CH 510 The History of Christianity 1

CH 511 The History of Christianity 2UNIT FOURSlides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez The Medieval Sacramental SystemTransubstantiationDefined by the 2nd Lateran Council, 1215CLASSIC DEFINITION: The conversion of the whole substance of the bread and wine into the whole substance of the Body and Blood of Christ, only the accidents (i.e. appearances) of the bread and wine remainingAvignon PapacyCelestine V and Boniface VIIIConflict of idealsCelestine V (r. 1294) aspired to reform the church through Franciscan simplicity; considered one of the humblest men to ever occupy the throne of St. Peter; he resigned the papacy after serving only five months and eight daysBoniface VIII (1294-1303) had Celestine imprisoned and may have had Celestine murderedNot many were happy with Bonifaces electionThe powerful Colonna family in Italy who had their own designs on the papacyThe extreme Franciscans (the Fraticelli)Many saw Celestines election as a fulfillment of a prophecy announced by Joachim of Fiore that the Age of the Spirit had begun; Thus many did not accept his abdicationBoniface VIII (1294-1303)The first part of his reign was successfulDealt with the powerful Colonna familyDealt with a rebellion in GermanyHeld off the war between England and FranceDeclared a Year of Jubilee in 1303, granting a plenary indulgence to anyone who visited the tomb of St. PeterRelations between Boniface and Philip of France grew tenseIssued a the bull Unam Sanctum which asserted papal claims to universal power, both ecclesiastical and politicalAfter various mutual recriminations, Boniface attempted to excommunicate Philip in September 1303 Boniface was kidnapped by his enemies (Sciarra Colonna and William Nogaret), on the eve of the excommunication, demanding his resignationThe Slap of AnagniBoniface responded to the demand to resign by saying that he would sooner dieThis response elicited a famous slap Boniface was then beaten badly, humiliated and nearly executed; locals managed to secure his release after three days: He died in October 1303 of kidney stonesIn the Aftermath of AnagniThe next pope, Benedict XI, restored the fortunes of many of Bonifaces enemies, but refused to try the former pope posthumously; died after brief pontificate (perhaps poisoned)The pro-French party obtained an agreement from the cardinals on the election of Clement V Clement never visited Rome even once; moved the papal curia to Avignon, France in 1309Clement agreed to try Boniface posthumously; though Boniface was exoneratedClement forgave Nogaret and his companions and commended Philip of FranceUnder Clement, the Templars were tried and condemnedThe first Avignon Pope: Clement V (1305-1314)The Babylonian Captivity of the ChurchClement V moved the papal curia to Avignon in 1309Clement had named twenty-four cardinals, all but one was French, and several were his relativesFor nearly seventy years the popes would generally remain in Avignon, and willingly serve as the tools of French policyAvignon PopesJohn XIII (1316-1334) Elected at 72 and ruled for 18 years!Benedict XII (1334-1342) Built the great papal palace in Avignon; alienated England and Germany during the 100 Years WarClement VI (1342-1352) Tried to mediate the 100 Years War; many saw the Black Plague as divine punishment for the papacys absence from RomeInnocent VI (1352-1362) Attempted to return to Rome, but died before accomplishing itUrban V (1362-1370) Reforming pope; returned to Rome in 1365; the Romans received him with joy, but in the long run he failed to win their loyalty, so returned to AvignonGregory XI (1370-1378) Made a cardinal by his uncle, Clement VI when seventeenCatherine of Sienna (1347-1380)Catherine of SiennaJoined the Sisters of the Penance of St. Dominic (A tertiary order of the Dominicans) as a young girlTwo years later had a vision in which Jesus joined her in mystical marriage and ordered her to serve othersBecame a famous teacher of mysticism, gathering around her followers (both men and women), some of whom were more educated than she; her Dominican followers kept her well versed in theological questions so that she could avoid heresyIn 1370, she had a vision in which she claimed that her mission was to restore the papacy to Rome; she set out on a pilgrimage to bring about peaceful resolution of many of Italys wars and feudsFinally, in 1377, Gregory XI returned to Rome, ending the Babylonian Captivity; Catherine died three years later`The Effects of the Avignon PapacyPapacy had become a tool of French policies; other nations began to view the papacy as a competing foreign powerAs a result, nationalism was on the rise in Europe; resentment towards the papacyRevenues from unfilled vacancies poured into Avignon, France; no motivation to fill vacant posts or to move back to RomeSimony once again became prevalent in the church; to this abuse was added the abuses of pluralism (the holding of more than one benefice or post), absenteeism, and nepotismThe Great Western SchismCauses of the Great SchismGregory XI had actually considered returning to Avignon as conditions in Rome proved to be less than ideal; he died before he had the chanceThe people of Rome feared that the majority of French cardinals would elect someone who would return the papacy to AvignonFearing that the French cardinals were planning to escape Italy, a mob invaded the place where the conclave met and demanded the election of a Roman or at least an ItalianUnder duress, the cardinals elected the archbishop of Bari, an Italian, who took the name Urban VI; his coronation was one of great pomp in which all the cardinals, both French and Italian, participatedUrban VI (1378-1389) The inflammatory reforming actions of Urban VIIn an effort to curb absenteeism, Urban declared all bishops who formed part of his court (i.e. not in their dioceses) to be traitors to ChristHe denounced the ostentatiousness of the cardinals and declared that those who received any gifts whatsoever were guilty of simonyIn an effort to curb French influence, he appointed a vast number of Italian cardinalsMeanwhile, he appointed many of his relatives to positions of importance, thereby opening him up to the charge of nepotismMany of his cardinals charged that Urban had gone mad, and began to form an opposition party against himThe plot against UrbanBoth French and Italian cardinals joined the opposition against Urban, fled Rome and gathered in AnagniThere they declared that they had elected Urban under coercion and thus his election was not validThey then proceeded to elect a new pope (the Italians present abstained, but did not protest), who took the name of Clement VIIThus an unprecedented situation developed; for the first time there were two popes elected by the same cardinalsThe new pope took up arms against Urban and attacked Rome; he was repulsed and resided in AvignonAll of western Europe would now have to take sidesDivided EuropeAvignon PapacyFranceScotlandCastile & Aragon (at first supporters of Urban)A number of German nobles who had reason to oppose the emperorRoman PapacyEnglandScandinaviaFlandersHungaryPolandHoly Roman Empire (Germany)Divided EuropePortugal changed allegiances repeatedlyIn Italy, each city and each ruler followed its own course and changed allegiances as political factors dictatedThe Kingdom of Naples sided with Avignon (for the most part)Urbans MessCatherine of Sienna devoted herself to Urbans cause before her death; but Urban did not make things easyUrban decided to created a principality for his nephew, and thus became embroiled in a series of senseless wars; when some of his cardinals suggested he change this policy, Urban had them arrested and they died of suspicious meansUrban died in 1389, and his cardinals elected Boniface IXBy taking the name Boniface, the new pope indicated that he would follow the anti-French policies of the earlier Boniface

Two Lines of PopesThe Great Schism went beyond the election of two competing popes to the election of their successors, and thus was created two competing lines of popesThe Great Schism encouraged ecclesiastical abuses, especially that of simony as the competing popes were always in need of fundsPapal Claimants during the Great Schism (1378-1417)Avignon Line (Anti-Popes)Clement VII (1378-1394)Benedict XIII (1394-1423)AbdicatedThree others not recognized by any nation:Clement VIIIBenedict XIV (Bernard Garnier)Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier)Roman PopesUrban VI (1378-1389)Boniface IX (1389-1404)Innocent VII (1404-1406)Gregory XII (1406-1415)Interregnum (1415-1417)Martin V (1417-1431)Proposal of the University of Paris (1394)Three possible solutions to the Great Schism:Both Popes resign, and a conclave consisting of both sets of cardinals proceed with the election of a new oneQuestion be settled by negotiation and arbitrationA General Council be called to decide the matterCharles VI of France attempts to interveneWhen Clement VII of Avignon died, Charles VI of France asked the Avignon cardinals not to elect a new one, hoping that he could convince the Pope of Rome to abdicateThe Avignon cardinals, feeling that their case could be weakened, went ahead an elected Benedict XIII anywayCharles responded by besieging Avignon, but had to abandon the siege due to changing political fortunesMeanwhile, the Roman popes began a series of maneuvers to make it appear that they wanted to end the schismBoth sides, however, refused to negotiate, which ended up alienating many of the cardinals on both sidesThe Roman cardinals were the first to break with their pope begin negotiations with the Avignon Party; meanwhile France withdrew her support for BenedictThe stage was set for the Conciliar MovementConciliarismThe Call for a General CouncilNot since the days of Constantine did the church place so much of hope on the convening of a universal council to settle the decades long Babylonian CaptivityAs it began to be articulated in western theology, conciliar theory (or conciliarism) held that a universal council, representing the entire church, had more authority than the popeThe question was: who had the authority to call a council of the whole church? In the Western Church, councils were summoned by popes; in the Eastern Church, councils had been summoned by emperorsThe difficulty was solved when cardinals of both parties issued a joint call to a great council to be held in Pisa in 1409Council of Pisa (1409)When the council gathered in Pisa, it had the support of both colleges of cardinals and well as most of the courts of Europe a very hopeful sign that was soon to be dashedRather than try to determine who was the rightful pope, the council declared that both were unworthy, and thus both were deposedThe council then went on to deal with the issues of simony and other abusesMeanwhile, the cardinals elected another pope who took the name Alexander VConvinced that they had ended the schism, the council adjourned

And then there were threeMost of Europe accepted the decisions of Pisa and the new pope, Alexander VHowever, both rival Popes (Rome and Avignon) refused to accept the decisions of the council of Pisa, and both had enough support to insist on their claimsAlexander died less than a year after his election; the cardinals then proceeded to elect his successor, John XXIIIThe Pisan Antipopes: Alexander V (1409-1410) and John XXIII (1410-1415)The Intervention of Sigismund of GermanyJohn XIII found himself forced to flee Italy and seek asylum from Emperor Sigismund of Germany, who at the time was the most powerful monarch of EuropeSigismund decided that it was time for another council to decide the issue once and for all, and required of John XXIII his agreement on the issue as a condition of asylumJohn XXIII was to convene the council, which would gather in Constance in 1414Council of Constance (1414) finally settles the matterBy convening the council, John XXIII assumed that those assembled would support his claim to the papal throne; he was mistakenThe council was of a reformist mindset, and thus called for his resignation; John fledJohn was a fugitive for months, but eventually captured, brought back to Constance and forced to resign; he was then condemned to prison for the rest of his lifeGregory XII, the Roman pope, resigned as he promised to do if his rivals did likewiseThe council then elected Martin VBenedict XIII refused to resign and took refuge in a fortress where he continued to claim his legitimacy; no one paid much attention to him; he died in 1423Benedict had up to three successors, though since their elections were dubious, he is considered the last of the Avignon line.The Three Reforming CouncilsThe Council of Constance (1414) attempted to reform the church, legislate against abuses, and rid the church of heretics; John Huss was condemned; Also decreed that councils should meet every ten years or so to continue the work of reformationThe Council of Basel (1431) Called by Martin V, but dissolved by his successor, Eugene IV; it refused to adjourn and ended up electing an antipope (Felix V gave up claim in 1449)The Council of Ferrara-Florence (1439) Eugene decreed the transfer of the Council of Basel to Ferrara (eventually to Florence); there the council attempted a formula of reunion between East and West as a condition for western aid to Constantinople

WaldensiansThe WaldensiansUnlike other medieval heresies (e.g. the Cathars), the Waldensians originated in no conscious hostility to the churchFounder: Peter Waldo (more accurately Valdes), a wealthy merchant of Lyons; the name Peter was added by his followers of the late 14th century to link Waldo to the first apostlePeter Waldo (c. 1140-1218)Peter WaldoImpressed by a song about St. Alexis sung by a traveling minstrel, Waldo asked a master of theology the best way to God. The theologian quoted him, If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heave; and come, follow me (Matt 19:21)Selling all that he had, and making provision for his wife and endowing his daughters for life, he literally put this counsel into practiceHe procured vernacular translations of scripture passages and the fathers and walked the streets preaching a life of repentance for the forgiveness of sinsMany thought he was mad, but he gained a following for his vita apostolica He soon aroused the suspicion and hostility of the archbishop and clergy of Lyons; Canon law restricted preaching to clergyWaldensiansWaldo and his followers appealed to the Third Lateran Council, who laughed at them as ignorant laymen but did not pronounce them hereticsPope Alexander III applauded their devotion to poverty but denied them the right to preach without first securing permission from their bishopAt first they obeyed the restriction, but when permission was not granted they began to interpret the refusal of their right to preach as the word of man over against that of GodThey were excommunicated in 1182 and expelled from LyonsThe Poor of Lyons made their way to NE France and into Germany, and southward into LombardyCondemned along with the Cathars in 1184 at the Council of Verona by Pope Lucius IIIForeshadow of the Protestant Reformation?Waldensian beliefs:The Bible, particularly the New Testament, was the sole rule of belief and life; every prescription must be followed to the letterPreachers went out two by two in simple woolen robes, barefooted or wearing sandals cut in a special patternPreached repentance unto life; rejected all oaths and shedding of bloodRenounced marriage and all worldly goods; maintained themselves through contributions of their sympathizers (friends, believers)Did not consider episcopal ordination necessary; woman as well as men were granted the right to preachLay celebration of the Lords Supper was permitted in regions where the sacrament was not readily available from a Catholic priestThe Waning of the Medieval SynthesisThe Renaissance The RenaissanceMeaning: rebirth i.e. the rebirth of knowledgeCultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuriesFlowering of art, science, literature, religion, and politicsResurgence of learning from the classical period of Greek and Roman antiquity (immediate past considered the Dark Ages)Intellectual transformation that swept Europe, widely considered the bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era

Characteristics of the RenaissanceRenaissance thinkers turned their gaze backward in historical time; not to the immediate past which was arrogantly assumed to be "dark," but to the classical past of ancient Greece and Rome, which they assumed was bathed in light The Classic period was considered a Golden Age. Therein were found thinkers who had similar interests to the Renaissance thinker, and who had wrestled with identical problems Increasingly, Renaissance thinkers would view the medieval synthesis as too formal, too compartmentalized, too confining; it was too logical, too systematic, too AristotelianThe Renaissance would end up reacting strongly against the medieval synthesis -- against all pigeon-holingProto-ReformersTwo Types of Reform One that addressed mainly moral and pastoral issues, such as simony and absenteeism (Conciliar Movement)One that also sought to reform not only the life, but also the doctrines of the ChurchJohn Wycliffe 1328-1384John Huss (Jan Hus) 1369-1415John Wycliffe (Wyclif), 1328-1384Wycliffes ResumeLittle is known of his early lifeSpent most of his career in Oxford, England; famous for his erudition and logic; not very good humoredIn 1371, he left the university to serve the English Crown, first as a diplomat then as a polemicistThis was during the time of the Avignon papacy, so Wycliffes arguments on the nature and limits of lordship and dominion were well received by the English authoritiesWycliffes Position on Legitimate DominionAll legitimate dominion comes from GodDominion is to be characterized by the example of Christ, who came to serve, not to be servedAny dominion exercised for the profit of the ruler and not for the good of the governed (commonwealth) is not true dominion, but rather usurpationThe same is true of dominion that seeks to expand its power beyond the limits of its authorityTherefore, any supposed ecclesiastical authority that collects taxes for its own benefit, or seeks to extend its power beyond the sphere of spiritual matters, is not legitimateWycliffe applied this last principle to civil power, which must also be measured according to the service it renders to its subjects; Wycliffe eventually lost support of many of the English nobles for this viewThe Radicalization of Wycliffes ViewsWycliffes views became more radical as the result of the scandal of the Great Western Schism (1378)The true Church is not the pope and his visible hierarchy, but rather the invisible body of those who are predestined to salvationIt is impossible to know for sure who is predestined, but there are indications or fruits of salvation in true believersMany ecclesiastical leaders were in truth reprobate; eventually Wycliffe would declare that the pope was among those who were probably reprobateWycliffes View of Scriptural AuthorityScripture is the possession of the Church and only the Church can interpret Scripture correctly (as the Roman Church taught)However, the Church that owns the Scriptures is the body of all who are predestinedTherefore, the Bible ought to be put back into the hands of believers, and in their own languageWycliffe and his followers began to put this into practice by translating portions of the Bible into EnglishBy 1382, Wycliffe had managed to translate much of the New Testament directly from the Latin Vulgate; Wycliffes Bible was complete by 1384Wycliffe and the MassThe Fourth Lateran Council (1215) had declared the doctrine of TransubstantiationWycliffe would eventual reject this doctrine because he saw it as a denial of the principle manifested in the incarnationWhen God was joined to human nature, the presence of divinity did not destroy the humanityLikewise, when Christ unites himself with the bread and wine he does not destroy them; in a sacramental or mysterious way, the Body (Blood) of Christ is present in communion; but so is the bread (wine)Wycliffe would be condemned in Oxford for this view; however, after a brief imprisonment, he was allowed to resume his studies and writingsWycliffes EndIn 1381, Wycliffe retired to his parish in Lutterworth, a benefice that he had received from the Crown for services rendered (irony: Wycliffe profited from absenteeism)Wycliffe died of stroke in 1384 and buried in consecrated groundThe Council of Constance (1415) later condemned him; had his remains disinterred and burned; ashes thrown in the River SwiftThe movement called the Lollards took their inspiration from WycliffeThe LollardsPejorative name meaning mumblersBelieved in vernacular translations of the Bible, preached against clerical celibacy, pilgrimages, and the abuse of imagesAlso rejected Transubstantiation and prayers for the deadAt first Lollardy had adherents among the gentry, but a number of failed political uprisings brought it into disfavorLollardy remained an underground movement in England up to the 16th century; eventually Lollards would swell the ranks of the Protestants in EnglandJohn Huss (1369-1415) John Huss of BohemiaFamous preacher and scholar; rector of the University of Prague (1402)At first he had no intention of changing the traditional doctrines of the church; he only sought the reform of the Christian life, particularly that of the clergyKing Richard II of England had married a Bohemian princess; through this political connection many Czechs were able to study in England where they came into contact with the writings of John Wycliffe The writings of Wycliffe caused a great stir in the University of Prague, dividing the Germans and the Czechs in their opinions of himJohn HussThe Germans questioned Wycliffes orthodoxy, to which Huss responded that it was the right of scholars to study Wycliffe even if they did not agree with all of his positionsHuss himself did not agree with Wycliffe on the question of TransubstantiationThe King of Bohemia supported the Czech scholars, compelling the Germans to leave Prague and found the University of Leipzig; on leaving Prague they declared Prague to have become a hotbed of heresiesConflict with the Pisan PapacyThe Council of Pisa (1409) had attempted to end the Great Schism by deposing two popes and electing a third (Alexander V and later John XXIII); now there were three popesThe Archbishop of Prague obtained a papal decree banning the works of Wycliffe and ordering the preaching should only take place in cathedrals, parish churches and monasteries Huss decided he could not obey and continued preaching at the chapel of Bethlehem (which did not fall into any one of these categories)In 1410, Huss was summoned to Rome to answer for his disobedience; he refused to go and was excommunicated in 1411With the support of his king and the people of Bohemia, he ignored the papal sentence and continued to preach and teachThe Radicalization of Huss ViewsWhile not questioning the legitimacy of the Pisan pope, he nonetheless concluded that an unworthy pope was not to be obeyed; popes acting in their own interests, and not for the welfare of the church, were not to be obeyedHuss concluded that the Bible was the final authority by which the pope as well as any Christian is to be judgedHuss protested against John XXIIIs sale of indulgences to pay for his crusade against Naples; he came to conclude that only God can grant forgiveness, and to sell that which can only come from God is a usurpationHuss also criticized John XXIII for making war against fellow Christians; the king of Bohemia (who needed the popes support) ordered Huss to silence his protestJohn Huss CondemnationAfter another excommunication, Huss withdrew to the countryside to write on the needed reformation of the ChurchIn 1414, Emperor Sigismund (of Germany and Hungary) called for a council to meet in Constance in order to end the three-popes controversy; he invited Huss to defend his views at the council and granted him safe-conduct to attendUpon entering Constance, it was clear that John XXIII wanted to try Huss outside of the council in a papal consistory; Huss was taken into custody and ordered to recant; Huss responded that he would recant only if someone could show him that he was a hereticHe was then treated as a prisoner; the emperor at first protested, but then washed his hands of the affairJohn Huss CondemnationOn June 5, 1415, Huss finally appeared before the Council of Constance John XXIII (the Pisan pope) had fled the council upon his deposition, but had been captured and returned as a prisonerThe hope was that the council would see Huss as the enemy of the anti-pope John and thus be dismissed without chargeInstead, Huss was condemned for his refusal to recant John Huss MartyrdomI appeal to Jesus Christ, the only judge who is almighty and completely just. In his hands I place my cause, since he will judge each, not on the basis of false witnesses and erring councils, but of truth and justice.

On July 6, Huss taken to the cathedral, dressed in priestly garments which were then torn from him, shaved of his tonsure, and had a paper crown decorated with demons placed on his head; refusing one last chance to recant, he was burned at the stake as he recited the PsalmsJerome of Prague, Huss colleague, was burned a few days laterThe Martyrdom of HussLord Jesus, it is for thee that I patiently endure this cruel death. I pray thee to have mercy on my enemies.Rebellion in BohemiaTaborites and Horebites two groups that claimed Huss as their inspirationThe threat of armed intervention led the various Hussite groups to agree to Four Articles:The Word of God to be preached freelyCommunion in both kinds (bread and wine)Clergy should live in apostolic povertyGross and public sin should be punished severelyOne general council and two failed crusades against Bohemia finally convinced the Catholics that negotiation with the Hussites was necessaryThe Church in BohemiaAs a result of these negotiations, the Church of Bohemia rejoined the rest of western Christendom, but allowed to retain communion in both kinds and other elements of the Four ArticlesMost Bohemians, particularly the nobility, accepted the agreement; many left the church to found the Unitas Fratrum (Union of Brethren)The Brethren grew rapidly, not only in Bohemia but also in MoraviaThe Brethren established close ties with the Protestants in the 16th century, and some would ally with LutheranismHapsburg persecution in the 16th century almost wiped them out; the Moravians would eventually come to the new worldThe Later Course of ScholasticismBut first we need to back up a bit(Review)Albert the Great (1206-1280)The Synthesis of Philosophy and Theology in High Middle AgesPhilosophyOperates on the basis of autonomous principlesCan be known apart from revelationSeek truth by a strict rational methodDoes not seek to prove what the mind cannot understandTheologyStarts its inquiry from the basis of revealed truthsRevealed truths are those which cannot be known by reason aloneRevealed truths are more certain than those of reason (which may err)Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224-74)Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-74)Born in Roccasecca, Italy (father: Landulf of Aquino)Nickname in childhood: The Dumb Ox; his teacher, Albert, would later say, The bellowing of that ox will be heard throughout the world.Joined the Dominican Order in 1244; imprisoned by his family for a yearStudied in Paris, CologneAuthor: Summa contra GentilesArguments in favor of the Christian faith (benefit missionaries)Author: Summa theologiae (aka theologica)Three partsDetailed study of key aspects of Christian theology

Thomas lasting contributionThe Five Ways arguments for the existence of GodThe Principle of Analogy theological foundation for knowing God through creationThe relation of faith and reason

Later trends in ScholasticismConstant search for ever subtler questions to poseEver finer distinctions to answer themDevelopment of a dense style and technical vocabularyTheology was no longer accessible to the uninitiatedThe marriage between philosophy and theology started to unravelPhilosophy what reason can discoverTheology what can only be known through divine revelationWhile Thomas and his generation had held that there was a basic continuity between faith and reason (e.g. that the existence of God could be reached by proper use of reason), soon other thinkers would question this basic assumptionDuns Scotus (c. 1265-1308)Little is known of his early life; possibly born in Duns, Berwickshire, ScotlandFranciscan (old Franciscan school)Known as the subtle doctorTaught at Cambridge, Oxford, and Paris

Duns Scotus noteworthy developmentsChampion of Aristotles theory of knowledgeDoctrine of Voluntarism the divine will takes precedence over the divine intellectThe Immaculate Conception of MaryMain point of disagreement with earlier scholastics: that doctrines such as the immortality of the soul or divine omnipresence could be proven true by the sole and proper use of reasonAt most, reason could show that they were possible, but could not prove them: (e.g. Immaculate Conception)William of Occam (c. 1280-1349)Born in Ockham, Surrey, EnglandStudied at the University of OxfordFranciscan theologian & philospherDeveloped many of the lines associated with Duns ScotusPioneered Nominalism

Contributions of OckhamOckhams Razor the principle of parsimonyThe elimination of all hypotheses that were not absolutely essentialNo need for intermediate steps (e.g. justification)Nominalism Universals were declared to be totally a unnecessary hypothesisGods absolute vs. ordered powerAbsolute power knows no bounds; whatever God pleases to do is possible (voluntarism), nothing is above this, even reasonIt is only according to ordered power that God acts reasonably, and thus does goodStrictly speaking, one should not say that God always does good, but rather that whatever God does, no matter what it might be, is good.Similarly, it is incorrect to say that God has to act reasonably. Reason does not determine Gods actions; sovereign will of God that determines what is to be considered reasonable, and then by the ordered power of God, he acts accordinglyResults of this thinkingAll traditional arguments whereby theologians had tried to prove that a doctrine was reasonable, or fitting, lost their powerE.g. the Incarnation: Since Anselm, it had been argued that the incarnation was reasonable, since it canceled humankinds debtTheologians of the 14th-15th century would now say that it doesnt matter how reasonable it may look from our perspective, God could have done whatever he pleased to save man or not save manCould have simply canceled our debt, or called meritorious what was not meritorious The Question of AuthorityParamount question in the 14th-15th centuriesIf reason cannot determine that a doctrine was true or false, one must make such determinations on the basis of infallible authoritiesOccam himself believed that both popes and councils could err, so only the Bible was infallibleThe Great Western Schism gave further impetus to the idea that a universal council was the final authority to which all opposition must yieldConciliarismThe question of final authority is the basis for Husss martyrdomThe power of reason was of little value to end the schism, since it could not prove or disprove doctrine, so a final infallible authority must be invoked to settle the matter Had Huss been able to argue against the council it would have called into question the councils authority to end the schism

The Mystical AlternativeMeister Eckhart (1260-1327)Eckhart von Hochbheim (Meister Eckhart)Essentially a Neoplatonist; essential goal to contemplate the divineAll words about God are inexact; all language about God is analogicalTrue knowledge of God is not rationally conceived, but rather intuitiveGod is not known by rational argument, but by mystical contemplation in which one is finally lost in the divineWithin that true essence of the godhead, which is beyond all being and every distinction, there I already existed. There I willed myself. There I knew myself. There I wished to create the man I am. For that reason, I am my own cause according to my being, which is eternal, although not according to my becoming, which is temporal. (Sermon on Blessed are the Poor in Spirit)Accused of heresySuch statement led naturally to charges of pantheism and belief in the eternality (and divinity) of the soulEckhart protested that he had been misinterpretedConvicted as a heretic toward the end of his life; appealed to Rome, but died before his case was settledAfter his death Eckharts teachings would be expounded in more accessible terms by his followers, particularly by John Tauler and Henry SusoJohannes Tauler (1300-1361)Other mystics of the periodJohn of Ruysbroeck follower of Eckhart, but his message was more practical and related to everyday lifeGerhard Groote along with Ruysbroeck, gave shape to what came to known as modern devotion, consisting mainly in a life of disciplined devotion centered on the contemplation of the life of Christ (e.g. The Imitation of Christ)Ruysbroeck and GrooteBrethren of the Common LifeLike others before him, Groote set out to attack corruption in the church and called his followers to renewed holiness and devotionHowever, he did not call his followers to the monastic life; rather they were to stay within their several callings and follow the principles of modern devotionMany of his followers eventually did take monastic vows, but continued to dedicate themselves to helping those who pursued the common life, founding schools of training which became centers of renewal for the churchThe Brethren gained a reputation for fostering a critical and reforming spirit among their followersIn time, the humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam would become their most famous alumnusThomas `a Kempis (1380-1471)`a Kempis The Imitation of ChristAuthor of The Imitation of Christ, the most important mystical work of the Middle AgesFour Books:Helpful Counsels of the Spiritual LifeDirectives for the Interior LifeOn Interior ConsolationOn the Blessed SacramentThe Influence of MysticismThe mystic movement was not overtly opposed to the church or its hierarchy; though often criticized the abuses of the clergy That being said, the spirit of mysticism often found within itself the inner peace of its devotionThus the tendency of mysticism was in effect to weaken the authority of the church; if through direct contemplation one can achieve communion with the divine, then what use are the traditional means of grace in the sacraments, preaching and even the Scriptures?Revival of Classical LearningRenaissance and HumanismParadigm shiftAt its height (13th-14th centuries), the Scholastic movement of the Middle Ages had produced some highly significant contributions to Christian theologyA sense of tiredness and loss of intellectual energy sets in during the 15th centuryMeanwhile, the Renaissance was taking hold on many centers of education and learning, creating pressure for new theological paradigmsRevival of the glories of classical antiquityHUMANISM would provide both the impetus and the tools for the drastic paradigm shift that would be The Age of the ReformationMiddle Ages the thousand years since the fall of Rome; seen as a negative intermission between classical antiquity and their own timeGothic also a derisive term (as it was a barbarian tribe)Renaissance rebirth (intellectual, artistic)Humanism study of the humanities, what we call today the liberal artsFall of Constantinople (1453)97Fifteenth CenturyByzantine exiles flooded into Italy, bringing with them their knowledge of classical Greek literatureAwakened an interest in classical learningJohannes Gutenberg (1436) invention of the moveable-type printing pressThe impact of the printing pressProliferation of books; proliferation of varying manuscripts of important works, including the BibleThe degree of variance between manuscripts was an eye-openerNow that several hundred copies could be made of everything, the question naturally arises: Which manuscripts should we mass produce? Which are the most accurate? How do we determine the best reading of two or more variations?The rise of the science of textual criticism, and the production of critical editions of Cicero, Jerome, and the New TestamentAlso called into question were the authenticity of some texts that had, for centuries, been taken for granted as genuine (e.g. Donation of Constantine)Donation of ConstantineForged imperial decree in which Constantine supposedly gave the pope jurisdiction over Rome and the entire WestLorenzo Valla (1406-1457) studied the document and came to the conclusion that its style and vocabulary showed that it was much later than the time of Constantine; Valla also offered strong arguments against the legend that the Apostles Creed had been composed by the original 12 apostlesA New Vision of RealityLeonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)Michelangelo (1475-1564)Humanismhttp://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQZ1OYy8T48ZspMrqNFn_oU8-xcHGQUgnFQu4sM3lhVz7r4qX4ToQSpirit of HumanismInherent distrust of the clergy and clerical aspirationsDisdain for monasticismOpposed to the allegorical interpretation of ScriptureTendency towards philosophical pragmatism; but walk a tight rope between pragmatism and idealismGenuine interest in the study of the arts, and thus indirectly concerned with the general welfare of man. The latter concern most often limited to theory, not practiceChampioned simplicity in doctrine and practiceFavored political independence and the right responsibility of free thought

Renaissance PopesNicholas V (1447-1455)Spent most of his reign trying to gain political power for Rome over the other Italian statesGoal to turn the city into the intellectual capital of the worldCalixtus III (1455-1458)First pope of the infamous Borgia family from SpainDream of becoming a great secular prince; managed to unify Italy in order to resist a possible Turkish attackPaid more attention to military campaigns than his priestly dutiesIntera Caetera (1456) reaffirmed Portuguese right to enslave infidels and AfricansPius II (1458-1464)Last of the Renaissance popes to take his office seriouslyCondemned the enslavement of newly baptized ChristiansPaul II (1464-1471)Nephew of Eugene IV (1431-1447)At an early age he decided a career in ecclesiastical office was more lucrative than one in tradeMain interest was collection of arts; main occupation was the restoration of the monuments of pagan RomeHis concubines were publicly acknowledged in papal courtSixtus IV (1471-1484)Bought the papacy by promising gifts and privilegesCorruption and nepotism characterized his reign; the church became a family business with nephews being elevated to prestigious positionsOnce excommunicated the whole city of Florence in a bloody feud with the Medici familySistine Chapel is named for himInnocent VIII (1484-1492)Took an oath before his election that he would not elevate any member of his family; broke it as soon as he was elected declaring that as pope he was not bound by itAcknowledged several of his illegitimate childrenSale of indulgences became a shameless businessOrdered Christendom cleansed of witchcraftAlexander VI (1492-1503)Rodrigo BorgiaBought the cardinals votes; under him papal corruption reached its peak; said to have committed publicly all the capital sins except gluttony (his digestion was not good)Acknowledged his illegitimate children in the papal court, and elevated many of themAlexander is ready to sell the keys, the altars, and even Christ himself. He is within his rights, since he bought them.He had secret dealings with the Turkish sultanItaly was bathed in blood during his reignPius III (1503)Alexander and his favorite son, Cesare, died of the same disease (perhaps they were both poisoned)Cesare had hoped to succeed his father, but the election fell to Pius III, who showed early on that he would be a reformerHowever, Pius died after being pope for 26 daysJulius II (1503-1513)A worthy successor of Alexander VITook the name to indicate that his model would be Julius Caesar, rather than a Christian saintPatron of the arts; Michelangelo finished painting the Sistine Chapel during his reignFavorite past-time was war; nearly united Italy by the sword, but opposed by France and GermanyLeo X (1513-1521)Son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Giovanni de MediciPatron of the arts; tried to consolidate the political and military gains of Julius IIDefeated by France, he was forced to sign an agreement that gave the French king enormous authority in French ecclesiastical affairsGenerally incompetent in both war and diplomacy, he turned his attention to his building projects in RomeHis great dream was to complete the basilica of St. Peters in Rome; the financing of which would come from the sale of indulgencesThis would turn out to be the presenting cause for Luthers protest in Wittenberg, Germany

Reformation in the Sixteenth CenturyReformation or Reformations?Reformation traditionally used to refer to the western European movement centering upon individuals such as:Martin LutherHuldrych (Ulrich) ZwingliJohn CalvinVarious ReformationsThe German Reformation, which gave rise to LutheranismThe Swiss Reformation, which gave birth to the Reformed version of Christianity (Calvinism)The Radical Reformation, often referred to as AnabaptismThe English Reformation, which gave rise to AnglicanismThe Catholic Reformation, often referred to as the Counter ReformationThe Second Reformation within Protestantism through which emerged the Confessional traditions

Martin Luther (1483-1546)