Cey. J. Sci. (Bio. Sci.) 39 (2): 95-108, 2010

CERCARIAE OF TREMATODES IN FRESHWATER SNAILS IN

THREE CLIMATIC ZONES IN SRI LANKA

Uthpala A. Jayawardena1,2

, Rupika S. Rajakaruna1* and Priyanie H. Amerasinghe

3

1 Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

2 Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

3IWMI, C/O ICRISAT, Patancheru - 502 324, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India

Accepted 19 December 2010

ABSTRACT

Cercariae of trematodes in freshwater snails were studied in 1694 snails collected from rivers and

streams in three climatic zones of Sri Lanka during 2005 to 2008. Four snail species; Thiara scabra, T.

tuberculata, Paludomous sphearica and Gyraulus saigonensis were collected from nine sites in four

districts; Matale, Kandy, Kegalle, and Kurunegala. Snails were allowed to release cercariae under direct

sunlight or artificial light in the laboratory. Of the four snail species collected, Thiara spp. was the most

preferred intermediate host with high prevalence of infection. Eight different morphological types of

cercariae were released namely; oculopleurolophocercous, distome, gymnocephalous, echinostomous,

gymnophallus, xiphidiocercariae, macrocercous and two furcocercous type cercariae. These cercariae

belonged to six trematode families; Heterophyidae, Schistosomatidae, Psilostomidae, Echinostomidae,

Gymnophallidae, Lecithodendriidae and two unidentified groups. Of the snails collected, 16% was infected

with one or more types of cercariae. The highest overall infection was 77.4% in snails collected from

Kurunegala district, of which more than 90% was Thiara spp. One snail with mixed infections was found.

Diversity and prevalence of cercariae varied among the three climatic zones. The highest diversity was

observed in the wet zone (Shannon Diversity Index, H = -1.423) showing six morphotyes. The diversity of

infection in the dry zone was very low (H = -0.192) with only two morphotypes. Although, the cercariae

diversity was very high in the wet zone, the prevalence of infection was very low (10.1%) compared to the

dry (77.4%) and intermediate (33.9%) zones.

Key words: Digenetic trematodes, cercariae diversity, freshwater snails

INTRODUCTION

Digenetic trematodes, commonly known as

flukes, are responsible for a number of disease

conditions in humans and many other

vertebrates. They have a heteroxenous life cycle

with freshwater snail as their first intermediate

host. The adult stages are found in different

vertebrate definitive hosts including amphibians,

fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals. Disease

characteristics of fluke infections vary with the

parasite species and the site or organ of infection

and are linked with the life cycle events like

larval penetration, egg laying, etc.

Many species of freshwater snails serve as

intermediate hosts for digenetic trematodes.

Consequently, the distribution of freshwater

snails accounts for the occurrence of different

trematode taxa in a particular region. As the

parasites are mostly host specific, higher

heterogeneity of the host promotes higher

heterogeneity of the parasites (Hechinger and

Lafferty, 2005). Similarly, higher snail diversity

leads to higher trematode diversity. Apart from

that, conditions influencing the proliferation of

snail population will inevitably enhance the

existence of trematode parasites in their

intermediate host. Some riverine habitats

provide physicochemical conditions that favor

the proliferation of freshwater snail fauna, for

this reason, environmental conditions in

different habitats, in different climatic zones

may support the trematode life cycle differently.

Trematodes show distinct and direct relationship

with the temperature in their transmission

process (Smyth, 1962; Poulin, 2005). Cercarial

output is directly influenced by the temperature

due to both stimulating effect of temperature

increasing the emergence from the snail and the

acceleration of cercarial production within the __________________________________________

*Corresponding author’s email: rupikar@pdn.ac.lk

mailto:rupikar@pdn.ac.lk

Jayawardena et al. 96

snail host (Poulin, 2005). The combined effect of

the two will increase the cercariae release in

great numbers. However, under high temperature

conditions some cercariae encyst within snails.

Even though, snail populations grant higher

trematode diversity, trematodes can affect snail

populations by directly reducing the egg

production or by increasing snail mortality rates

(Lafferty, 1993).

The daily cycles of cercarial emergence are

recognized as an adaptive mechanism to enhance

parasite transmission. Several hypotheses have

been proposed to explain the functional

significance of these daily cycles (Shostak and

Esch, 1990). The most accepted hypothesis

suggests that cercarial emergence is timed to

coincide with the presence of the next host,

particularly for those cercarial species in which

the target hosts do not regularly cohabit with the

molluscan host producing the cercariae (Combes

et al., 1994).

Prevalence and intensity of infection are the

major determinant factors of the rate of

transmission of digenetic trematodes from the

snail-intermediate host to the next host in their

life cycle (Margolis et al., 1982; Anderson and

May, 1991). Release of cercariae out of their

snail intermediate host is a measure of intensity

of that particular trematode infection.

Classification of digeneans is a complicated

task, but the larval characters of the digeneans

can also be used in classification (Brooks et al.,

1985). Four types of cercariae are described

depending on the position and number of suckers

namely, monostome, amphistome, gasterostome

and distome; while 11 monotypes are described

by the shape and relative size of the tail;

pleurolorphocercous, cystocercous,

furcocercous, microcercous, gymnophallus,

macrocercous, leptocercous, trichocercous,

cercariaea, rat-king and cotylocercous (Cheng,

1986). Presence of other body structures such as

collar spine (echinostome), anterior stylet

(xiphidiocercariae), eyespots (ophtalmo-

cercariae) are also being used (Cheng, 1986).

This study was designed to determine the

diversity, prevalence and the production of

different cercariae morphotypes in freshwater

snails collected from selected sites in different

climatic zones of Sri Lanka.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study sites

Study sites were selected to cover the three

major climatic zones of Sri Lanka; dry zone,

intermediate zone and wet zone. Two sampling

sites in Kandy District; Mahaweli River at

Peradeniya and Sarasavi Oya at Peradeniya and

one site in Kegalle District; Maha Oya at

Hingula were selected in the wet zone. In the

intermediate zone tributaries of Mahaweli River;

Mirisgoni Ela at Thalakiriyagama and Mirisgoni

Oya at Wahakotte and Meda Ela at Palapathwala

(Matale District) were selected. Two sites along

the Deduru Oya including Ibi Ela at

Ibbagamuwa and Ma Oya at Pannala and another

site along the Hakwetuna Oya at Malsiripura

(Kurunegala district) were selected in the dry

zone (Fig. 1).

Sampling and identification of snails

An area of about 200 m along the stream was

selected for snail sampling in each study site.

Timely collection was conducted such that all

the snails found within 2 hour period were taken

as one sampling event in a particular site. The

selection of sites was based on easy access to the

stream, presence of livestock grazing areas or

where birds and other wildlife visit the stream

for water and food. Snails were collected from

March 2005 to May 2008 either using a kitchen

sieve or hand picked from rocks or stream

bottom. Riparian vegetation was closely

inspected to find any snails attached to leaf-

surfaces. Each site was sampled four times

during the study period. The substratum in these

areas was rocky, sandy or muddy with decaying

leaves. Snails were placed in glass bottles filled

with water from the same habitat and were

brought to the laboratory inside a cooler

containing ice to avoid overheating during

transportation. Snails were identified according

to the morphological features of the shell using

keys of Mendis and Fernando (2002) and Naggs

and Raheem (2000).

Shedding and harvesting of cercariae

Snails were placed separately in small plastic

specimen cups containing 25 ml of dechlorinated

tap water. They were then exposed to 12 h light

period (sunlight or artificial light) to induce

shedding of cercariae. This setup was left

undisturbed in the laboratory at room

temperature up to 30 days. Each snail was

carefully observed under a dissecting

microscope several times a day for cercariae

shedding. Once a snail completed shedding, it

was taken out of the container and the cercariae

A C

Cercariae in snails in three climatic zones in Sri Lanka 97

were separated out. Daily renewal of the

dechlorinated tap water medium was continued

throughout the study period to avoid pH changes

in the medium.

Identification and counting of cercariae

Cercariae released by the snails were isolated

and slide mounted using single-staining

procedure in Borax-Carmine. Identification of

cercariae was carried out using descriptions and

keys in Yamaguti (1975), Cheng (1986),

Faltynkova et al. (2008) and Wessenburg-Lund

(1931). Live unstained specimens and stained

cercariae were identified to the family level

based on the morphological characteristics and

swimming behaviour where possible. Cercariae

were nartcotised by placing in 0.35% NaCl

solution and the length was measured using a

calibrated eyepiece graticule. Length of the

body, tail, furcae and the distance between the

two suckers were measured and used in

identification.

Prevalence of infection was determined as a

percentage, by taking the number of snails that

released cercariae, divided by the total number

of snails collected from a particular site. The

number of cercariae released per snail was

counted using a Sedgwick Rafter Cell. Counting

was carried out until no cercaria was released by

the infected snail.

Data analysis

Shannon Diversity Index (H) was calculated

using the number of different species and

relative abundance of each species in the three

climatic zones and were compared using a t test

for significant differences. The prevalence of

infection was compared among the three zones

using a chi square test.

Figure 1. Map showing sampling sites in four districts in the three major climatic zones of Sri

Lanka.

Jayawardena et al. 98

RESULTS

Snail hosts

A total of 1694 freshwater snails were

collected from the study sites (Table 1). Snails

belonging to four different species, representing

3 genera were collected namely; Thiara scabra,

T. tuberculata, Paludomous sphaerica and

Gyraulus saigonensis (Fig. 2). The two Thiara

species were found in all three zones while

Gyraulus saigonensis was found only in the wet

zone. Paludomus sphearica was not found in the

dry zone (Table 1). In general, diversity and

abundance of snails were high in the wet zone

compared to the dry and intermediate zones.

Shedding of cercariae and their diversity

Three of four snail species collected; T.

scabra, T. tuberculata and P. sphearica, shed

cercariae. Gyraulus saigonensis did not release

any cercairae. Of the 1694 snails collected, 284

(16%) released one or more types of cercariae

(Table 2). Lowest prevalence of infection was

from the snails collected from the wet zone

(10.1%). Although, the number and type of

snails collected in the dry zone was low, a large

percentage was infected with cercariae (77.4%).

Table 1. Species of freshwater snails collected from study sites in three different climatic zones.

Climatic Zone

Number of snails (%)

Total

Family

Thiaridae

Family

Planorbidae

Thiara

tuberculata

Thiara

scabra

Paludomous

sphearica

Gyraulus

saigonensis

Wet zone 186 (13.9) 189 (14.2) 945 (71) 11 (0.8) 1331 (79)

Intermediate zone 94 (30.3) 198 (63.9) 18 (5.8) - 310 (18)

Dry zone 13 (24.5) 40 (75.4) - - 53 (3)

Total 293 (17.1) 427 (24.7) 963 (56.9) 11 (0.6) 1694

Figure 2. The four different species of freshwater snails collected from the study sites.

A - Thiara scabra B- Thiara tuberculata C- Paludomous sphearica D- Gyraulus saigonensis

Table 2. Prevalence of cercariae in freshwater snail species collected from different sampling sites in three climatic zones.

Climatic zone Sampling site

% Prevalence of cercariae (N)

Thiara tuberculata Thiara scabra Paludomous sphearica Gyraulus saigonensis

Total

Wet Zone

Mahaweli river 85.7 (49) 80.0 (10) - - 84.7 (59)

Sarasavi Oya 31.3 (16) 6.1 (179) 5.7 (934) 0 (11) 6.0 (1140)

Maha Oya 12.4 (121) - 9.0 (11) - 0.12 (132)

Overall 33.3 (186) 10.0 (189) 5.7 (945) 0 (11) 10.1 (1331)

Intermediate

Zone

Mirisgoni Ela 48.6 (74) 28.6(28) - - 43.0 (102)

Mirisgoni Oya 40.0 (20) 23.8 (84) - - 27.0 (104)

Meda Ela - 38.4 (86) 0 (18) - 31.7 (104)

Overall 46.8 (94) 30.8 (198) 0 (18) 0 (0) 33.9 (310)

Dry Zone Ma Oya - 42.1 (19) - - 42.1 (19)

Hakwetuna Oya 100 (13) - - - 100 (13)

Ibi Ela - 95.2 (21) - - 95.2 (21)

Overall 100 (13) 70.0 (40) 0 (0) 0 (0) 77.4 (53)

Overall Prevalence 36.0 (293) 35.6 (427) 5.6 (963) 0 (11) 16.0 (1694)

N = Total number of snails belonging to a particular species collected at the site.

Cercariae in

snails in

three clim

atic zon

es in S

ri Lan

ka 9

9

Jayawardena et al. 100

The prevalence of infection among the

sampling sites in the wet zone ranged from 0% -

85.7% where T. tuberculata collected from

Mahaweli river had the highest prevalence of

infection (85.7%; Table 2). Prevalence of

cercariae in the intermediate zone ranged from

0% – 48.6% where T. tuberculata collected from

Mirisgoni Ela had the highest prevalence of

infection (48.6%; Table 2). In the dry zone, only

Thiara spp. were found which had a very high

prevalence of infection ranging from 42% -

100% (Table 2). The highest prevalence of

cercariae infection was observed in T.

tuberculata in all three zones (Fig. 3).

Shedding of cercariae varied from 29 to 9843

(an average of about 566) cercariae per infected

snail (Table 3). The highest was recorded in

Mirisgoni Ela in the intermediate zone infected

with oculopleurolophocercous (8540-9843) and

furcocercous-II (7493-7806) type cercariae

(Table 3). Overall, a higher number cercariae

were shed by snails collected from the dry zone.

Of the four snail species collected, Thiara

spp. were the most preferred intermediate host

with high prevalence of infection. The two

Thiara species collected from Mahaweli River in

the wet zone served as the intermediate host for

oculopleurolophocercous, furcocercous-II and

gymnocephalous type cercariae. Thiara scabra

had a significantly higher potential as the host of

gymnophallus type cercariae than T. tuberculata

(χ2

= 12.121, df = 1, p < 0.001) in the

intermediate zone. In Mirisgoni Ela in the

intermediate zone, both species of Thiara had

equal potential in serving as an intermediate host

for oculopleurolophocercous, while T.

tuberculata supported furcocercous-II infection

significantly better than T. scabra (χ2 = 8.992,

df = 1, p = 0.003).

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Wet Zone Intermediate Zone Dry Zone

Climatic Zone

To

tal ce

rcar

iae

pre

val

ence

(%

) .

Thiara tuberculata Thiara scabra

Paludomus sphearica Gyraulus saigonensis

Figure 3. Total cercariae prevalence (%) in different snail species collected from three climatic

zones. Gyraulus saigonensis did not release any cercariae.

Table 3. Shedding of cercariae* by snails collected from the study sites.

Zone /Study site Snail species OC

±SD

DT

±SD

FC-1

±SD

FC-2

±SD

GC

±SD

EC

±SD

GP

±SD

XI

±SD

MC

±SD

Wet Zone

Mahaweli river T. tuberculata 920±76 - - 876±43 97±16 - 475±49 - -

T. scabra 156±32 - - 342±87 321±42 - 32±07 - -

Sarasavi-Oya T. tuberculata 392±15 - - - - - - - -

T. scabra - - - 250±54 - - - - -

P. sphearica - 105±23 - - 90±06 - 90±11 - 140±23

Maha Oya T. tuberculata 643±167 - - 276±27 354±26 - - - -

P. sphearica 321±79 - - - - - - - -

Intermediate Zone

Mirisgoni Ela T. tuberculata 8540±2847 - 78±22 7806±945 - - - 124±16 -

T. scabra 9843±2256 - - 7493±1258 212±16 - - - -

Mirisgoni Oya T. tuberculata 489±71 - - - 505±29 - 67±17 - -

T. scabra 685±42 - 29±05 543±26 908±17 - 181±09 - -

Meda Ela T. scabra 467±37 - 51±31 206±54 791±38 - 284±12 - -

Dry Zone

Ma Oya T. scabra 913±49 - - - - 61±04 - - -

Hakwetuna Oya T. tuberculata 651±102 - - - - - - - -

Ibi Ela T. scabra 894±91 - - - - 106±19 - - -

Overall intensity 1916±3248 105±23 52±24 2224±3357 370±290 83± 32 188±167 124±16 140±23

*Average number of cercariae shed per snail. OC=oculopleurolophocercous, DT= distome, FC=furcocercous, GC=gymnocephalous, EC= echinostomous, GP=gymnophallus,

XI= xiphidiocercous and MC=macrocercous.

Cercariae in

snails in

three clim

atic zon

es in S

ri Lan

ka 1

01

Jayawardena et al. 102

Diversity of cercariae types

A total of nine different types of cercariae

belonging to eight morphotypes were shed by

the snails (Figs. 4 & 5). Cercariae types included

oculopleurolophocercous, distome, two

furcocercous, one gymnocephalous,

echinostomous, gymnophallus, xiphidiocercariae

and macrocercous cercariae.

Oculopleurolophocercous cercariae (Family Heterophyidae; Figs. 4A & 5A)

The body is oval shaped (216 ± 24 µm) with

a simple, long tail (353 ± 20 µm). The oral

sucker is large and conspicuous compared to the

small, vestigial ventral sucker. Two small

eyespots are located at the anterior half of the

body just behind the oral sucker. Penetration

glands are located in the posterior two thirds of

the body. Lateral fin folds in the basal end of the

tail region were visible in the live specimens.

The specimen is similar to cercariae of

Stictodora tridactyla described by Yamaguti

(1975).

Distome cercariae (unknown family; Figs. 4B & 5B)

Small, oval shaped body (122±7 µm) is

connected to a large, simple tail (342 ± 16 µm).

The oral sucker is comparatively larger and

conspicuous than the ventral sucker, located in

the middle of the body.

Furcocercous cercariae (Family Schistosomatidae; Figs. 4C & 5C)

Long elliptical body (396 ± 14 µm)

terminated with a tapering end and a forked tail.

A pair of large eyespots are located anterior to

the intestinal bifurcation. Granulated dark colour

penetration glands are located in the anterior

region and are clearly visible through the

transparent body. Ventral sucker is smaller than

the oral sucker and is located at the posterior two

thirds of the body at a distance of 310 ± 09 µm

from the oral sucker. Tail bifurcates at distal end

of the tail stem (666 ± 14 µm) producing

comparatively short furcae (252 ± 14 µm). This

specimen is similar to the cercariae of

Pseudobilharziella spp. described by Yamaguti

(1975).

Furcocercous cercariae (Family Schistosomatidae; Figs. 4D & 5C)

Oval body (180 ± 35) ends with a forked tail.

The circular oral and ventral suckers are almost

similar in size. The ventral sucker lies at the

posterior third of the body within 194 ± 14 µm

distance from the oral sucker. Two, small

eyespots are situated at the middle of the body.

A triangular shaped excretory vesicle is found at

the end of the head. Tail stem (356 ± 66 µm)

ends with comparatively longer furcae (194 ± 37

µm). The specimen is similar to the cercariae of

Gigantobilharzia sp. described by Yamaguti

(1975).

Gymnocephalous cercaria

(Family Psilostomidae; Figs. 4E & 5E)

Small pear shaped body (87 ± 5 µm) is

connected to a long, simple tail (91 ± 19 µm).

Terminal mouth is supported by a large oral

sucker. The ventral sucker is smaller in size and

located in the posterior half of the body within

51± 5 µm distance from the oral sucker.

Echinostomous cercariae (Family Echinostomidae; Figs. 4F & 5F)

Elongated oval shaped body (97 ± 6 µm)

with a tail measuring 122 ± 6 µm. Ventral sucker

is located the middle of the body. Collar is not

well marked and collar spines are difficult to

observe. Oral sucker is located 64 ± 6 µm away

from the ventral sucker. Presence of large

number of cystogenous gland cells gave a dark

appearance to the live cercariae.

Gymnophallus cercariae (Family Gymnophallidae; Figs. 4G & 5G)

Nonoculate, fusiform body (338± 18 µm)

with a large anterior sucker situated terminally.

The tail is completely absent. A large ventral

sucker is located within a distance of 147 ± 11

µm from the oral sucker.

Xiphidiocercariae cercariae

(Family Lecithodendridae; Figs. 4H & 5H)

The body (369 ± 24 µm) is elongated pear-

shaped with a small, wrinkled, simple tail (289 ±

18 µm) located at the posterior end of the body.

Dark colour appearance of the cercariae is due to

granular and thick tegument. Ventral sucker is

located at the mid-region of the body within 147

± 6 µm from the oral sucker. The anterior sucker

is armed with a stylet. Pharynx lies just below

the oral sucker.

Macrocercous cercariae (unknown family; Figs. 4I & 5I)

The body is oval shaped (146 ± 30 µm) with

greatly enlarged tail (598 ± 206 µm) which is

almost as wide as the body proper. The two

suckers are similar in size and the ventral sucker

is located at the posterior end of the body within

132 ± 30 µm distance from the oral sucker.

Cercariae in snails in three climatic zones in Sri Lanka 103

Figure 4. Different types of cercariae found in the freshwater snails; (A) Oculopleurolophocercous

(Family Heterophyidae), (B) Distome - unidentified sp., (C) Furcocercous-I - Pseudobilharziella sp.,

(D) Furcocercous - II - Gigantobilharzia sp. (E) Gymnocephalous (Family Psilostomidae), (F)

Echinostome, (G) Gymnophallus (Family Lissorchiidae), (H) Xiphidiocercous - (Astiotrema sp.), (I)

Macrocercous cercariae. (Scale bar = 50 µm)

Figure 5. Morphology of the cercariae; (A) Oculopleurolophocercous (Heterophyidae), (B) Distome

- unidentified sp., (C) Furcocercous- I -Pseudobilharziella sp., (D) Furcocercous -II - Gigantobilharzia

sp., (E)gymnocephalous - (Psilostomidae), (F) Echinostome, (G) Gymnophallus - (Lissorchiidae), (H)

Xiphidiocercous- (Astiotrema sp.), (I) Macrocercous cercariae. (Scale bar = 50 µm)

Jayawardena et al. 104

Prevalence of cercariae

The most prevalent morphotype was

oculopleurolophocercous and distome (Family

Heterophyidae and an unidentified family,

respectively) which were reported from all three

zones (Table 4). Diversity of cercariae types

differed among the three zones and the highest

was reported in the wet zone (Shannon Diversity

Index H = -1.423) followed by intermediate zone

(H= -1.306). Cercariae diversity was very low in

the dry zone (H= -0.192) where only two types

of cercariae (oculopleurolophocercous and

distome cercariae) were reported, compared to

wet and intermediate zones where six

morphotypes were present (Table 4 and Fig. 6).

Wet zone and intermediate zone shared the

morphotypes; oculopleurolophocercous

(Stictodora sp., Family Heterophyidae),

furcocercous-II (Gigantobilharzia sp.),

gymnocephalous and gymnophallus while

macrocercous type was recorded only from the

wet zone and xiphidiocercous was found only in

the intermediate zone. A mixed infection of

oculopleurolophocercous with furcocercous-II

was found in a T. scabra specimen collected

from Mirisgoni Ela.

Prevalence of different cercariae types varied

among collection sites (Table 4) with the highest

reported from the wet zone being

gymnocephalous type (33%) released by T.

tuberculata from Mahaweli River. The highest

prevalence in the intermediate zone (27%) was

of oculopleurolophocercous cercariae (Family

Heterophyidae ) released by T. tuberculata while

100% prevalence in oculopleurolophocercous

cercariae released by the same snail species was

reported in the dry zone at Hakwetuna Oya site.

Significantly higher number of snails in the dry

zone was infected with oculopleurolophocercous

than those in the intermediate and wet zone (Chi

square test, p< 0.001).

Highest occurrence of cercarie was in the wet

zone infected with gymnocephalous type

cercariae (Fig. 6). In the intermediate zone,

oculopleurolophocercous type (Family

Heterophyidae) and gymnocephalous cercariae

were equally abundant. In the dry zone

infections consisted only of

oculopleurolophocercous and distome type. The

highest overall abundant type was

oculopleurolophocercous (Heterophyidae;

39.08%), followed by gymnocephalous (30.98%;

Fig. 6).

Although, the diversity and abundance of

snails collected in the dry zone was low,

prevalence and intensity of the cercarial

infections was very high compared to the wet

zone.

Figure 6. Relative occurrence of different types of cercairae in the three climatic zones.

OP = Oculopleurolophocercous, FC = Furcocercous, GC = Gymnocephalous, EC= Echinostomous,

GP = Gymnophallus, XI = Xiphidiocercous and MC = Macrocercous.

0

20

40

60

80

100

Wet Zone Intermediate Zone Dry Zone

O D FC FC GC

EC (F) GP XI M

Rel

ati

ve

occu

rren

ce

Table 4. Prevalence of cercariae morphotypes in different snail species.

Zones/sites Snail species % Prevalence* of Cercariae

Overall OC DT FC-1 FC-2 GC EC GP XI MC

Wet Zone

Mahaweli river T. tuberculata 85.71 (42/49) 22.45 - - 26.53 32.65 - 4.08 - -

T. scabra 80 (8/10) 20 - - 30 30 - 20 - -

Sarasavi Oya T. tuberculata 31.25 (5/16) 31.25 - - - - - - - -

T. scabra 6.14 (11/179) - - - 6.14 - - - - -

P. sphearica 5.67 (53/934) - 0.15 - - 3.74 - 0.75 - 0.15

G. saigonensis 00 (0/11) - - - - - - - - -

Maha Oya T. tuberculata 12.39 (15/121) 4.13 - - 4.13 4.13 - - - -

P. sphearica 09 (1/11) 09 - - - - - - - -

Overall 10.14 (135/1331) 1.83 0.70 - 2.34 4.32 - 0.80 - 0.07

Intermediate Zone

Mirisgoni Ela T. tuberculata 48.64 (36/74) 27.02 - 2.70 17.56 - - - 1.35 -

T. scabra 28.57 (8/28) 17.85 - - 3.57 10.71 - - - -

Mirisgoni Oya T. tuberculata 40 (8/20) 15 - - - 25 - - - -

T. scabra 23.81 (20/84) 9.52 - - 4.76 7.14 - 1.19 1.19 -

Meda Ela T. scabra 38.37 (33/86) 12.79 - - 6.97 15.11 - 1.16 2.32 -

P. sphearica 00 (0/18) - - - - - - - - -

Overall 33.87 (105/310) 15.16 - - 7.74 8.71 - 0.06 1.29 -

Dry Zone-

Ma Oya T. scabra 42.10 (8/19) 36.84 - - - - 5.26 - - -

Hakwetuna Oya T. tuberculata 100 (13/13) 100 - - - - - - - -

Ibi Ela T. scabra 95.23 (20/21) 90.47 - - - - 4.76 - - -

Overall 77.35 (41/53) 73.58 - - - 3.77 - -

* Prevalence of a morphotype = No. of snails infected with the morphotype /total number of snails collected. OC=oculopleurolophocercous, DT= distome, FC=furcocercous, GC=gymnocephalous,

EC= echinostomous, GP=gymnophallus, XI= xiphidiocercous and MC=macrocercous.

Cercariae in

snails in

three clim

atic zon

es in S

ri Lan

ka 1

05

Jayawardena et al. 106

DISCUSSION

The present study reports cercariae of nine

species of digenetic trematodes belonging to

eight morphotypes in freshwater snails collected

from three different climatic zones of Sri Lanka.

Of the 1694 snails collected, 16% (284) were

found infected with cercariae. A high infectivity

was observed in the dry zone where 77.4% of

the snails were infected followed by the 33.9%

in the intermediate zone. Cercariae infection was

very low in the snails collected from the wet

zone (10.1%). High prevalence of infection in

the dry zone could be due to slow flowing, low

levels of water in the streams and high

contamination by the faecal matter of livestock,

birds and wild animals. On the other hand, fast-

flowing high water levels in wet zone streams

flushes off of the faecal matter reducing the

chances of snails getting the infection. It is also

likely that since snail abundance is low in the

dry zone, miracidia enter all the snails available

in the habitat. Skirnisson et al. (2004) analyzed

the influence of several abiotic and biotic

variables on the distribution of digenetic

trematode infections in mudsnail, Hydrobia

ventrosa, populations inhabiting 12 ponds on the

Melabakkar salt marsh in Iceland and found that

factors which determine the attractiveness of the

ponds to the final hosts and their habitat use and

defaecating habits are the main determinants of

the trematode distribution in the area. For

trematode infected snails, spatial variation in

infection can easily arise as a consequence of the

distribution of second intermediate and final

hosts and/or habitat characteristics which affect

the risk of infection (Curtis and Hurd, 1983;

Fernandez and Esch, 1991; Sousa, 1994).

Diversity of digenean fauna is dependent on

conditions that are conducive for transmission

such as the presence of final and intermediate

host (Gardner and Campbell, 1992). Even

though, prevalence of infection was high in the

dry zone, the diversity of infection was low

compared to the intermediate and wet zones.

This might be due to the absence of adult

parasites due to the absence of the definitive host

in the dry zone. However, it is unlikely that low

diversity in the snail fauna in the dry zone

contributes to low cercariae diversity as the same

snail species (Thiara spp.) harboured seven

different types of cercariae in the intermediate

and wet zones. Studies have showed a consistent

relationship between the density and

heterogeneity of the snail populations with the

trematode density and heterogeneity (Hechinger

and Lafferty, 2005). The results of the present

study are consistent with the heterogeneity of

trematodes but not with the density of

trematodes. Higher number of snail species did

not support a higher density of trematodes.

However, as a consequence of the direct

interference of trematodes on snail egg

production and their mortality rates, trematode

prevalence is not directly related to the snail

population density (Lafferty, 1993). Considering

trematode induced castration in snails,

trematodes might have strong influence on the

snail populations. Granovitch et al. (2000)

reported Microphallus piriformes infection

causing more than half of the periwinkle

population, devoid of reproduction. Similarly,

snail populations in the dry zone might have a

castration effect of the existing trematode

infections in the area resulting very low

population density.

Of the five snail species, Thiara spp were by

far the most heavily infected snail host. It also

showed a high diversity, supporting cercariae of

Gigantobilharzia sp., Pseudobilharziella sp.,

gymnocephalous, echinostomous, gymnophallus,

xiphidiocercous and macrocercous cercariae.

Thiara spp. were the only snail species found in

the dry zone and were widely distributed where

as in the wet zone, Paludomus sphearica had a

wide distribution (71.0%) which was infected

with four types of cercariae. Of the two Thiara

spp., T. scabra was more common in both

intermediate (63.9%) and dry (75.4%) zones.

Thiara tuberculata and T. scabra collected in the

intermediate zone each harboured five types of

cercariae while the two species collected from

wet zone, each harboured four types of cercariae.

The two snail species collected from the dry

zone were infected only with two types of

cercariae. This shows that the distribution of

cercariae types depends on the presence of the

definitive host and therefore the adult parasites

but not on the presence of snail intermediate

host.

Faizal (2000) has reported nine types of

cercariae collected from a site in Kalametiya

Oya, in Matale district. However, during this

study we were unable to sample snails from

Kalametiya Oya due to heavy sedimentation in

the stream as a result of ongoing construction

activities around the area. Sedimentation can

interfere the trematode life cycle by preventing

miracidia from finding the host, reducing egg

supply and the survival of host snail (Faloon et

al., 1996). Environmental changes following

Cercariae in snails in three climatic zones in Sri Lanka 107

irrigation development are likely to modify the

pattern of distribution of snails and trematodes.

Consequently, the cercariae shed by snails can

be used to assess the environment impact

(Lafferty, 1997) as well.

The development of all the true monostomes

is not completed in the redia stage but, in the

tissues of the snail host, out of which they

penetrate under suitable temperature and

pressure (Wesenburg-Lund, 1931). Hence, they

are highly specific in search of their snail host.

Furthermore, providing enough sunlight to

induce cercarial shedding is an important step to

stress the snail. oculopleurolophocercous

(Order- Opisthorchiiformes, family-

Heterophyidae) are parasites in the intestines of

fish and reptiles (Brooks et al., 1985).

Gigantobilharzia and Pseudobilharziella spp.

(Order-Strigeiformes, super family-

Schistosomatoidea, family- Schistosomatidae)

are blood parasites of birds and mammals.

Gymnophallus cercariae (Order-Strigeiformes,

super family- Gymnophalloidea, family-

Gymnophallidae) are small species of

trematodes found in the gall bladder, intestine

and bursa fabricii of birds (Wesenburg-Lund,

1931). Digenetic trematodes belonging to family

Psilostomidae (Order- Echinostomatiformes,

super family- Psilostomoidea) infect kidneys,

and intestines of mammals, birds and snakes

(Brooks et al., 1985).

Iwagami et al. (2009) reported that

Paragonimus westermani utilizes Paludomus sp.

as the molluscan intermediate host in the wet

zone of Sri Lanka. Gymnophallus reported in

this study closely resembled the cercariae of

Paragonimus even though it is larger (338 µm)

than the cercariae of Paragonimus (174.5 µm).

Xiphidiocercariae reported in this study closely

resembled the Cercariae vesiculosa, described

by Wesenburg-Lund (1931). However, the

xiphidiocercariae found in the present study can

be placed in the Family Lecithodendriidae

(Order Plagiorchiiformes, Suborder

Plagiorchiata, Superfamily Lecithodendroidea)

which are parasites of insects, amphibians,

lizards, snakes, birds and mammals (Brooks et

al., 1985). However, confirmation to the species

level requires DNA studies.

This study provides preliminary information

about the distribution and prevalence of

trematode species based on identification of

larva. Although identification of cercariae to

species level using fine characteristics like,

nervous system elements, sensory apparatus,

body papillae such cheatotaxy is possible

(Husanov and Yadev, 2005) it is very laborious

and subjective. Therefore DNA analysis is a

better reliable method.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors thank Pradeep Samarawickrama, Varuni

Imbuldeniya, Samartha Harischandra, Wasana

Hemachandra and Nayana Wijetilake for

technical assistance. Financial assistance by the

National Science Foundation, Sri Lanka (Grant

No. RG/2005/EB/02) is acknowledged.

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