demon-strates that the downward motion of the two projectiles

is the same. By using the constant acceleration formu-las with g = 32 ft/sec2, we can easily calculate that at theend of one second both projectiles will have fallen 16ft, and at the end of two seconds a distance of 64 ft.

In Figure (13), we have sketched the curved surface ofthe earth. Due to this curvature, the surface of the earthwill be 16 ft below a horizontal line out at a distance of4.9 miles, and 64 ft below at a distance of 9.8 miles.This effect can be seen from a small boat as you leaveshore. When you are 10 miles off shore, you cannot seelighthouses under 64 ft tall, unless you climb your ownmast. (For landlubbers sunning on the beach, sailboatswith 64 ft high masts disappear from sight at a distanceof 10 miles.)

Comparing Figures (12) and (13), we see that in theabsence of air resistance, if a projectile were firedhorizontally at a speed of 4.9 miles per second, duringthe first second it would fall 16 ft, but the earth wouldhave also fallen 16 ft, and the projectile would be nocloser to the surface. By the end of the 2nd second theprojectile would have fallen 64 ft, but still not havecome any closer to the surface of the earth. Such aprojectile would keep traveling around the earth, neverhitting the surface. It would fall all the way around,becoming an earth satellite.

Figure 11Newton's sketch showing that the differencebetween projectile and satellite motion is thatsatellites travel farther. Both are acceleratingtoward the center of the earth.

Figure 12Two projectiles, released simultaneously. Thehorizontal motion has no effect on the verticalmotion: they both fall at the same rate.

8-11

Exercise 4

An earth satellite in a low orbit, for instance 100 miles up,is so close to the surface of the earth (100 miles is sosmall compared to the earth’s radius of 4000 miles) thatthe satellite’s acceleration is essentially the same as theacceleration of projectiles here on earth. Use this resultto predict the period T of the satellite’s orbit. (Hint – thesatellite travels one earth circumference 2 πre in oneperiod T. This allows you to calculate the satellite’sspeed v. You then use the formula v2/r for the magnitudeof the satellite’s acceleration.)

WeightThe popular press often talks about the astronauts inspacecraft orbiting the earth as being weightless. Thisis verified by watching them on television floatingaround inside the space capsule. You might jump to theconclusion that because the astronauts are floatingaround in the capsule, they do not feel the effects ofgravity. This is true in the same sense that when youjump off a high diving board, you do not feel the effectsof gravity—until you hit the water. While you arefalling, you are weightless just like the astronauts.

The only significant difference between your fall fromthe high diving board, and the astronaut’s weightlessexperience in the space capsule, is that the astronaut’sexperience lasts longer. As the space capsule orbits theearth, the capsule and the astronauts inside are incontinuous free fall. They have not escaped the earth’sgravity, it is gravity that keeps them in orbit, accelerat-ing toward the center of the earth. But because they arein free fall, they do not feel the acceleration, and areconsidered to be weightless.

If the astronaut in an orbiting space capsule is weight-less, but still subject to the gravitational force of theearth, we cannot directly associate the word weightwith the effects of gravity. In order to come up with adefinition of the word weight that has some scientificvalue, and is reasonably consistent with the use of theword in the popular press, we can define the weight ofan object as the magnitude of the force the object exertson the bathroom scales. Here on earth, if you have anobject of mass m and you set it on the bathroom scales,it will exert a downward gravitational force of magni-tude

Fg = mg

Thus we say that the object has a weight W given by

W = mg (15)

For example, a 60 kg boy standing on the scalesexerts a gravitational force

W 60 kg boy = 60 kg × 9.8

m

sec2

= 588 newtons

We see that weight has the dimensions of a force, whichin the MKS system is newtons. If the same boy stoodon the same scales in an orbiting spacecraft, both theboy and the scales would be in free fall toward thecenter of the earth, the boy would exert no force on thescales, and he would therefore be weightless.

Figure 14We will define the weight of an object asthe force it exerts on the bathroom scales.

m

mg

bathroom scales

16 ft64 ft

line ofsight

4.9 mi9.8 mi

surface of the earth

Figure 13The curvature of the earth causes the horizonto fall away 64 feet at a distance of 9.8 miles.

8-12 Newtonian Mechanics

Although we try to make the definition of the wordweight consistent with the popular use of the word, wedo not actually succeed. In almost any country exceptthe United States, when you buy a steak, the butcherwill weigh it in grams. The grocer will tell you that abanana weighs 200 grams. You are not likely find agrocer who tells you the weight of an object in newtons.It is a universal convention to tell you the mass in gramsor kilograms, and say that that is the weight. About theonly place will you will find the word weight to meana force, as measured in newtons, is in a physics course.

(In the English system of units, a pound is a force, sothat it is correct to say that our 60 kg mass boy weighs132 lbs. That, of course, leaves us with the question ofwhat mass is in the English units. From the formulaF = mg, we see that m = F/g, or an object that weighs32 lbs has a mass 32 lbs/32ft/sec2 = 1. As we mentionedearlier, this unit mass in the English units is called aslug. This is the last time we will mention slugs in thistext.)

Earth Tides An aspect of Newton’s law of gravity that we have notsaid much about is the fact that gravity is a mutualattraction. As we mentioned, two objects of mass m1and m2 separated by a distance r, attract each otherwith a gravitational force of magnitudeFg = Gm1m2/r2. The point we want to emphasizenow is that the force on each particle has the samestrength Fg.

Let us apply this idea to you, here on the surface of theearth. Explicitly, let us assume that you have justjumped off a high diving board as illustrated in Figure(15), and have not yet hit the water. While you arefalling, the earth’s gravity exerts a downward force Fgwhich produces your downward acceleration g.

According to Newton’s law of gravity, you are exertingan equal and opposite gravitational force Fg on theearth. Why does nobody talk about this upward forceyou are exerting on the earth? The answer, shown in thefollowing exercise, is that even though you are pullingup on the earth just as hard as the earth is pulling downon you, the earth is so much more massive that yourpull has no detectable effect.

Exercise 5

Assume that the person in Figure (15) has a mass of 60kilograms. The gravitational force he exerts on the earthcauses an upward acceleration of the earth aearth.Show that aearth = 10

— 22m/sec2.

Fg

Fg

diving board

waterFigure 15As you fall toward the water, the earth ispulling down on you, and you are pulling up onthe earth. The two forces are of equal strength.

8-13

More significant than the force of the diver on the earthis the force of the moon on the earth. It is well knownthat the ocean tides are caused by the moon’s gravityacting on the earth. On the night of a full moon, hightide is around midnight when the moon is directlyoverhead. The time of high tide changes by about anhour a day in order to stay under the moon.

The high tide under the moon is easily explained by theidea that the moon’s gravity sucks the ocean water upinto a bulge under the moon. As the earth rotates andwe pass under the bulge, we see a high tide. Thisexplains the high tide at midnight on a full moon.

The problem is that there are 2 high tides a day about 12hours apart. The only way to understand two high tidesis to realize that there are two bulges of ocean water, oneunder the moon and one on the opposite side of theearth, as shown in Figure (16). In one 24 hour periodwe pass under both bulges.

Why is there a bulge on the backside? Why isn’t thewater all sucked up into one big bulge underneath themoon?

The answer is that the moon’s gravity not only pulls onthe earth’s water, but on the earth itself. The force ofgravity that the moon exerts on the earth is just the same

strength as the force the earth exerts on the moon. Sincethe earth is more massive, the effect on the earth is notas great, but it is noticeable. The reason for the secondbulge of water on the far side of the earth is that thecenter of the earth is closer to the moon than the wateron the back side, and therefore accelerates more rapidlytoward the moon than the water on the back side. Thewater on the back side gets left behind to form a bulge.

The result, the fact that there are two high tides a day,the fact that there is a second bulge on the back side, isdirect experimental evidence that the earth is acceler-ating toward the moon. It is direct evidence that themoon’s gravity is pulling on the earth, just as the earth’sgravity is pulling on the moon.

As a consequence of the earth’s acceleration, the moonis not traveling in a circular orbit centered precisely onthe center of the earth. Instead both the earth and themoon are traveling in circles about an axis point locatedon a line joining the earth’s and moon’s centers. Thisaxis point is located much closer to the center of theearth than that of the moon, in fact it is located inside theearth about 3/4 of the way toward the earth’s surface asshown in Figure (17).

Moon

Earth

axispoint

Figure 17Both the earth and the moon travel in circularorbits about an axis point located about 1/4 ofthe way down below the earth's surface.

Moon

Earth

Earth rotating under the two bulges of water

Figure 16The two ocean bulges cause two high tides per day.

8-14 Newtonian Mechanics

In our work with projectiles in the lab the CGS systemof units was excellent. The projectiles typically wentdistances from 10 to 100 cm, in times of the order of 1second, and had masses of the order of 100 gm. Therewere no large exponents involved.

Now that we are studying the motion of earth satellites,we are faced with large exponents in quantities like theearth mass and the gravitational constant G which are

5.98 × 1024kg and 6.67 × 10–11m3/kg sec2 respec-tively. The calculations we have done so far using thesenumbers have required a calculator, and we have had towork hard to gain insight from the results.

Planetary UnitsIn introductory physics texts, it has become almost anarticle of religion that all calculations shall be doneusing MKS units. This has some advantages – we donot have to talk about pounds and slugs, but practicingphysicists seldom follow this rule. Physicists studyingthe behavior of elementary particles, for example,routinely use a system of units that simplify theircalculations, units in which the speed of light and otherfundamental constants have the numerical value 1.Using these special units they can quickly solve simpleproblems and gain an intuitive feeling for which quan-tities are important and which quantities are not.

Table 1 Planetary Units

Constant Symbol Planetary units MKS units

Gravitational Constant G 20 6.67 x 10-11 m3kg sec2

Acceleration dueto gravityat the earth's surface

ge 20 9.8 m/sec2

Earth mass me 1 5.98 x 1024 kg

Moon mass mmoon .0123 7.36 x 1022 kg

Sun mass msun 3.3 x 105 1.99 x 1030kg

Metric ton ton 1.67 x 10-22 1000 kg

Earth radius re 1 6.37 x 106 m

Moon radius rmoon .2725 1.74 x 106 m

Sun radius rsun 109 6.96 x 108 m

Earth orbit radius rearth orbit 23400 1.50 x 1011 m

Moon orbit radius rmoon orbit 60 3.82 x 108 m

Hour hr 1 hr 3600 sec

Moon period lunar month(siderial)

656 hrs 2.36 x 106 sec

(= 27.32 days)

Year yr 8.78 x 103 hrs 3.16 x 107 sec

8-15

We now wish to introduce a new set of units, which wewill call planetary units, that makes satellite calcula-tions much simpler and more intuitive. One way todesign a new set of units is to first decide what will beour unit mass, our unit length, and our unit time, andthen work out all the conversion factors so that we canconvert a problem into our new units. For workingearth satellite problems, we have found that it is conve-nient to take the earth mass as the unit mass, the earthradius as the unit length, and the hour as the unit time.

mearth = 1 earth mass

Rearth = 1 earth radius

hour = 1

With these choices, speed, for example, is measuredin (earth radii)/ hr, etc.

This system of units has a number of advantages. Wecan set me and re equal to 1 in the gravitational forceformulas, greatly simplifying the results. We knowimmediately that a satellite has crashed if its orbitalradius becomes less than 1. Typical satellite periods area few hours and typical satellite speeds are from 1 to 10earth radii per hour. What may be a bit surprising is thatboth the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of theearth, g, and Newton’s universal gravitational constantG, have the same numerical value of 20.

Table 1 shows the conversion from MKS to planetaryunits of common quantities encountered in the study ofsatellites moving in the vicinity of the earth and themoon.

Exercise 6We will have you convert Newton’s universal gravita-tional constant G into planetary units. Start with

G = 6.67 x 10-11

meters3

kg sec2

Then multiply or divide by the conversion factors

3600

sechr

5.98 x 1024kg

earth mass

6.37 x 106meters

earth radii

until all the dimensions in the formula for G are con-verted to planetary units. (I.e., convert from seconds tohours, kg to earth mass, and meters to earth radii.) If youdo the conversion correctly, you should get the result

G = 20

earth radii 3

earth mass hr2

Exercise 7

Explain why g and G have the same numerical value inplanetary units.

As an advertisement for how easy it is to use planetaryunits in satellite calculation, let us repeat Exercise (4)using these units. In that exercise we wished tocalculate the period of Sputnik 1, a satellite traveling ina low earth orbit. We were to assume that Sputnik’sorbital radius was essentially the earth’s radius re asshown in Figure (18), and that Sputnik’s accelerationtoward the center of the earth was essentially the sameas the projectiles we studies in the introductory lab, i.e.,ge = 9.8 m/sec2.

Sputnik 1

re

Earth

Figure 18A satellite in a low earth orbit.

8-16 Newtonian Mechanics

Using the formula

a = v2

rwe get

ge = vSputnik

2

re =

vSputnik2

1Therefore

vSputnik = ge = 20 earth radiihr

Now the satellite travels a total distance 2π re to goone orbit, therefore the time it takes is

Sputnik period = 2π revSputnik = 2π

20 = 1.4 hrs

Compare the algebra that we just did with what you hadto go through to get an answer in Exercise (4). (Youshould have gotten the same answer, 1.4 hrs, or 84minutes, or 5,040 seconds. This is in good agreementwith the observed time for low orbit satellites.) If youhave watched satellite launches on television, you mayrecall waiting about an hour and a half before thesatellite returned.

Exercise 8A satellite is placed in a circular orbit whose radius is

2re (it is one earth radii above the surface of the earth.)

(a) What is the acceleration due to gravity at thisaltitude?

(b) What is the period of this satellite’s orbit?

(c) What is the shortest possible period any earthsatellite can have? Explain your answer.

Exercise 9

Communication satellites are usually placed in circularorbits over the equator, at an altitude so that they takeprecisely 24 hours to orbit the earth. In this way theyhover over the same point on the earth and can be incontinuous communication with the same transmittersand receivers. This orbit is called the Clarke orbit,named after the science fiction writer Arthur Clark whofirst emphasized the importance of such an orbit. Cal-culate the radius of the Clark orbit.

COMPUTER PREDICTIONOF SATELLITE ORBITSIn this chapter we have discussed two special kinds ofmotion that a projectile or satellite can have. One is theparabolic trajectory of a projectile thrown across theroom – motion that is easily described by calculus andthe constant acceleration formulas. The other is theorbital motion of the moon and man-made satellitesthat are in circular orbits. These orbits can be analyzedusing the fact that their acceleration is directed towardthe center of the circle and has a magnitude v2/r.

These two examples are deceptively simple. Newton’sdiagram, Figure (11), shows that there is a continuousrange of orbital shapes starting from simple projectilemotion out to circular orbital motion and beyond. Forall these orbital shapes, we know the projectile’s accel-eration is the gravitational acceleration toward thecenter of the earth. But to go from a knowledge of theacceleration to predicting the shape of the orbit is notnecessarily an easy task.

There are no simple formulas like the constant accel-eration formulas that allow us to predict where thesatellite will be at any time in the future. Usingadvanced calculus techniques one can show that theorbits should have the shape of conic sections, oneexample being the elliptical orbits discovered by Kepler.But if we go to more complicated problems like tryingto predict the motion of the Apollo 8 spacecraft fromthe earth to the moon and back, then a calculus ap-proach is completely inadequate.

On the other hand these problems are easily handledusing the step-by-step method of predicting motion,the method, discussed in Chapter 5, that we implementusing the computer. With a slight modification of ourold projectile motion program, we can predict whatwill happen to an earth satellite no matter how it islaunched and what orbit it has. Adding a few more linesto the program allows us to send the satellite to themoon and back.

Once we are familiar with a basic satellite motionprogram, we can easily add new features. We can, forexample, change the exponent in the gravitationalforce law from 1/r2 to 1/r2.1 to see what happens if thegravitational force law is modified. Similar modifica-

8-17

tions were in fact predicted by Einstein’s generaltheory of relativity, thus we will be able to observe thekind of effects that were used to verify Einstein’stheory.

New Calculational LoopIn Chapter 5, we set up the machinery to do computercalculations. This involved learning the LET state-ment, constructing loops, plotting crosses, etc. Al-though this may have been a bit painful (but perhaps notas painful as learning calculus), we do not have to domuch of that again. We can use essentially the samemachinery to predict satellite orbits. The only signifi-cant change is in the calculational loop where wepredict the particle’s new position and velocity.

In the projectile motion program, the English versionof the calculational loop was, from Figure (5-18)

! --------- Calculational Loop

DO

LET Rnew = Rold + Vold * dt

LET A = g

LET Vnew = Vold + A * dt

LET Tnew = Told + dt

PLOT R

LOOP UNTIL T > 1

Figure 19

This loop expresses the method of predicting motionthat we developed from the analysis of strobe pho-tographs. The idea behind the command

LET Rnew = Rold + Vold * dt

is illustrated in Figure (5-15a) reproduced here. Thenew position of the particle is obtained from the oldposition by adding the vector Vold * dt to the oldcoordinate vector Rold.

Once we get to the new position of the particle, weneed the new velocity vector in order to calculate thenext new position. The new velocity vector isobtained from the command

LET Vnew = Vold + A * dt

as illustrated in Figure (5-15b). The DO–LOOP part ofthe program tells us to keep repeating this step-by-stepprocess until we get as much of the trajectory as wewant (in this case until one second has elapsed).

The calculational loop of Figure (19) works forprojectile motion because we always know theprojectile’s acceleration A which is given by theline

LET A = g projectile motion (16)

This is the line that characterizes projectile motion, theline that tells the computer that the projectile has aconstant acceleration g.

Figure 5-15aPredicting the next new position.

Figure 5-15bPredicting the next new velocity.

V new

V old

V old

A ∆t

V new V old= + A*∆t

RnewRold

V new

AV new V old–

V old

( )= ∆t

8-18 Newtonian Mechanics

In our satellite motion problem, the gravitationalforce Fg points toward the center of the earth. Thusto define the direction of Fg, we need a unit vectorthat points toward the center of the earth. In Figure(20a) we show the coordinate vector R which de-fines the position of the satellite in a coordinatesystem whose origin is at the center of the earth. InFigure (20b) we see the vector –R, which pointsfrom the satellite to the center of the earth, the samedirection as the gravitational force. Therefore wewould like to turn –R into a unit vector, which we doby dividing by the length of R, namely the distancefrom the center of the earth to the satellite.

Since we will often use unit vectors in this text, we willdesignate them by a special symbol. Instead of anarrow over the letter, we will use what is called a caretby typographers, or more familiarly a hat by physicists.Thus our unit vector in the –R direction will be denotedby –R and is given by the formula

–R =

–RR

unit vector inthe –R direction (16)

The only fundamental change we need to make ingoing from projectile motion to satellite motion is tochange our command for the particle’s acceleration

A . Instead of assuming that the particle’s accelera-tion is constant, we use Newton’s law of gravity

Fg = Gm1m2/r2 to calculate the force acting on

the satellite, and then Newton’s second law A = Fg/mto obtain the resulting acceleration.

There are of course some other details. We have to finda way to express the vector nature of the gravitationalforce – i.e., to tell the computer which way the gravita-tional force is pointing, and we are going to change ourplotting scale since we are no longer working in frontof a 100 cm by 100 cm grid. But essentially we arereplacing the command

LET A = g

by the new lines

LET Fg = GMem/R2 with instructions

for a direction

LET A = Fg /m

and then using the same old program.

Unit VectorsWe have no problem describing the direction of thegravitational force on the satellite—the force is di-rected toward the center of the earth. But how do we tellthe computer that? What mathematical technique canwe use to express the direction of Fg?

The technique that we will use throughout the course isthe use of the unit vector. A unit vector is a dimension-less vector of length 1 that points in the direction ofinterest. If we want a vector of length 5 newtons thatpoints in the same direction, then we multiply our unitvector by the number 5 newtons to get the desiredresult. (Recall that multiplying a vector by a number,for example n, gives a vector n times as long, pointingin the same direction.)

There is an easy way to construct unit vectors. If we canfind some vector that points in the desired direction, wedivide that vector by its own length, and we end up witha vector of length 1, the required unit vector.

R

Satellite

Earth

a)

b)

c)

R–

R–

Figure 20The unit vector –R

8-19

In Equation (16), the length R is given by thePythagorean theorem

R = Rx2 + Ry

2 (16a)

Rx and Ry being the x and y coordinates of the satellite.

With the unit vector –R, we can now write anexplicit formula for the gravitational force vector

Fg . We multiply the unit vector –R by the magni-tude GMm/R2 of the gravitational force to get

Fg =

GMem

R2–R (17)

Calculational Loopfor Satellite MotionWe are now ready to go in an orderly way from thecalculational loop for projectile motion to a calcula-tional loop for satellite motion. We can focus ourattention on the following three lines of the projec-tile motion calculation loop (Figure 21) because theother lines remain unchanged.

LET Rnew = Rold + Vold * dtLET A = g

LET Vnew = Vold + A * dt

Figure 21

The first step is to replace LET A = g by Newton’slaw of gravity and Newton’s second law as shown inFigure (22).

LET Rnew = Rold + Vold * dt

LET Fg = –R GMem/R2

LET A = Fg/m

LET Vnew = Vold + A * dt

Figure 22

Because BASIC is limited to working with numericalcommands rather than vectors (an unfortunate limita-tion), the next step is to make sure that we can translateeach of these vector commands into the separate x andy components. We will do this separately for each ofthe 4 lines.

The command

LET Rnew = Rold + Vold * dt

for Rnew becomes

LET Rx = Rx + Vx * dt (18a)

LET Ry = Ry + Vy * dt (18b)

where we drop the subscripts “new” and “old” becausethe computer automatically takes the old values on theright side of the LET statement, calculates a new value,and stores the new value in the memory cell named onthe left side of the LET statement. (See our discussionof the LET statement on page 5-5).

In Equations (18a) and (18b) we obtain numericalvalues for the new coordinates Rx and Ry of thesatellite. However, we will also need to know thedistance R from the satellite to the center of the earth (inorder to construct the unit vector –R). The value of Ris easily determined by adding the command

LET R = SQR (Rx*Rx + Ry*Ry) (18c)

where SQR is BASIC’s way of saying square root.

The translation of the command for Fg only requiresthe translation of the unit vector R into x and ycoordinates. Remembering that R = R/R , we get

Rx = Rx/R ; Ry = Ry/R (19)

thus the translation of the LET statement for Fg can bewritten as

LET Fg = G * Me * M / (R*R)

LET Fgx = (–Rx / R) * Fg

LET Fgy = (–Ry / R) * Fg

The computer can handle these lines because it alreadyknows the new values of Rx, Ry and R from Equations(18a, b, and c).

8-20 Newtonian Mechanics

The translation of LET statements for A and Vnew arestraightforward. We get

LET Ax = Fgx / M

LET Ay = Fgy / M

LET Vx = Vx + Ax * dtLET Vy = Vy + Ay * dtLET V = SQR(Vx*Vx + Vy*Vy)

We included a calculation of the magnitude V of thesatellite’s speed for future use. We may, for example,want to construct a unit vector in the -V direction torepresent the direction of air resistance on a reenteringsatellite. We have found it convenient to routinelycalculate the magnitude of any vector whose x and ycoordinates we have just calculated.

SummaryTo summarize our translation, we started with thevector commands

LET Rnew = Rold + Vold * dt

LET Fg = –R GMem/R2

LET A = Fg/m

LET Vnew = Vold + A * dt

and ended up with the BASIC commands

LET Rx = Rx + Vx * dtLET Ry = Ry + Vy * dt

LET R = SQR (Rx*Rx + Ry*Ry)

LET Fg = G * Me * M / (R*R)LET Fgx = (–Rx / R) * Fg

LET Fgy = (–Ry / R) * Fg

LET Ax = Fgx / M

LET Ay = Fgy / M

LET Vx = Vx + Ax * dtLET Vy = Vy + Ay * dtLET V = SQR(Vx*Vx + Vy*Vy)

Working Orbit ProgramWe are now ready to convert a working projectilemotion program, Figure (5-23) reproduced here, into aworking orbital motion program. In addition to con-verting the calculational loop as we have just discussed,we need to change some constants and plotting ranges,but the general structure of the program will be un-changed.

Plotting WindowWe will initially consider satellite motion that staysreasonably close to the earth, within several earth radii.Using planetary units, and placing the earth at thecenter of the plot, we can get a reasonable range oforbits if we let Rx vary for example from - 9 to +9 earthradii. If we have a standard 9" Macintosh screen, the xdimension should be 1.5 times the y dimension, thus Ryshould go only from -6 to +6. The following commandsets up this plotting window

SET WINDOW -9, 9, -6, 6To show where the earth is located, we can use thefollowing lines to plot a cross at the center of the earth

LET Rx = 0LET Ry = 0

CALL CROSS

Constants and Initial ConditionsIn going from the projectile motion to the satellitemotion program, we have to change the constants andinitial conditions. Using planetary units, our constantsG, Me, and m are

LET G = 20LET Me = 1

LET m = .001

(Our choice of the satellite mass m does not matterbecause it cancels out of the calculation.)

For initial conditions, we will start the satellite .1 earthradii above the surface of the earth on the + x axis;

LET Rx = 1.1LET Ry = 0LET R = SQR(Rx*Rx + Ry*Ry)

CALL CROSS

8-21

Orbit-1 ProgramProjectile Motion Program

Figure 24Our new orbital motion program.

Figure 23Projectile motion program that plotscrosses every tenth of a second.

8-22 Newtonian Mechanics

We also calculated an initial value of R for use in thegravitational force formula, and plotted a cross at thisinitial point.

We are going to fire the satellite in the +y direction,parallel to the surface of the earth. Trial and error showsus that a reasonable value for the speed of the satelliteis 5.5 earth radii per hour, thus we write for our initialvelocity commands

LET Vx = 0

LET Vy = 5.5

LET V = SQR(Vx*Vx + Vy*Vy)

In our projectile motion program of Figure (5-23) wewanted a cross plotted every 100 time steps dt. Thiswas done with the command

IF MOD(i,100) = 0 THEN CALL CROSS

For our orbit program, trial and error shows that we geta good looking plot if we draw a cross every 40 timesteps, each time step dt being .01 hours. Thus our newMOD line will be

IF MOD(i,40) = 0 THEN CALL CROSS

and we will get a cross every .01 * 40 = .4 hours.

The final change is to stop plotting after one orbit. Fromrunning the program we find that one orbit takes about9 hours, thus we can stop plotting just before one orbitwith the LOOP instruction

LOOP UNTIL T > 9

Putting all these steps together gives us the completeBASIC program shown in Figure (24).

When we run the Orbit 1 program, we get the ellipticalorbit shown in Figure (25).

Exercise 10

Convert your projectile motion program to the Orbit 1program. Use the same initial conditions so that you getthe same orbit as that shown in Figure (25). (It isimportant to get your Orbit 1 program running correctlynow, for it will be used as the basis for studying severalphenomena during the rest of this chapter. If you arehaving problems, simply type the program in preciselyas shown in Figure (24).

Once your program is working, it is easy to make smallmodifications to improve the results. To create Figure(25a) we added the command

BOX CIRCLE -1,1,-1,1

to draw a circle to represent the earth. We also changeddt to .001 and changed the MOD command toMOD(i,539) to get an even number of crosses aroundthe orbit. We then plotted until T = 9 hours. (With dt tentimes smaller, our i counter has to be ten times biggerto get the old crosses.)

Figure 25Output of the Orbit 1 program. The satellite is initiallyout at a distance x = 1.1 earth radii, and is fired in the+y direction at a speed of 5.5 earth radii per hour.

Figure 25a

8-23

you can hear the statement "That's good there, Neil". Ashort while later you hear the clear echo "That's goodthere, Neil". The time delay from the original statementand the echo is the time it takes a radio wave, travelingat the speed of light, to go to the moon and back. Usingan inexpensive stop watch, one can easily measure thetime delay as being about 2 2/5 seconds. Thus the one-way trip to the moon is 1 1/5 seconds. Since lighttravels 1 ft/nanosecond, or 1 billion feet per second,from this one determines that the moon is about 1.2billion feet away. You can convert this distance to earthradii to check the astronomer's value of 60 earth radii asthe average distance to the moon.)

Exercise 11Adjust the initial conditions in your Orbit 1 program sothat the satellite is in a low earth orbit, and see what theperiod of the orbit is.

(To adjust the initial conditions, start, for example, with Rx =1.01, Ry =0, vx =0 and adjust vy until you get a

circular orbit centered on the earth. As a check that thesatellite did not go below the surface of the earth, youcould add the line

IF R < 1 THEN PRINT "CRASHED"

Adding this line just after you have calculated R in theDO LOOP will immediately warn you if the satellite hascrashed. You can then adjust the initial vy so that youjust avoid a crash. Once you have a circular orbit, youcan adjust the time in the "LOOP UNTIL T > ..." com-mand so that just one orbit is printed. This tells you howlong the orbit took. You can also see how long the orbittook by adding the line in the DO LOOP

IF MOD(I, 40) = 0 THEN PRINT T, RX, RY

Looking at the values of Rx and Ry you can tell whenone orbit is completed, and the value of T tells you howlong it took.

Exercise 12

Put the satellite in a circular orbit whose radius is equalto the radius of the moon's orbit. (See Table 1, PlanetaryUnits, for the value of the moon orbit radius.) See if youpredict that the moon will take about 4 weeks to goaround this orbit.)

Satellite Motion LaboratoryIn our study of projectile motion, we could go to thelaboratory and take strobe photographs in order to seehow projectiles behaved. Obtaining experimental datafor the study of satellite motion is somewhat moredifficult. What we will do is to use the Orbit 1 programor slight modification of it to stimulate satellite motion,using it as our laboratory for the study of the behaviorof satellites.

But first we wish to check that the Orbit 1 programmakes predictions that are in agreement with experi-ment. The program is based on Newton's laws ofgravity, Fg = GMm/r

2 , Newton's law of motion a = F/m, and the procedures we developed earlier

for predicting the motion of an object whose accel-eration is known. Thus a verification of the resultsof the Orbit 1 program can be considered a verifica-tion of these laws and procedures.

Some tests of the Orbit 1 program can be made usingthe results of your own experience. Anyone who haslistened to the launch of a low orbit satellite should beaware that the satellite takes about 90 minutes to goaround the earth once. The Orbit 1 program should givethe same result, which you can check in Exercise 11.Another obvious test is the prediction of the period ofthe moon in its orbit around the earth. It is about 4weeks from full moon to full moon, thus the periodshould be approximately 4 weeks or 28 days. The factthat the apparent diameter of the moon does not changemuch during this time indicates that the moon istraveling in a nearly circular orbit about the earth. If youaccept the astronomer's measurements that the moonorbit radius is about 60 earth radii away, then you cancheck the Orbit 1 program to see if it predicts a 4 weekperiod for an earth satellite in a circular orbit of thatradius (Exercise 12).

(An easy way to measure the distance to the moon wasprovided by the first moon landing. Because of aproblem with Neil Armstrong's helmet, radio signalssent to Neil from Houston were retransmitted by Neil’smicrophone, giving an apparent echo. The echo wasparticularly noticeable while Neil was setting up a TVcamera. On a tape of the mission supplied by NASA,

8-24 Newtonian Mechanics

KEPLER'S LAWSA more detailed test of Newton's laws and the Orbit 1program is provided by Kepler's laws of planetarymotion.

To get a feeling for the problems involved in studyingplanetary motion, imagine that you were given the jobof going outside, looking at the sky, and figuring outhow celestial objects moved. The easiest to start withis the moon, which becomes full again every fourweeks. On closer observation you would notice that themoon moved past the background of the apparentlyfixed stars, returning to its original position in the skyevery 27.3 days. Since, as we mentioned, the diameterof the moon does not change much, you might thenconclude that the moon is in a circular orbit about theearth, with a period of 27.3 days.

The time it takes the moon to return to the same pointin the sky is not precisely equal to the time between fullmoons. A full moon occurs when the sun, earth, andmoon are in alignment. If the sun itself appears to moverelative to the fixed stars, the full moons will not occurat precisely the same point, and the time between fullmoons will not be exactly the time it takes the moon togo around once.

To study the motion of the sun past the background ofthe fixed stars is more difficult because the stars are notvisible when the sun is up. One way to locate theposition of the sun is to observe what stars are overheadat "true" midnight, half way between dusk and dawn.The sun should then be located on the opposite side ofthe sky. (You also have to correct for the north/southposition of the sun.) After a fair amount of observationand calculations, you would find that the sun itselfmoves past the background of the fixed stars, returningto its starting point once a year.

From the fact that the sun takes one year to go aroundthe sky, and the fact that its apparent diameter remainsessentially constant, you might well conclude that thesun, like the moon, is traveling in a circular orbit aboutthe earth. This was the accepted conclusion by mostastronomers up to the time of Nicolaus Copernicus inthe early 1500s AD.

If you start looking at the motion of the planets likeMercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, all easily

visible without a telescope, the situation is more com-plicated. Mars, for example, moves in one directionagainst the background of the fixed stars, then reversesand goes backward for a while, then forward again asshown in Figure (26). None of the planets has thesimple uniform motion seen in the case of the moon andthe sun.

After a lot of observation and the construction of manyplots, you might make a rather significant discovery.You might find what the early Greek astronomerslearned, namely that if you assume that the planetsMercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn travel incircular orbits about the sun, while the sun is travelingin a circular orbit about the earth, then you can explainall the peculiar motion of the planets. This is aremarkable simplification and compelling evidencethat there is a simple order underlying the motion ofcelestial objects.

One of the features of astronomical observations is thatthey become more accurate as time passes. If youobserve the moon for 100 orbits, you can determine theaverage period of the moon nearly 100 times moreaccurately than from the observation of a single period.You can also detect any gradual shift of the orbit 100times more accurately.

Earth orbit

Mars orbit

Apparent retrograde orbit

Background stars

Figure 26Retrograde motion of the planet Mars.Modern view of why Mars appears toreverse its direction of motion for a while.

8-25

Even by the time of the famous Greek astronomer Ptolemyin the second century AD, observations of the positionsof the planets had been made for a sufficiently long timethat it had become clear that the planets did not travel inprecisely circular orbits about the sun. Some way wasneeded to explain the non circularity of the orbits.

The simplicity of a circular orbit was such a compellingidea that it was not abandoned. Recall that the apparentlypeculiar motion of Mars could be explained by assumingthat Mars traveled in a circular orbit about the sun whichin turn traveled in a circular orbit about the earth. Byhaving circular orbits centered on points that are them-selves in circular orbits, you can construct complexorbits. By choosing enough circles with the correct radiiand periods, you can construct any kind of orbit you wish.

Ptolemy explained the slight variations in the planetaryorbits by assuming that the planets traveled in circlesaround points which traveled in circles about the sun,which in turn traveled in a circle about the earth. The extracycle in this scheme was called an epicycle. With just afew epicycles, Ptolemy was able to accurately explain allobservations of planetary motion made by the secondcentury AD.

With 1500 more years of planetary observations, Ptolemy'sscheme was no longer working well. With far moreaccurate observations over this long span of time, it wasnecessary to introduce many more epicycles into Ptolemy'sscheme in order to explain the positions of the planets.

Even before problems with Ptolemy's scheme becameapparent, there were those who argued that the schemewould be simpler if the sun were at the center of the solarsystem and all the planets, including the earth, moved incircles about the sun. This view was not taken seriouslyin ancient times, because such a scheme would predictthat the earth was moving at a tremendous speed, amotion that surely would be felt. (The principle ofrelativity was not understood at that time.)

For similar reasons, one did not use the rotation of theearth to explain the daily motion of sun, moon, and stars.That would imply that the surface of the earth at theequator would be moving at a speed of around a thousandmiles per hour, an unimaginable speed!

In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus put forth a detailed plan forthe motion of the planets from the point of view that thesun was the center of the solar system and that all the

planets moved in circular orbits about the sun. Such atheory not only conflicted with common sense aboutfeeling the motion of the earth, but also displaced the earthand mankind from the center of the universe, two resultsquite unacceptable to many scholars and theologians.

Copernicus' theory was not quite as simple as it firstsounds. Because of the accuracy with which planetarymotion was know by 1543, it was necessary to includeepicycles in the planetary orbits in Copernicus' model.

Starting around 1576, the Dutch astronomer Tycho Brahemade a series of observations of the planetary positionsthat were a significant improvement over previous mea-surements. This work was done before the invention ofthe telescope, using apparatus like that shown in Figure(27). Tycho Brahe did not happen to believe in theCopernican sun-centered theory, but that had little

Figure 27Tycho Brahe’s apparatus.

8-26 Newtonian Mechanics

Kepler's First LawKepler's first law states that the planets move in ellip-tical orbits with the sun at one focus. By analogy weshould find from our Orbit 1 program that earth satel-lites move in elliptical orbits with the center of the earthat one focus. To check this prediction, we need to knowhow to construct an ellipse and determine where thefocus is located.

The arch above the entrance to many of the old NewEngland horse sheds was a section of an ellipse. Thecarpenters drew the curve by placing two nails on awide board, attaching the ends of a string to each nail,and moving a pencil around while keeping the stringtaut as shown in Figure (28). The result is half an ellipsewith a nail at each one of the focuses. (If you are in theMormon Tabernacle’s elliptical auditorium and drop apin at one focus, the pin drop can be heard at the otherfocus because the sound waves bouncing off the wallsall travel the same distance and add up constructivelyat the second focus point.)

To see if the satellite orbit from the Orbit 1 program isan ellipse, we first locate the second focus using theoutput shown in Figure (25a) by locating the pointsymmetrically across from the center of the earth asshown in Figure (29). Then at several points along theorbit we draw lines from that point to each focus asshown, and see if the total length of the lines (whatwould be the length of the stretched string) remainsconstant as we go around the orbit).

Figure 28Ellipse constructed with two nails and a string.

effect on the reason for making the more accurateobservations. Both the Ptolemaic and Copernicansystems relied on epicycles, and more accurate datawas needed to improve the predictive power of thesetheories.

Johannes Kepler, a student of Tycho Brahe, startedfrom the simplicity inherent in the Copernican system,but went one step farther than Copernicus. Abandon-ing the idea that planetary motion had to be describedin terms of circular orbits and epicycles, Kepler usedTycho Brahe's accurate data to look for a better way todescribe the planet's motion. Kepler found that theplanetary orbits were accurately and simply describedby ellipses, where the sun was at one of the focuses ofthe ellipse. (We will soon discuss the properties ofellipses.) Kepler also found a simple rule relating thespeed of the planet to the area swept out by a line drawnfrom the planet to the sun. And thirdly, he discoveredthat the ratio of the cube of the orbital radius to thesquare of the period was the same for all planets. Thesethree results are known as Kepler's three laws ofplanetary motion.

Kepler's three simple rules for planetary motion, whichwe will discuss in more detail shortly, replaced andimproved upon the complex system of epicycles neededby all previous theories. After Kepler's discovery, itwas obvious that the sun-centered system and ellipticalorbits provided by far the simplest description of themotion of the heavenly objects. For Isaac Newton, halfa century later, Kepler's laws served as a fundamentaltest of his theories of motion and gravitation. We willnow use Kepler's laws in a similar way, as a test of thevalidity of the Orbit 1 program and our techniques forpredicting motion.

Figure 29Checking that our satellite orbits are an ellipse. Weconstruct a second focus, and then see if the sum ofthe distances from each focus to a point on theellipse in the same for any point around the ellipse.For this diagram, we should show that a+b = c+d.

focus

a

bc

d

focus

nail nail

string

board

8-27

Exercise 13Using the output from your Orbit 1 program, check thatthe orbit is an ellipse.

Exercise 14

Slightly alter the initial conditions of your Orbit 1 programto get a different shaped orbit. (Preferably, make theorbit more stretched out.) Check that the resulting orbitis still an ellipse.

Kepler's Second LawKepler's second law relates the speed of the planet to thearea swept out by a line connecting the sun to the planet.If we think of the sun as being at the origin of thecoordinate system, then the line from the sun to theplanet is what we have been calling the coordinatevector R . It is also called the radius vector R . Kepler'ssecond law explicitly states that the radius vector Rsweeps out equal areas in equal times.

To apply Kepler's second law to the output of our Orbit1 program, we note that we had the computer plot across at equal times along the orbit. Thus the area sweptout by the radius vector should be the same as R movesfrom one cross to the next. To check this prediction, we

have in Figure (30) reproduced the output of Figure(25a), shaded the areas swept out as R moves frompositions A to B, from C to D, and from E to F. Theseareas should look approximately equal; you will checkthat they are in fact equal in Exercise 15.

The most significant consequence of Kepler's secondlaw is that in order to sweep out equal areas while theradius vector is changing length, the planet or satellitemust move more rapidly when the radius vector isshort, and more slowly when the radius vector is long.The planet moves more rapidly when in close to thesun, and more slowly when far away.

An extreme example of elliptical satellite orbits are theorbits of some of the comets that periodically visit thesun. Halley's comet, for example, visits the sun onceevery 76 years. The comet spends about 1 year in theclose vicinity of the sun, where it is visible from theearth, and the other 75 years on the rest of its orbit whichgoes out beyond the edge of the planetary system. Thecomet moves rapidly past the sun, and spends themajority of the 76 year orbital period creeping aroundthe back side of its orbit where its radius vector is verylong.

R

A

B

C

D

E F

R

R

Figure 30

Kepler’s Second Law. The radius vector R should sweep out equal areas in equal time.

8-28 Newtonian Mechanics

Exercise 15For both of your plots from Exercises 13 and 14, checkthat the satellite's radius vector sweeps out equal areasin equal times. Explicitly compare the area swept outduring a time interval where the satellite is in close to theearth to an equal time interval where the satellite is farfrom the earth.

This exercise requires that you measure the areas oflopsided pie-shaped sections. There are a number ofways of doing this. You can, for example, draw thesections out on graph paper and count the squares, youcan break the areas up into triangles and calculate theareas of the triangles, or you can cut the areas out ofcardboard and weigh them.

Kepler's Third LawKepler's third law states that the ratio of the cube of theorbital radius R to the square of the period T is the sameratio for all the planets. We can easily use Newton'slaws of gravity and motion to check this result for thecase of circular orbits. The result, which you are tocalculate in Exercise 16, is

R3

T2=

GMs

4π2(20)

where Ms is the mass of the sun. In this calculation, themass mp of the planet, the orbital radius R, the speedv all cancelled, leaving only the sun mass Ms as avariable. Since all the planets orbit the same sun, thisratio should be the same for all the planets.

When the planet is in an elliptical orbit, the length of theradius vector R changes as the planet goes around thesun. What Kepler found was that the ratio of R3/T2

was constant if you used the "semi major axis" for R.The semi major axis is the half the maximum diameterof the ellipse, shown in Figure (31). As an optionalExercise (17), you can compare the ratio of R3/T2 forthe two elliptical orbits of Exercises (13) and (14),using the semi major axis for R.

Exercise 16Consider the example of a planet of mass mp in acircular orbit about the sun whose mass is Ms . UsingNewton's second law and Newton's law of gravity, andthe fact that for circular motion the magnitude of theacceleration is v2/ R , solve for the radius R of the orbit.Then use the fact that the period T is the distance 2 πRdivided by the speed v, and construct the ratio R3/T2 .All the variables except Ms should cancel and youshould get the result shown in Equation 20.

Exercise 17 (optional)

A more general statement of Kepler's third law, thatapplies to elliptical orbits, is that R3/T2 is the same forall the planets, where R is the semi major axis of theellipse (as shown in Figure (31)). Check this predictionfor the two elliptical orbits used in Exercises (13) and(14). In both of those examples the satellite was orbitingthe same earth, thus the ratios should be the same.

Semi major axis

Figure 31The semi major axis of an ellipse.

8-29

MODIFIED GRAVITYAND GENERAL RELATIVITYAfter we have verified that the Orbit 1 program calcu-lates orbits that are in agreement with Kepler’s laws ofmotion, we should be reasonably confident that theprogram is ready to serve as a laboratory for the studyof new phenomena we have not necessarily encoun-tered before. To illustrate what we can do, we willbegin with a question that cannot be answered in thelab. What would happen if we modified the law ofgravity? What, for example, would happen if wechanged the universal constant G, or altered the expo-nent on the r dependence of the force? With thecomputer program, these questions are easily answered.We simply make the change and see what happens.

These changes should not be made completely withoutthought. I have seen a project where a student tried toobserve the effect of changing the mass of the satellite.After many plots, he concluded that the effect was notgreat. That is not a surprising result considering the factthat the mass ms of the satellite cancels out when youequate the gravitational force to msa.

One can also see that, as far as its effect on a satellite’sorbit, changing the universal constant G will have aneffect equivalent to changing the earth mass Me . SinceKepler’s laws did not depend particularly on what massour sun had, one suspects that Kepler’s laws shouldalso hold when G or Me are modified. This guess caneasily be checked using the Orbit 1 program.

Changing the r dependence of the gravitational force isanother matter. After developing the special theory ofrelativity, Einstein took a look at Newton’s theory ofgravity and saw that it was not consistent with theprinciple of relativity. For one thing, because theNewtonian gravitational force is supposed to point tothe current instantaneous position of a mass, it shouldbe possible using Newtonian gravity to send signalsfaster than the speed of light. (Think about how youmight do that.)

From the period of time between 1905 and 1915Einstein worked out a new theory of gravity that wasconsistent with special relativity and, in the limit ofslowly moving, not too massive objects, gave the sameresults as Newtonian gravity. We will get to see howthis process works when, in the latter half of this text we

start with Coulomb’s electric force law, include theeffects of special relativity, and find that magnetism isone of the essential consequences of this combination.

Einstein’s relativistic theory of gravity is more com-plex than the theory of electricity and magnetism, andthe new predictions of the theory are much harder totest. It turns out that Newtonian gravity accuratelydescribes almost all planetary motion we can observein our solar system. Einstein calculated that his newtheory of gravity should predict new observable effectsonly in the case of the orbit of Mercury and in thedeflection of starlight as it passed the rim of the sun. In1917 Sir Arthur Eddington led a famous eclipse expe-dition in which the deflection of starlight past the rimof the eclipsed sun could be observed. The deflectionpredicted by Einstein was observed, making this thefirst clear correction to Newtonian gravity detected in250 years. Einstein’s real fame began with the successof the Eddington expedition.

While Einstein set out to construct a theory of gravityconsistent with special relativity, he was also im-pressed by the connection between gravity and space.Because all projectiles here on the surface of the earthhave the same downward acceleration, if you were ina sealed room you could not be completely sure whetheryour room was on the surface of the earth, and thedownward accelerations were caused by gravity, orwhether you were out in space, and your room wasaccelerating upward with an acceleration g. Theseequivalent situations are shown in Figure (32).

g

stationary elevator

falling ball

g

accelerating elevator

floating ball

gravity no gravity

Figure 32Equivalent situations. Explain why you wouldfeel the same forces if you were sitting on thefloor of each of the two rooms.

8-30 Newtonian Mechanics

The equivalence between a gravitational force and anacceleration turned out to be the cornerstone ofEinstein’s relativistic theory of gravity. It turned outthat Einstein’s new theory of gravity could be inter-preted as a theory of space and time, where masscaused a curvature of space, and what we call gravita-tional forces were a consequence of this curvature ofspace. This geometrical theory of gravity, Einstein’srelativistic theory, is commonly called the GeneralTheory of Relativity.

As they often say in textbooks, a full discussion ofEinstein’s relativistic theory of gravity is “beyond thescope of this text”. However we can look at at least oneof the predictions. As far as satellite orbit calculationsare concerned, we can think of Einstein’s theory as aslight modification of the Newtonian theory. We haveseen that any modification of the factors G, ms or me inthe Newtonian gravitational force law would not havea detectable effect. The only thing we could notice issome change in the exponent of r.

With a few of quick runs of the Orbit 1 program, youwill discover that the satellite orbit is very sensitive tothe exponent of r. In Figure (33) we have changed theexponent from – 2 to – 1.9. This simply requireschanging

G*ms*me R∧2me R∧2

to

G*ms*me R∧1.9me R∧1.9

in the formula for Fg . The result is a striking changein the orbit. When the exponent is – 2, the ellipticalorbit is rock steady. When we change the exponent to– 1.9, the ellipse starts rotating around the earth. Thisrotation of the ellipse is called the precession of theperihelion, where the word “perihelion” describes theline connecting the two focuses of the ellipse.

A 1/r2 force law is unique in that only for thisexponent, – 2, does the perihelion, the axis of theelliptical orbit, remain steady. For any other value ofthe exponent, the perihelion rotates or precesses oneway or another.

It turns out that a number of effects can cause theperihelion of a planet’s orbit to precess. The biggesteffect we have not yet discussed is the fact that there area number of planets all orbiting the sun at the same time,and these planets all exert slight forces on each other.These slight forces cause slight perihelion precessions.

In the 250 years from the time of Newton’s discoveryof the law of gravity, to the early 1900s, astronomerscarefully worked out the predicted orbits of the planets,including the effects of the forces between the planetsthemselves. This work, done before the developmentof computers, was an extremely laborious task. A goodfraction of one’s lifetime work could be spent on asingle calculation.

Figure 33Planetary orbit when the gravitationalforce is modified to a 1 / r1.9 force.

8-31

The orbit of the planet Mercury provided a good test ofthese calculations because its orbital ellipse is moreextended than that of the other close-in planets. Themore extended an ellipse, the easier it is to observe aprecession. (You cannot even detect a precession fora circular orbit.) Mercury’s orbit has a small butobservable precession. Its orbit precesses by an anglethat is slightly less than .2 degrees every century. Thisis a very small precession which you could never detectin one orbit. But the orbit of Mercury has beenobserved for about 3000 years, or 30 centuries. That isover a 5 degree precession which is easily detectable.

When measuring small angles, astronomers divide thedegree into 60 minutes of arc, and for even smallerangles, divide the minute into 60 seconds of arc. Onesecond of arc, 1/3600 of a degree, is a very small angle.A basketball 30 miles distant subtends an angle ofabout 1 second of arc. In these units, Mercury’s orbitprecesses about 650 seconds of arc per century.

By 1900, astronomers doing Newtonian mechanicscalculations could account for all but 43 seconds of arcper century precession of Mercury’s orbit as beingcaused by the influence of neighboring planets. The 43seconds of arc discrepancy could not be explained.One of the important predictions of Einstein’s relativ-istic theory of gravity is that it predicts a 43 second ofarc per century precession of Mercury’s orbit, a preces-sion caused by a change in the gravitational force lawand not due to neighboring planets. Einstein used thisexplanation of the 43 seconds of arc discrepancy as themain experimental foundation for his relativistic theoryof gravity when he just presented it in 1915. Theimportance of the Eddington eclipse expedition in1917 is that a completely new phenomena, predictedby Einstein’s theory, was detected.

(The Eddington expedition verified more than just thefact that light is deflected by the gravitational attractionof a star. You can easily construct a theory where theenergy in the light beam is related to mass via theformula E = mc 2 , and then use Newtonian gravity topredict a deflection. Einstein’s General Relativitypredicts a deflection twice as large as this modifiedNewtonian approach. The Eddington expedition ob-served the larger prediction of General Relativity,providing convincing evidence that General Relativityrather than Newtonian gravity was the more correcttheory of gravity.)

Exercise 18

Start with your Orbit 1 program, modify the exponent inthe gravitational force law, and see what happens.Begin with a small modification so that you can see howto plot the results. (If you make a larger modification, youwill have to change the plotting window to get interest-ing results.)

(To get the 43 seconds of arc per century precession ofMercury’s orbit, using a modified gravitational forcelaw, the force should be proportional to 1/ r2.00000016

instead of 1/ r2.)

8-32 Newtonian Mechanics

CONSERVATION OFANGULAR MOMENTUMWith the ability to work with realistic satellite orbitsrather than just the circular orbits, we will be able tomake significant tests of the laws of conservation ofangular momentum and of energy, as applied to satel-lite motion. In this section, we will first see howKepler’s second law of planetary motion is a directconsequence of the conservation of angular momen-tum, and then do some calculations with the Orbit 1program to see that a satellite’s angular momentum isin fact conserved—does not change as the satellite goesaround the earth. In the next section we will first takea more general look at the idea of a conservation law,and then apply this discussion to the conservation ofenergy for satellite orbits.

Recall that Kepler’s second law of planetary motionstates that a line from the sun to the planet, the radiusvector, sweeps out equal areas in equal times. For thisto be true when the planet is in an elliptical orbit, theplanet must move faster when in close to the sun and theradius vector is short, and slower when far away and theradius vector is long.

To intuitively see that this