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HELAINE  SELIN  (Ed.)

Encyclopaedia of the History of 

Science, Technology, and Medicinein Non-Western Cultures

Volume 1A –K

With 1374 Figures and 107 Tables

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Editor:

Helaine Selin

Hampshire College

893 West Street 

Amherst, MA 01002

USA

hselin@hampshire.edu

A C.I.P. Catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-1-4020-4559-2

This publication is available also as:

Electronic publication under ISBN 978-1-4020-4425-0 and

Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4020-4960-6

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of 

translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in data banks.

Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is only permitted under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its

current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German

Copyright Law.

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 2008

The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are

exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Product liability: The publishers cannot guarantee the accuracy of any information about the application of operative techniques and

medications contained in this book. In every individual case the user must check such information by consulting the relevant literature.

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media

springer.com

Printed on acid-free paper SPIN: 11609919 2109— 5 4 3 2 1 0

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Editor-in-Chief 

HELAINE   SE LIN

Hampshire College893 West Street Amherst, MA 01002USA

Editorial Board

LI U   DUN

Professor and Director of the Institute for the History of  Natural Science, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeing, China

JOH N   SERVOS

Professor, Amherst College, Amherst Massachusett, USAand Past President of theHistory of Science Society

R ODDAM   NARASIMHA

Chairman, Engineering Mechanics Unit Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific ResearchBangaloreIndiaFormer Director, National Institute of Advanced StudiesIndian Institute of Science

 Advisory Board

CAI   JINGF E NG

China Institute for History of Medicine andMedical LiteratureBeijingChina

 Medicine

CHRISTOPHER  CULLE N

 Needham Research Institute, Cambridge, UK China

GR E G G D E   YOUNG

Mathematics Department The American University in Cairo, Egypt 

 Egypt 

JEN S   HØYRUP

Section for Philosophy and Science StudiesRoskilde University, Rostilde, Denmark 

 Mathematics

ARN E   K ALLAND

Department of Social Anthropology, University of OsloOslo

 Norway Nature and the Environment 

E.C. K RUPP

Griffith ObservatoryLos Angeles, CaliforniaUSA

 Astronomy

CLUNY   MACPHERSON

Department of Sociology, University of Auckland, NewZealand

 Pacific

R UBE N   MENDOZA

Institute for Archaeological Science, Technology andVisualization, California State UniversityMonterey Bay, CaliforniaUSA

 Americas

SIMON   POTTER 

 East Asia, Japan

C.K. R AJ U

Centre for Computer Science, MCRP UniversityBhopalIndia

 India

R OBERT   M. R AKOFF

School of Social Sciences Massachusetts, Hampshire CollegeAmherst USA

 Environment 

DAVID   TURNBULL

Arts Faculty, Deakin University; History and Philosophy

of Science, University of Melbourne; Centre for AustralianIndigenous Studies, Monash University; SociologyLancaster University, AustraliaSocial Studies of Science

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Personal Note From The Editor 

Many years ago I taught African history at a secondary school in Central Africa. A few years before, some of the

teachers in the country had designed a syllabus that included pre-European history, since the curriculum, left over 

from colonial days, did not include any mention of Africa before the Portuguese. After a year of teaching from this

revised version, I asked my students what they thought was the most significant moment in African history, and

virtually all of them said it was the arrival of David Livingstone.

It may well be that that was the most important moment for Africa, but it shocked me at the time that no one

considered any African achievements worth mentioning. Over these years I have come to see that the dominance of 

the West means not only that Westerners disparage the rest of the world but also that the rest of the world sees itself 

as inferior to the West. This book is meant to take one step towards rectifying that, by describing the scientific

achievements of those who have been overlooked or undervalued by scholars in both the West and the East.

The book is more than just a compilation of disparate articles; it is a glimpse into how people describe and

 perceive and order the world. I hope the reader will do some exploring. In addition to reading about Maya

astronomy, one can read about Mesoamerican mathematics and medicine, as well as a general article on magic and

science, because all the fields are interrelated and entwined. It might be useful to read about astronomy in Africa

and in Australia, to see how similar and different these cultures are. One can travel across disciplines, following theachievements of one culture, and across cultures, comparing the same discipline. And then it would be useful to

read an essay on Transmission of Knowledge, or Rationality and Method, to put the articles and their contents in a

 broader philosophical and social context.

My hope, and that of the advisors and contributors to the project, is that the  Encyclopaedia  will expand the

horizons of scholars, teachers, and students by illustrating how extensive the accomplishments of non-Western

scientists are. May our future students never believe that science is limited to a fraction of the world.

—·—·—

A note about the authors’ names, especially Asian ones: I made many embarrassing errors confusing peoples’

surnames and given names, but I was reluctant to change authors ’ names to conform to the Western style, as it went 

against the spirit of the  Encyclopaedia. Therefore, I have left the names as the authors wrote them.

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S ha fe r, H ar ry J . a nd A . J . Ta yl or. M im br es M og ol lo nA rc hi te ct ur al D yn a mi cs a nd C er am ic S ty le C h an ge .

 Journal of Field Archaeology   1 3 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : 4 3–68.T ur n bo w, C h ri s to p he r. S a vi n g t h e M i mb r es .   Archaeology

Southwest   1 5 . 3 ( 2 0 0 1 ) : 2–4.

Ceramics in Africa

O L I V I E R     P. G O S S E L A I N

P o t t e r y m a k i n g i s a v e r y a n c i e n t c r a f t i n A f r i c a , a s s o m eo f t h e o l d e s t p o t t e r y r e m a i n s k n o w n i n t h e w o r l d w e r ed i sc o ve r ed o n t h is c on t in e nt . D a ti n g f r om a ro u nd 1 0, 00 0BCE   –   i . e . , o n e o r t w o m i l l e n n i a a f t e r t h e i n c e p t i o n o f                    t h e J om o n p o tt er y i n J ap an   –   t h ey w e re e xc a va te d i nt h e A ï r R e g i o n o f N i g e r ( W e s t A f r i c a ) ( H a o u r 2 0 0 3 ) .

D e s p i t e i t s a g e , t h e c r a f t i s s t i l l a l i v e i n m a n y p a r t s o f                    t he c on ti ne nt . I t h as o f c ou rse w it ne ss ed a l ot o f                    c h a n g e s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s , i n r e g a r d t o t h e f o r m s ,f u n ct i o ns a n d d e co r at i o ns o f t h e p r o d u ct s , b u t a l so i nt e r m s o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s , s c a l e o f p r o d u c t i o no r t h e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f t h e p o t t e r s . T h e l a s t d e c a d e s h a v e

 been particularly significant, due to the massivei nt r od uc ti on o f p la st i c a nd m et al c on ta in er s, s oc ia la n d e c on o mi c u p he a va l s, t h e d e ve l op m en t o f t o u ri s ma nd u rb an l i fe st yl e, a nd t he g eo gr a ph ic e xt en si on o f                    i n d i v i d u a l m o v e m e n t s . I n m o s t p l a c e s , a n c i e n t p o t t e r yf u n c t i o n s s u c h a s c o o k i n g , h a n d l i n g , a n d s e r v i n g h a v e

 been abandoned, while new categories of products sucha s o r na m en t al o r c o m me m or a t iv e v a se s a n d b i b el o ts ,f lo we r p ot s, t il es , b ra zi er s o r i nc en se b ur ne rs a re

 booming. Water jars, however, continue to be massive-l y p ro d uc ed a s t he y p ro vi d e t he c he ap er , o r e ve n t h eo n l y w a y t o k e e p c o o l w a t e r i n r u r a l a r e a s .

 Social Background

A c om par is on o f s ev er al h un dr ed e th no gr ap hi csources1 i n d i c a t e s t h a t a t l a s t f o u r - f i f t h s o f t h e A f r i c a n

 potters working today are women, confirming the usuald es cr ip ti on o f p ot te ry m ak in g i n A fr ic a a s a f em al ea ct iv it y. M al e p ot te rs a re a ls o a t w or k i n v ar io usr e g i o n s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t , w h e r e t h e y e i t h e r s p e c i a l i z e i nt h e m ak i ng o f p ar t ic ul ar v es se ls ( bi g w at er j ar s, e l it ew ar e, a nd b ot tl es ) w hi le w om en m ak e t he b ul k o f                    

t h e p ro du ct i on , p ro du ce t he w ho l e r a ng e o f v es se lsi n c o n t e x t s w h e r e w o m e n a r e e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e c r a f t ,o r w or k t og et he r w it h f em al e r el at iv es , c ar r yi ng o ut  s pe ci fi c o pe ra ti on s su ch a s c la y e xt ra ct io n an dt r a n s p o r t , c l a y p r e p a r a t i o n , f i r i n g a n d , a b o v e a l l , p l a s t i cd e c o r a t i o n ( S c h i l d k r o u t a n d K e i m   1990).

T h e s c al e o f p r od u ct i o n i s h i gh l y v a ri a bl e , r a n gi n gf r o m p a rt - t im e , i s ol a te d a r t is a ns , w h os e p r o du c ts a r ee s se n t ia l ly c o ns u me d l o ca l ly, t o f u l l- t i me s p ec i al i st sw o r ki n g i n w o rk s ho p s, w h o se v e ss e ls a r e d i st r i bu t ed

 by middlemen in a 100–2 00 k m r ad iu s. I f m en t en dt o b e p ro po rt io na ll y m or e f re qu en t i n t he l at te r    

c a te g or y, f e ma l e p o t te r s a r e a l so a s so c i at e d w i th m a ss production, especially in West Africa.

I n m an y i ns ta nc es, p ot te ry m ak in g i s o pe n t oa n y o n e . A l l o n e h a s t o f i n d i s s o m e o n e w h o i s w i l l i n gt o s e r v e a s a t e a c h e r . T h i s m e a n s , i n p r a c t i c e , h a v i n g ac lo se r el at iv e, f ri en d o r n ei gh bo r w ho e ng ag es i n

 pottery making and does not mind spending time withs o m e o ne w h o m a y s u b se q u en t l y b e c om e a c o m pe t i to r.B ut r es tr ic ti on s a re a ls o o bs er ve d t hr ou gh ou t t hec o nt in e nt , w h ic h p e rt a in t o a ge , g en d er , g eo g ra ph ic a lo r i gi n a n d , a b o ve a l l, s o c io - p ro f e ss i o na l a f f il i a ti o n . F o r    e x a m p l e , i n m a n y S a h e l i a n s o c i e t i e s , p o t t e r s b e l o n g t o

c as te -l ik e s ub gr ou ps s uc h a s b la ck sm it hs , b ar ds ,t a nn e r s, w e av e r s, w o od c ar v er s , h u nt e rs , o r j e we l er s( D a S i l v a G a s p a r e t a l .   2005; D r o s t     1968 ; F r a n k   1998;G al l ay e t a l . 1 99 7; G os se la in   2001 ; H aa l an d   1978;S t er ne r a nd D av id   1991,   2003; Ta ma ri 1 99 7) . T hem e mb er s o f t he se e nd og am o us s pe ci al is t g ro up s a rea ss oc ia te d w it h s pe ci fi c a ct iv it ie s a nd d ut ie s, a ndd i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e r e m a i n i n g p o p u l a t i o n . T h e y a r er egarded with a mix of awe and co ntempt byn o n sp e ci a li s ts , w h o o f t en c o ns i de r t h em   “dirty”   and“impure”, a nd f ea r b ei ng h ar me d b y t he ir      “ power.”

D u e t o r e ce n t e c on o mi c c h an g es , h o we v er , c a st e -l i k e

s tr uc tu re s m ay b ec om e p er me ab le t o o th er s oc ia lg r o up s i n s p ec i f ic p l ac e s.

Manufacturing Process

T h e r e a r e s e v e n m a i n s t a g e s o f t h e p o t t e r y m a n u f a c t u r -i ng p ro ce ss ( 1) c la y e xt ra ct io n, ( 2) c la y p ro ce ss in g,( 3 ) s ha pi n g, ( 4 ) d e co ra t io n, ( 5 ) d r yi n g, ( 6 ) f i ri ng , a n d( 7) p os tf ir in g. W hi le m os t o f t he se s ta ge s a re m an -datory, some   –   s u c h a s d e c or a t io n a n d p o s tf i r in g   –   areo p t i o n a l , a l t h o u g h w i d e l y r e c o r d e d a c r o s s t h e c o n t i n e n t  ( p r ev i o us s u r ve y s o f p o t te r y c h a in e s o p é ra t o ir e s i n A f r ic a

i n c lu d e D e v is s e   1984; D ro st     1967; G os se la i n   2002;Krause   1997; L i v i n g s t o n e S m i t h 1 9 9 9 ,   2001b).

1 I nf or ma ti on e xa mi ne d i n t hi s a rt ic le c om es f ro m t wo bodies of data. Since 1990, members of the   Ceramic &Society Project   d e v e l o p e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r u s s e l s , a n di t s r e s e a r c h a s s o c i a t e s h a v e c o n d u c t e d f i e l d w o r k i n S e n e g a l ,G a mb i a, M a li , N i ge r, B u rk i na F a so , To g o, B e ni n , N i ge r i a,C a me r oo n , C h a d, a n d D . R. C o ng o , c o l le c ti n g i n fo r ma t io na b o u t s o m e 1 , 0 0 0 p o t t e r s i n n e a r l y 1 0 0 l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h es e c o n d b o d y o f d a t a c o m e s f r o m a s y s t e m a t i c p e r u s a l o f t h ee t hn o gr a ph i c a n d e t h no a r ch a eo l og i ca l l i te r at u re d e vo t ed t o

 pottery making in s ub-Saharan Africa. Thes e s ources are of          v ar yi ng r el ev a nc e a nd a c cu ra cy a s t he y r a ng e f ro m l ar ge -s c a l e a n d d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s t o m o r e l o c a l / r e g i o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s ,o r m e nt i on s i n e t hn o gr a ph i c m o no g ra p h s, a d mi n is t ra t i ver e p o r t s , a n d r e l i g i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s . A l t o g e t h e r , m o r e t h a n 7 0 0s ou rc es h av e b ee n p ro ce ss ed , w hi ch r el at e t o s om e 5 50l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s .

3 2 C er am ic s i n A fr ic a

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Clay Extraction

A v a i l a b l e d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t m o s t A f r i c a n p o t t e r s c o l l e c t  t he ir c la y w it hi n a 3 - km r ad i us f r om t h e p l a ce w he r et h e y l i v e a n d / o r p r a c t i c e t h e c r a f t ( s e e G o s s e l a i n   2002 :40–4 1 ) . T h o s e w h o e x p l o i t s o u r c e s b e y o n d t h i s t h r e s -h ol d g en er al l y u se a ni ma ls , c ar s, t ru ck s, o r p ir o gu es

( c a n o e s ) t o c a r r y t h e c l a y . A l s o , t h e y o f t e n m a k e s t o c k st ha t l as t f ro m se ve ra l w ee ks t o t he w ho le p ot ti ngseason.

F ou r c at eg or i es o f e xt r ac ti ng t ec hn iq ue s a r e o b-s er v ed i n A fr i ca : s ur f ac e c ol l ec ti on , p i t e xt r ac ti on ,u n d e rg r o u n d g a l l e r y, a n d u n d e r wa t e r e x t r a ct i o n .

I n s ur f ac e c ol l ec t io n, t he r a w m at er i al i s e xt ra ct edo n, o r j us t b el ow t he s ur fa ce , e it he r o n t he g ro un d( pl ai n , f i el ds , d r ie d p on ds , o r r iv er b ed s) , a h il l, o r t h ew al l o f a s lo pe o r a n e mb an km en t. A ft er h av in ge l i m i n a t e d t h e s u p e r f i c i a l o r g a n i c a n d m i n e r a l l a y e r , t h e

 potter extracts clay without really digging under-

g r ou n d. T h e o p e r a ti o n m a y b e d e sc r i be d a s   “ peeling”

a c l a y b e d .P it e xt ra ct io n c on si st s o f d ig gi ng t he g ro un d

v er ti ca ll y o r d i ag o na ll y u nt il a n a pp r op ri at e l ay er i sr e a c h e d . M o s t p i t s a r e s o m e 1 o r 2 m d e e p , a n d 2 o r 3 mi n d ia me te r. B ut t he y m ay b e a s l arg e a s q ua rr ie s,r ea ch in g s om e 1 5 m d ee p a s i n s ou t he as te r n N ig er i a(Nicklin   1979 : 3 49 ). Va ri at io ns a re o bs er ve d i n t hew a y p o t te r s e x pl o i t a n d m a na g e t h es e s t ru c tu r es . F o r    instance, some use t hem unti l the clay layer isc om pl et el y e xh au st ed , w hi le o th er s a ba nd o n t he p it  u n t i l a s p e c i f i c d e p t h i s r e a c h e d , o r a s s o o n a s i t s h o w s

r i s k s o f c o l l a p s i n g .R a w m a t e r i a l s m a y a l s o b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m g a l l e r i e s .

Th is t yp e o f s tr uc tu re g en er al ly st ar ts w it h t hee xc av at i on o f a v er t ic al s ha ft . W he n t he a cc es s s ha f t  reaches th e clay bed, t he structur e is ex tendedh o r i z o n t a l l y ( L i v i n g s t o n e S m i t h   2001b; N w a f o r 1 9 8 0 ;Schneider     1993) . G al le ri es , l ik e p it s, a re g en er al lya b a n d o n e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e p o t t i n g s e a s o n , b u t s o m em a y b e u s e d s e v e r a l y e a r s i n a r o w . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e ,o n l y t h e a c c e s s s h a f t i s r e - e x c a v a t e d e a c h y e a r .

F i n a l l y , t h e r a t h e r u n c o m m o n t e c h n i q u e o f u n d e r w a -t er e xt ra ct io n h as b ee n o bs er ve d a mo ng t he Ti ka r    

o f C am er oo n a nd P un u o f G ab on ( Go ss el ai n   2002 :52–5 3 ) . H e r e , a r t i s a n s b u i l d t w o s m a l l d a m s i n a r i v e r ,

 bale out the water and dig the clay before the upstreamd a m g i v e s w a y .

U s ua l ly, i t i s w h i le p e rf o r mi n g o t he r a c ti v it i e s, a n de s p e c i a l l y a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h f o r c e t h e m t o d i g t h e g r o u n d( e. g. , t en di ng f i el ds , b ui l di ng h ou se s, a nd d ig gi n gw el ls ) o r t o f req uen t p lac es su ch a s r iv er be ds o r    s w a m p s , t h a t p o t t e r s , m e m b e r s o f t h e i r f a m i l y , o r a n y o f                    t h e i r a c q u a i n t a n ce s m a y   “discover  ”   a n e w s o u r c e a n dg et t he p ro ce ss l ea di ng t o i ts p os si bl e e xp lo it at io nu n d e r w a y .

A f ir st r eq ui re me nt i s t ha t t he c la y m us t h av e t he“right ”   ph y si c al p r o pe r ti e s; i . e. , p l as t ic i ty, t e xt u r e,

c o l o r , a n d e v e n i t s t a s t e a n d o d o r f i t w i t h t h e p e r s o n a lr eq ui r em en ts o f t he p ot te r ( se e a ls o B ar bo ur      1989;Brown   1989; F ra nk   1998; T ro w el l   1941: 6 1; Wo od s1984: 3 0 5 ) . I f n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d c l a y i s j u d g e d s u i t a b l e ,a s e c o n d r e q u i r e m e n t i s t h a t i t m u s t b e l o c a t e d n e a r b yt h e p o tt e r    ’s m ai n o cc up at io n al a re as a nd /o r w or ki n g

 place. Since pottery making is usually subordinatedt o o th er a ct iv it ie s, s uc h a s f ar mi ng a nd d om es ti ct as ks , p ot t er s t en d t o r es tr i ct t he ir i nv es tm en t i n t im ea nd e ne rg y o r, a t l ea st , t o a vo id s ch ed ul i ng c on fl i ct s

 between their different activities. Sources locatedn e a r b y l i v i n g o r w o r k i n g s i t e s , f i e l d s , r i v e r s f r e q u e n t e df o r f i sh i ng , r o a ds , o r t r a ck s , a r e t h er e f or e m o r e l i k e l yt ha n o th er s t o b e s el ec te d a nd s ub je ct ed t o l on g- t er me xp lo it at io n. I n f ac t, a bo ut 9 0% o f t he h un dr ed s o f                    s ou rc es t ha t w e v is it ed i n s ub - Sa ha ra n A fr i ca w er es i t u a t e d n e a r b y o r w i t h i n s i t e s u s e d p r i m a r i l y f o r o t h e r    a ct iv it i es . S u ch a s it ua ti on h as a n o b vi ou s i m pa ct o n

c l a y e x p l o i t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , i t s h o w st h a t c l a y e x t r a c t i o n s i t e s a r e n o t d i s t r i b u t e d r a n d o m l y o r    a c c o r d i n g t o a s p e c i f i c l o g i c , b u t a r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f                    t he o ve r al l t er r it or y f r eq u en te d b y b ot h p ot te r s a ndnonpotters.

F i n a l l y , t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n o f c l a y s o u r c e sa re a ls o s ur r ou nd ed b y a s er ie s o f r it ua l s a nd t ab oo s(Barley   1994; Be rn s   1993; D ro st     1964; G os se l ai n1999; H er be rt 1 99 3; P in ço n   1993 ) . F or i ns ta nc e,c e rt a in p e rs o ns a r e s y st e ma t ic a ll y k e pt a s id e f r o m t h ee x t r a c t i o n s i t e o r t h e p l a c e s w e r e t h e p o t t e r s s t o r e a n dm an ip ul at e t he c la y: m en i f t he c ra ft i s p ra ct ic ed b y

w o me n , w o me n i n o t he r c o nt e xt s , u n in i t ia t ed p e op l e,m e mb e r s o f o t he r s o ci a l g r o up s t h an t h e p o tt e r s, l i tt l eg i r ls o r b o ys , p r e gn a nt w o m en , m e ns t ru a ti n g w o me n ,t wi ns , w ar r io rs , e tc . L ik ew is e, a rt i sa ns m u st a vo i dd o i n g p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g s o n t h e e v e o f e x t r a c t i o n , d u r i n gt h e t r i p t o g a t h e r c l a y o r a t t h e s i t e : e . g . , h a v i n g s e x u a li nt er c ou rs e, t al ki ng , s in gi ng , s we ar i ng , u ri n at i ng ,m a ni p ul a t in g c e rt a in o b je c ts , e a ti n g p a r ti c ul a r f o od ,e t c . R i t u a l s a n d s a c r i f i c e s ( i . e . , f o o d o f f e r i n g ) m a y a l s o

 be performed at the extraction site, a practice stillw i d e l y r e c o r d e d i n M u s l i m s o c i e t i e s .

Clay Processing A s i n m os t p la ce s a ro un d t he w o rl d, A fr i ca n p ot t er sn e v e r u s e t h e c l a y i n i t s r a w s t a t e b u t p r e p a r e i t i n o n ew a y o r a n o t h e r . W h i l e p r o c e s s i n g p r a c t i c e s a r e u s u a l l yv e r y s i m p l e , t h e y m a y a l s o i n v o l v e c o m p l e x c o m b i n a -t io ns o f t ec hn iq ue s. T he se m ay b e g r ou pe d i nt o f ou r    m a i n c a t e g o r i e s : p r e t r e a t m e n t s , r e m o v a l o f n o n p l a s t i c s ,a d d i t i o n o f n o n p l a s t i c s , a n d h o m o g e n i z a t i o n .

P re tr ea tm en ts u su al ly i nv ol ve l ea vi ng t he r awm at er ia ls t o d ry, s oa k o r s ou r f or s om e h ou rs , s om ed ay s, s om e w ee ks , o r e ve n s om e m on th s. S oa ki n g i su s u a l l y d o n e i n a p i t , a n o l d j a r o r a p l a s t i c c o n t a i n e r ,

a n d u s e d w h e n c l a y i s e x t r a c t e d i n a d r y s t a t e . I t s a i m i st o a ll ow t he m at er i al t o r eg ai n i ts p la st ic it y. I f c la y i s

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a lr ea dy w et , t he a im m ay b e t o gi v e i t a b et te r    w o r k a bi l i t y t h r o u g h i n cr e a s i ng t h e a m o u n t a n d d i s t r i-

 bution of water between particles and pores. A longs o a k i ng t i m e m ay a l s o h el p i n i n cr e a s i ng p l a s t ic i t yt h r o u g h p H a l t e r at i o n a n d th e su b s e qu e n t f l o c c ul a t i o no f c l a y p ar t i c l e s, b u t s u c h so u r i n g pr o c e s s s e e m s q u i t e

rare among African potters.W h e n t he c l a y i s a p pr o p r i a te l y d r i ed o r s o a k e d,a s e ri e s of t e ch n iq u es m a y be u s ed t o r e mo v eu n de s ir a bl e no n pl a st i cs . T h e m o st c o m mo n w a y i shand sorting, as potters always remove coarse impu-r i ti es su ch as pe bb l es , r o ot s, o r l ea ve s a t s om e po in t  d u r in g th e pr o ce s s. B u t t h er e ar e se v er a l o t he r w a ys o f                    c o n t r o ll i n g c l a y c o m p o s i ti o n a n d t e x t u r e . F o r e x a m p le ,

 potters may pound the clay with a stone or a woodenh am me r o n a st on e, o r t he y ma y si mp ly p ou nd i t i n aw o o d e n m o r t a r, g r i n d i t w i t h l o w e r a n d u p p e r g r i n d i ngs t o n e s, o r g r i n d i t o n a r o c k . F i n a l l y, n o n p l as t i c s m a y b e

removed by sieving with baskets, pierced calabashes,o r i m po rt ed n y lo n m es he s. P o tt er s m ay a l so r e mo v et h e c o ar s er f r a ct i on of n o n pl a st i c s b y s h ak i ng th ec r u s h ed r a w m a t e r i al s i n a c al a b a s h o r b y w in n o w i ngi t w it h a wi nn ow in g b as ke t o r a ca la ba sh . A l as t  t e c h n iq u e , l e v i g at i o n , i s q u i t e r a r e i n A f r i c a . H er e , t h em a te r i al i s m ix e d wi t h wa t er u n ti l i t r e ac h es a c o ll o id a ls t at e , t he l a r ge r p a rt i cl e s a re r e t r ie v ed a t t h e b ot t om o f                    t h e c o n t ai n e r, a n d t h e w a t er i s a l l o w ed t o e v a p o r at e(David 1983 ; G a l l a y a n d S a uv a i n - Du g e r d i l 1981 ).

G e n e r al l y ca l l e d t e m p e r in g , t h e a d d i t i on o f p l a s t ic o r    n o n p l as t i c e l e me n t s t o t he c l a y m a y be d o n e w i th a

g re at v ar ie ty o f m at er ia ls : a no th er c la y ( or s ev er alc l a y s ) , d u s t , o r g a n i c r i c h e a r t h ( s o i l ) , m u d , t e r m i t e h e a p

c la y, s an d, g ra ve l, r o ck s ( ca lc ar eo u s r o ck s, g ne is s,s ch is t, a nd a sb es to s) , i ro n s to ne , g ro g ( cr us he d,g r ou nd ed , a n d/ or s ie ve d p ot sh er ds ; Fig. 1  –  by far  t h e m os t c om m on m a te ri al ) , f i re d e ar t h, a sh , s tr aw,c e r ea l h u sk s , g r a ss , s t em s , b a r k , d u ng ( h o rs e , c o w, g o at ,o r d o nk e y) , s h el l s, c a lc a re o us s o lu t io n ( g r ou n de d a n d

s ie ve d c al ca re ou s r o ck m ix ed w it h a l ar g e a mo un t o f                    w at er ; S al l 2001) , o r b a r k d e c o c ti o n .T he l as t p ro ce ss in g s te p g en er al ly c on si st s i n a

t h o ro u gh h o mo g en i za t i on o f t h e p a st e . T h is o p er a ti o ni s m a n d a t o r y i n c l a y p r o c e s s i n g a n d h a s a d e t e r m i n a n t  i m p a c t o n c l a y w o r k a b i l i t y . I t m a y b e d o n e i n d i f f e r e n t  w a y s : k n e a d i n g w i t h t h e h a n d s , t r a m p l i n g w i t h t h e f o o t ,o r p ou nd i ng w i th v ar i ou s k in ds o f t o ol s a nd s up po r ts( th e m os t c ur re nt o f w hi ch a re m or ta rs a nd p es tl es ,l o w er a n d u p p e r g r i nd i ng s t on e s, a n d h a n d l es o f d i ve r sef a r m i n g t o o l s ) . I f o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a -t i o n s o f t h e s e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s o f t r e a t m e n t s , a s w e l l a s

t h e d i v e r s i t y o f b e h a v i o r s , p o s t u r e s , a n d t o o l s , t h e r e a r e probably hundreds of ways of preparing the clay.

P o t t e r s u s u a l l y e x p l a i n t h a t t h e y a c t t h e w a y t h e y d o because of             “tradition”   ( i. e. , t he w ay t he y h av e b ee nt au gh t) , b ut a ls o b ec au se v es se ls m ad e w it h a c la y

 prepared differently would not survive the drying or  f i r in g s t ag e s, o r w o u ld b r ea k d u r in g u t il i za t i on . S u chc on ce pt i on s e xp la in w hy s om e p ot te r s u se d if fe re nt  

 processing techniques according to the intendedf un ct io n o f v es se ls , o r a cc or di ng t o v es se l p ar ts .A m o ng t h e K o ma - Gi m b e o f C a me r o on , f o r e x am p le ,

 potters simply pound the clay when making small

v e s s e l s , b u t a d d s a n d w h e n m a k i n g l a r g e b e e r b r e w i n g       jars. They explain that jars would crack when drying if          

Ceramics in Africa. Fig. 1   P o u n di n g s h e r d s i n w o o d e n m o r t a r s f o r m a k i n g g r o g . N o t e t h a t t o o l s a n d p o s t u r e s a r e i d e n t ic a l t ot h o s e u s e d i n t h e r e a l m o f f o o d p r e p a r a t i o n ( p h o t o b y O l i v i e r G o s s e l a i n ) .

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t h e y d i d n ot d o s o ( L i vi n g s t on e S m i t h 2001b). Otherse x a m p le s o f t h e u se o f d i f f e re n t p r o c e ss i n g r ec i p e s h a v e

 been collected elsewhere in Africa (Gallay andSauvain-Dugerdil 1981 ; H er bi ch a nd D ie tl er    1991;

  Nicholson 1929 ; Tobert   1984; Tr ow el l 1941). Most  commonly, however, potters use the same preparation

t e c h n iq u e , w h a t ev e r t h e i n t e n de d f u n c t i o n o f t h e v e s s el .A n o th e r f a ct o r t h at e x pl a in s t h e l o c al u s e o f p a rt i cu l a r     processing techniques is the existence of ties tot e c h n iq u e s u se d i n o t he r r e a l m s o f a c t i v it y, s u c h a s f o o d

 processing and agricultural practices. For instance,staple foods and clay may be prepared with the sametools and gestures, and according to the same recipes. Int h e Ba r i ba v i ll a ge o f To u ro u ( Be n in ) , fo r e x am p l e,

 potters pound the clay in a wooden mortar and separatethe fine and coarse fraction by shaking the material in acalabash. Then, they pound the coarse fraction a secondt i m e, a nd l et i t s o ak i n a j ar p l ac e d i n th e su n . W h en

t h e l iq u id i s s u ff i c ie n tl y t h i ck , i t i s s i ev e d t hr o u gh a pierced tin can and mixed with the fine fraction of          t h e r aw m a t e r i al . P o t te r s ex p l a i n t h a t t h i s mi x t u r e a c t sas “ cement ” a n d t h a t t h e b e s t m i l l e t p o r r i d ge is ob t a i n edi n a s i m i l a r w a y. S i m i l a rl y, t h e c l a y d e sa l i n i z at i o ntechnique observed among certain Jola Kasa potters of                   C a s a m an c e e c h o e s, t h e p r a c t ic e s f o r a g r i c ul t u r a l l a n d

 preparation in mangrove swamp zones (Sall 2001).S y m b o l i c o r r e l i g i ou s c o n c e rn s m a y a l s o i n f l u en c e

c l ay - p ro c es s in g s t r at e g ie s . F o r e x am p l e, s o m e Bo k o potters of Benin take great care in extracting all rootletsf r o m t h e r a w m a t e r ia l . T h i s is b e c a us e r o o t l et s a r e u s ed

t o p r e p ar e a m ed i c a t io n t h a t p r e v e nt s p o t te r s f r o m“ swelling” w h en f a sh i on i n g v e ss e ls . S o m e We s t  A f r i c a n p o t t e rs o f t en r e c yc l e ar c h a e ol o g i c al s h e r d si n t o g r og , a s t h ey c o ns i de r t h is m a te r ia l t o p os s es s

 particular qualities because “ a nc es to rs k ne w h ow t om ak e st ro ng er p ot s,” or because “ what has lainu n d e r gr o u n d i s s t ro n g e r t h a n w h a t l i e s on t h e g r o u n d”

( Da Silva Gaspar et al. 2005; L iv i ng st o ne S m it h2001b) . An o t he r e x am p l e c o m es f ro m T uk u lo r p o tt e rso f S e n e g al w h o s t o p pu t t i n g du n g i n t h e cl a y w h e n t he ys e t t l e i n S o n i n k e c o m m un i t i e s s i n c e t h e l a t t e r c o n s i de r    dung impure (Gelbert  2001).

 Shaping 

I n m o s t i n s t a nc e s , s h a p i ng t e c hn i q u e s m a y b e d i v i d edi n t o t w o s p e ci f i c o p e r a ti o n s t h a t d i f f e r en t i a t e b o t h i nt h ei r p u rp o se a n d th e s et o f t o ol s a nd g e st u r es u s ed t oc a r r y t h e m : ( 1 ) r o u g h i ng ou t a n d ( 2 ) p r e f o r m in g . D u r i n gr o u g h i ng o u t, p o tt e r s t r a n s fo r m a l u mp o f c l a y a n d / o r    

       joint pieces of clay together in order to constitute ah o l lo w v o l um e – the rough shape – whose form, oftenc yl in dr ic al , ha s no t y et r ea ch ed t ha t o f t he f in is he d

 product. During preforming, potters give the hollowv o l u m e i t s f i n a l g e o m e tr i c c h a r a ct e r i s t ic s t h r o u g h

s c r a p in g a n d s m o o t h i ng o p e r a t i on s , w i t h t h e h e l p o f as e ri e s of t o ol s .

W he el t h ro wi ng – n o t c o ns i de r e d h e re – is onlyd o cu m en t ed i n N o r th A f r ic a , w he r e i t h a s b ee n

 practiced for centuries by male potters. South of theS a ha r a, o n ly p a ss i ng r e f er e nc e s ar e m a de t o t h e us eof wheel th rowing by a few male potter s in theL o w e r C o n g o ar e a . T h e t e c h n i qu e w o u l d ha v e b e en

i n t r o d uc e d b y P o r t u g ue s e i n th e l at e se v e n t ee n t hc e nt u r y ( Vi n ce n te l l i 2003: 4 4) , b ut g iv en th e l a ck of                     precision, it is not clear whether it is still practiced ass uc h b y K o ng o po tt er s or h as b ee n m od if i ed .

Roughing Out     

Te c h n i qu e s u s ed i n s u b - Sa h a r a n Af r i c a b el o n g s t os e v e n m a i n c a te g o r i es ( 1 ) p o u n d in g i n a c o n ca v e f o r m ,( 2 ) d r a w i n g o f a r i n g - s h a p e d l u m p , ( 3 ) s u p e r i m p o s i t i o na n d d r a w i n g o f l a r g e r i n g s , ( 4 ) m o l d i n g ( o n c o n c a v e o r    c on ve x m o ld s) , ( 5) p in ch in g, ( 6) d ra wi ng o f a l um p,a n d ( 7 ) c o i l i n g . A s t h e l a s t t h r e e t e c h n i q u e s a r e w i d e l y

d o c u m e n t e d o u t s i d e A f r i c a , o n l y t h e f i r s t t h r e e w i l l b ec o n s i d e r e d h e r e .

T h e p o u n d in g t e c h ni q u e   –   a l so c a l l ed   “t a mp e r a n dc o n ca v e a n v i l t e c h ni q u e” – c on si st s o f p la ci ng a l u mp o r    a p an ca ke o f c lay o n a m at- co ve re d d ep re ss io n o r ac on ca ve a nv il m ad e i n w oo d, c la y o r s to ne , a nd b ea ti ng i t  w i t h t h e f i s t , a w o o d e n p e s t l e o r , m o r e g e n e r a l l y , a s t o n eo r a c lay t am pe r (Fig. 2). Continuing with rhythmic

 beating, the potter rapidly obtains a concave form that h e / s h e t u r n s c o n t i n u o u s l y o n t h e a n v i l o r t h e d e p r e s s i o nw h il e b e at i ng t h e c l ay. T h is t e ch n iq u e i s u s ed t h ro u gh o ut  t h e S a h e l , f r o m M a l i t o E g y p t ( D r o s t     1967; G o s se l a i n

2001; H u y s e c o m   1992; S t e r n e r a n d D a v i d   2003).I n t he d ra wi ng o f a r in g- sh ap ed l um p, t he p ot te r    

f as hi on a r in g o f 2 0–6 0 c m i n d ia me te r w it h o ne o r    s ev er al s la b( s) o f c la y, a nd p ul l s i ts w al l u p w it h t heh el p o f t he f in ge rs ( Kr au se   1985; L aw to n   1967 ;L i vi n g st o n e S m i th 1 9 99 ,   2001b; R o y   1989) . I n m o s t  c a se s , t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e v e ss e l i s f a sh i on e d l a t e r w i t hc o i l s o r a p a n c a k e o f c l a y , a f t e r t h e u p p e r p a r t h a s b e e n

 preformed and is sufficiently dry to be put upsided o w n . I n a v a r i a n t o b s e r v e d i n w e s t e r n C a m e r o o n , t h e

 bottom part is made before the upper one (Nyst    1996).T he s up er i mp os it io n a nd d r aw in g o f l ar g e r i ng s i s

s i m i l a r t o t h e p r e v i o u s t e c h n i q u e , e x c e p t t h a t t h e i n i t i a lv o l u m e i s m a d e w i t h t w o t o e i g h t c r o w n - s h a p e d r i n g so f c la y w hi c h a r e s up er i mp os ed a nd c ar ef u ll y j oi n edt o g e t h e r . S o f a r , t h e t e c h n i q u e h a s o n l y b e e n r e c o r d e di n t he s ou th ea st er n p ar t o f C en tr al A fr ic a, a mo ngs e ve r al B a nt u - sp e ak i n g g r ou p s ( L or e nz a n d P l e sn e r    1989; d e M a r e t a n d B u l c k e n s   1978 ; W o o d s   1984).

T h e s e ve n t e ch n iq u es m e nt i on e d a b ov e a r e s e ld o mu se d as su ch b y A fr ica n p ot te rs. T he s ha pi ng o f                    m e d i u m t o l a r g e v e s s e l s u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s t h e c o m b i n a -t io n o f t he l ast t wo o f t he se t ec hn iq ue s, w it h t hec on se qu en ce t ha t a d et ai le d c om pa ri so n o f a ct ua l

s ha pi n g p r oc es se s a ll ow s o ne t o i de nt if y m or e t h an5 0 v a r i a n t s a c r o s s t h e c o n t i n e n t .

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C om pa r ed t o c la y e xt r ac ti on a nd p r oc es si ng , t h em o s t s t r i k i n g a s p e c t a b o u t t h e r o u g h i n g o u t p r o c e s s i st h a t i t i s b a s e d m a i n l y o n m o v e m e n t s . W h i l e t e c h n i q u e ss u c h a s m o l d i n g a n d p o u n d i n g r e q u i r e s p e c i a l t o o l s a n dd e v i c e s , i t i s e s p e c i a l l y t h e a r t i s a n’s h a n d s a n d f i n g e r st h a t a r e i n a c t i o n d u r i n g t h e m a j o r p a r t o f t h e s h a p i n g

 process. The movements employed are also distinctive because of their relatively specialized character: few

t i e s e x i s t t o o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s a n d o n l y b o d y p o s t u r e s ( f o r    e x a m p le , w o r k i n g w h i l e s t a n d i n g b e n t o v e r , s e a t ed w i t hl eg s s pr ea d, o r w it h o ne l eg f ol de d i n f ro nt ) f in d a ne c h o i n d o m a i n s o t h e r t h a n p o t t e r y m a k i n g .

T h i s p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f s p e c i a l i z e d g e s t u r e s h a s b e e ni de nt i fi ed a s a c r uc ia l f ac to r f o r e xp la in in g t he u su als t ab i li t y o f s h ap i ng t e ch n i qu e t h r ou g h t i me a n d s p ac ea n d i t s p o s s i b l e c o i n c i d e n c e w i t h m a j o r s o c i a l b o u n d -a r ie s s u ch a s l a ng u ag e , s o ci o -p r o fe s si o na l g r o up i ng s , o r   

 political units (Gosselain   2000,   2002; Wa l l a e rt     1999 ).T h e i r m a s t e r y i n v o l v e s a c l o s e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t w oi nd iv i du al s a nd a t ra in i ng p er i od t ha t m ay s pa n o ve r    

s e v e r a l y e a r s , s o t h a t m o t o r h a b i t s w o u l d b e m o r e r e s i s -t an t t o c ha ng e t h an o th er s ta ge s o f t he m a nu fa ct ur i ng

 process. Recent studies have showed, however, that  borrowing processes also affect the shaping stage(Gelbert    2001; S t e r n e r a n d D a v i d   2003) . A n o t h e r w a yo f e x p l a i n i n g s t a b i l i t y i n s h a p i n g t e c h n i q u e s i s t h a t t h e ya re w id el y v ie we d b y p ot te r s a s a n i nh er it an ce a nd am a t e r i a l c o r r e l a t e o f s o c i a l b o u n d a r i e s . S t a b i l i t y c o u l dt hu s b e d el i be ra te ly s ou gh t, a s a mo ng t he S on gh ay

 blacksmiths of Niger who acquired the moldingt ec hn iq ue f r om t he ir B el la n ei gh bo r s ( co ns id er ed a sf or m er s la ve s) , b ut h av e c ho se n t o p as s o n t he p ou nd in g

t e c h n i q u e t o t h e i r d a u g h t e r s , t h e l a t e r b e i n g r e g a r d e d a sthe   “t r u e S o n g h a y t e c h n i q u e .”

Preforming  

T hi s s ta ge , w hi ch i s c ar r ie d o ut a s a c on ti nu at i on o f                    r o ug hi ng o ut , c on si st s o f g i vi ng t he j us t c on st it ut e dh o l lo w v o lu m e i t s f i na l g e om e tr i c c h ar a ct e ri s ti c s. Tot hi s e nd , p ot te rs p er fo rm s cr ap in g a nd s mo ot hi ngo pe ra ti on s, w it h t he h el p o f a s er ie s o f t oo ls , w hi cha l l o w t h e m t o d i s t o r t t h e w a l l o f t h e v e s s e l g r a d u a l l y t ot h e d e s i r e d c u r v a t u r e b y a p p l y i n g p r e s s u r e .

I n o r d e r t o r o u n d t h e b o d y a n d m a k e i t b u l g e , p o t t e r ss cr ap e t he o ut si de a nd i ns id e w al ls a nd m od ul at et h e p r e s s u r e e x e r c i s e d o n t h e t o o l , w h i l e s u p p o r t i n g t h ew al l w it h t h e o th er h an d. To ol s u se d f o r s cr ap in g t hei n si d e w a ll a r e g e ne r al l y r o u nd o r s p he r i ca l : r o u nd e do f f p o t te r y s h er d s, p i ec e s o f c a la b as h , p o d s , l a rg e s e e d s,n u t s, s h el l s, o r s p oo n s. M o ve d h o r iz o nt a ll y o r o b l iq u el y,t h e y d o n o t g e n e r a t e m u c h d i s p l a c e m e n t o f c l a y s i n c ei n t er n al s c ra p in g a i ms e s se n ti a ll y a t m o di f y in g t h e s h ap eo f t h e b o d y . S c r a p i n g a n d s m o o t h i n g o p e r a t i o n s m a d eo n t he o ut si de w al l , o n t he o th er h an d, a ll ow t h e p o t te r t om a sk i r r eg u la r i ti e s a n d t o h e ig h t en t h e v e ss e l t h r ou g h

t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f a r a t h e r l a r g e a m o u n t o f c l a y . S u c ho p er a ti on s a re t y pi ca ll y c ar r ie d w i th f l at a nd o bl o ngt o o l s s u c h a s f l a t s t i c k s , s p a t u l a s , b o n e s , b l a d e s , p o d s ,s h e l l s , o r c o r n c o b s .

F or mi ng t he n ec k m ay b e d on e wi th d iff er en t  m e th od s, e i th er a s a c on t in ua ti on o f p r ef or m in g t he

 body or after having added one or several coil(s). Af i rs t m e th od c on si st s o f b en di ng t he u pp er p ar t o f t hew a l l t h r o u g h h o r i z o n t a l s m o o t h i n g o f t h e i n s i d e w a l l . I nt h i s c a s e , t h e p o t t e r e x e r c i s e s i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e o n t h es mo ot h in g t o ol , w hi l e s up p or ti n g t he w al l w it h t heo t h er h a nd , u n t il t h e a p pr o pr i a te c u rv a tu r e i s r e ac h ed .

A n o t h e r m e t h o d c o n s i s t s o f s m o o t h i n g t h e o u t s i d e w a l lo f t h e v e s s e l h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h a t o o l w h o s e c u r v a t u r e

Ceramics in Africa. Fig. 2   S h ap i ng a v e ss e l w i t h t h e p o un d in g t e ch n iq u e, o n a c o nc a v e w o o de n a n vi l w i t h a c l a y t a m pe r    

( p h o t o b y O l i v i e r G o s s e l a i n ) .

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c o r re s po n ds t o t h at o f t h e n ec k . Ro u nd e d o ff s h er d s o r    c a la b as h p ie c es a r e ty p ic a ll y u se d t o th a t a i m . A l a te r    m e th o d c on s is t s o f p i nc h i ng t h e r i m b e tw e en f i n g er s( d i re c tl y o r w i t h th e h el p o f a l e af , a r ag , o r a p i ec e o f                    l e a t h er ) a n d r o t a t i ng t h e v e s s el s l o w l y w i t h t h e ot h e r    h a n d , wh i l e e x er t i n g a c on s t a n t p r e s su r e o n t h e ri m a n d

 progressively tipping up the hand toward the exterior  ( Fig. 3).

Finally, lips may be formed through constant 

 pressure between fingers–

o r w it h t he he lp of a nysupple material – as in the neck-forming methoddescribed above. Depending on the position of fingers,the pressure exerted and the materials used, resultingl i p s m a y a c qu i r e a ro u nd e d o r s h ar p p r of i l e, o r b e ar    a g r oo v e. T h e ri m m a y al s o be s h ap e d t hr o ug hs m oo t hi n g wi t h a fl a t o r s l ig h tl y c on c av e t oo l s u ch a sa s p a tu l a , a s t i c k , a b o n e, o r t h e n er v u r e ( pr i n c i p al v e i n )o f a l a r ge l e a f. H e r e a ls o , t h e p ot t e r u s ua l ly r o t at e s t hev e ss e l w h il e e xe r ti n g a c on s ta n t p r es s ur e o n t h e t o o l,

 placed perpendicularly on the rim. Instead of rotatingt h e v e ss e l , th e t o o l m a y b e di s p l a ce d i t se l f o n t h e ri m ,

e s p e c ia l l y w h en s h a p i ng t h e l i p of l a r g e a nd h e a v yv e ss e ls . A l a st m e t ho d c o ns i st s o f a d di n g o n e o r s e ve r alc o il ( s ) a b ov e th e ri m o r o n it s si d e , a n d s m oo t hi n g i t  w i t h f i n ge r s o r a s u p p l e m a t e r i al .

T he v er y pe rs on al ch ar ac te r o f t he p re fo rm in go p e r a t io n s d e s c r ib e d a b o v e m u s t b e s t r e s s ed . M i n u t evariations in profiles – t h e sh a pe o f t h e n e ck , li p ,h an dl e, o r b as e – are also likened to “ signatures,”

which can be recognized as readily by eye as by touch(Gosselain 2002: 11 3, 11 5) .

A n o th e r s t ri k i ng ch a r ac t er i st i c o f t h e p r e fo r m in gstage is its permeability to innovation and outside

i n f lu e nc e s. F ro m s i mp l e w i d es p re a d f o rm s , a r t is a nss e e m t o b e a b l e e a s i l y t o m ee t n e w r e q u e st s ( fl o w e r p ot s ,

m o n e y bo x e s , s t i l l s, a n d i n c e n se h o l d e r s) o r t o m o d e r n -i ze th e as pe ct o f t h ei r p r od uc ts ( Ar ge nt i 1999 ). Thise x pl a in s th e cu r r en t a p pe a ra n ce o f a n ew g e ne r at i o n o f                    f l a t - b ot t o m e d p o t s f i tt e d w i t h h a n d l es , f a i t h f ul c o p i e s o f                    t h e a l u m in u m p a n s p r od u c e d i n u r b an e n v i r o nm e n t s .T he r ea li za ti on o f s uc h p ro du ct s m ay a ll ow a f ewindividuals to position themselves as experts and agentso f m o d er n it y.

DecorationPlastic decorations – i.e., made when the clay is stillwet  –  belong to four large categories (1) grooving,( 2 ) i n ci s in g , (3 ) i m p re s si n g , a n d ( 4) a p pl i qu é .

G r oo vi ng c on si st s o f t ra ci ng l in es o r f i gu re s o n th es u rf a ce o f t h e ve s se l w i th t h e f i ng e r s o r v a r io u s to o lsw h os e e n d( s ) i s /a r e r o un d ed o r s h ar p : s t ic k s, s t al k s,t h o r n s, e n d s o f c a l a b as h s c r a p er s , s h ar p s t o n es , b o n es ,shells, nails, bicycle spokes, bracelets (drawn on thes ur f ac e) , b un dl es o f s ta lk s o r t ho r ns h el d b et w ee nf i ng e r o r d r iv e n in t o a c l ay b a ll (Fig. 4) , h a ir c o m b s , a n di n de n te d p i ec e s o f c a la b as h , w oo d , p l as t ic , o r m e t al .

I n c is i ng is s i mi l ar t o g r oo v i ng , e x ce p t t h a t t h e t o ol su s ed h a ve a s h ar p c u tt i ng e d g e so t h at c l ay s u rf a c es a r eactually incised. Such tools include knives, spearheads,a nd s cr ap s o f m et al .

I m p r e s si n g i s d on e w i th d i st i n c t t o o l s a n d m et h o d s .T h e s i m p l e s t i s t o p r e s s a n y k i n d o f d e v i c e o r m a t e r i a l( fi n ge rs , n at u ra l o bj ec ts , s ti ck s, c om bs o r c ar e fu ll yd e s i g n e d w o o d e n o r i r o n s t a m p s , a s t h o s e u s e d i n t h eI nl an d N ig er D el ta ; G al la y e t a l.   1998) , in or der t om ak e a s in gl e i m pr es si o n t h at m ay b e s ub se qu en tl yr ep ea te d o n t he s ur f ac e. A no th er m et ho d c on si st s o f                    

 pressing while simultaneously rocking convex devices

s u c h a s b l a d e s o r i n d e n t e d c o m b s a n d b r a c e l e t s , s o a s t oo b t a i n z i g z a g - l i k e r o w s o f i m p r e s s i o n s .   “Rouletting”   is

Ceramics in Africa. Fig. 3   F o rm i ng t h e n e c k a n d t h e l i p o f a v e ss e l w i t h t h e f i n g er s . A c o ns t an t p r e s su r e i s e x er t ed o n t h e w a ll

w h i l e t h e v e s s e l i s r o t a t e d s l o w l y w i t h t h e o t h e r h a n d ( p h o t o b y O l i v i e r G o s s e l a i n ) .

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a t h ir d i mp r es s in g m et h o d, d o ne e i th e r w i th n a tu r alo b j e c ts s u c h a s c or n c o b s , s h e l l s, f i s h v e r t eb r a e a n dv a r i o u s p la n t p a r t s , o r, m o r e g e n e r al l y, w i t h t o o l s m ad e

 by carving wood or twisting, knotting, braiding,c o i l i ng , or w r a p p i ng f ib e r s t r i p s o r c o r d s ( s e e e x a m p l esin Gosselain 2000; S oper     1985) . S uc h t oo ls an dm a t e r i al s a r e r o ll e d o n t h e v es s e l’s surface to impressr e gu l ar p a tt e r ns .

A p p l i q ué c o m p r is e s a l l t y p e s o f c l a y e l em e n t s a dd e do n t o t he s u r fa c e : e . g . , c o i l s , b u t t o n s, s p i ke s , a n d h um a n

o r a ni m al f ig u re s.B e s i d es p l as t i c d e c o r at i o n , v e s s el s m a y a l s o be

o r n am e n te d w i t h p a in t in g a n d /o r s p ec i fi c s u r fa c et re at me nt s. T he m os t u su al t re at me nt c on si st s o f                    a p p l y in g a s l i p m a d e f r om i r o n - r i ch c l a y s, c r u sh e d

 beforehand on a stone or in a mortar, and subsequentlysieved and diluted in water. The application is made ona d r i e d s u r f a ce , d i r e c tl y w i t h t h e h a n d o r w i t h a r a g . I nmany instances, slipped surfaces are then carefully

 polished with round stones or strings of seeds (mostlyf r om b ao ba bs ) o r c ow ri es . T he re su lt in g e ff ec t, af t er    f i r i n g , i s a d a r k r e d a n d s h i n y s ur f a c e . P o li s h i n g m a y

a l s o b e d o n e o n u n s l i p p ed s u r f a c e s o r w i t h g r a p h i te , a sa m on g se v er a l S o ut h A fr i c an p o pu l at i o ns ( Be l l a n dCalder   1998 ; L aw to n 1967).

P a i nt i ng o c c ur s e i th e r b e fo r e o r a f t er f i r in g , t h e f ir s t   being widespread on the continent, the seconde s p e ci a l l y ob s e r v ed i n So u t h Af r i c a o r o n m o de r no rn am en ta l v es se ls a im ed a t t ou ri st o r c it y m ar ke ts .P r e fi r i ng p a i nt i ng i s d on e w i th v a r io u s mi n e ra l

 pigments diluted in water and occasionally mixed withg um A ra bi c , s al t o r s ug ar , a ll e le m en t s t h at a re s ai d to“ strengthen” the adherence. The application is madew it h a f ea th er, a mi ll et e ar, a s ta lk , o r a st ic k w it h a

c r us h ed o r r a g -w r a pp e d e nd . I n s o ut h w es t er n N i ge r,B e l l a a n d Z ar m a p o t t e rs u s e a b l a d e f o r d r a w i ng t h i n

l i n es a n d m o t if s (Fig. 5). Postfiring paintings are madew i t h i n d us t r i a l p a i n t s a nd i n k s .

R e g a r dl e s s o f t h e t e c h ni q u e s , to o l s , a nd m a t e r i al su s ed , a s t ri k i ng f e at u r e o f d e co r a ti o n i s th e ca s ua l w a yi n w hi ch m os t p ot t er s t al k a bo ut i t. D e co r at io n w ou ld

 be a matter of           “ simple embellishment,” “like a hairstyleo r c l ot h es ,” t h e m a in f u n ct i on of w h ic h i s t o “ a t tr a c t t h ecustomer  ’s eye.” In some cases, even the estheticf u nc ti on o f d ec or at io n i s qu es ti on ed , as w he n p ot t er se x p l a i n th a t r o u l e t te i m p r e ss i o n s ar e s i m p ly a m a t t e r o f                    

m o di fy i ng w al l t ex t ur e to p r ev en t w ar es f r om b ei n gs l i p p er y ( B r e d wa - M e n sa h 1996; P ri dd y 1971 ).

T hi s do es n ot m ea n th at a r ti sa ns w or k wi th n or e f e r e nc e s o r p r e c i se r u l e s . O n t h e o n e h an d , p o t t er yd e co r a ti o n i s g e n er a l ly o n l y o n e r e al i z at i on a m o ngo t he rs i n a m uc h br oa de r d ec or at iv e sy st em . Fo r    e x a m p l e, t h e e x i s t e n c e o f n u m e r o us p a r a l l e l s h a s b e e nf o u n d b e t w e en v e s s el o r n a m en t a t i o n a n d t a t t o o in g o r    s c ar i f ic a ti o n ( B ar l e y 1994; David et al. 1988; Ri tz1989 ) , a n d p a r al l e l s a l so e x i s t w i t h a r c hi t e c t ur e , c e r t ai nt ec hn ic al d ev ic es su ch as ca st i ro n o ve ns , o r o th er    c o n t a i ne r s ( b a s k et s , g o u r d s, a n d a l u m i n u m p o t s ) . O n

t h e o t h er h a nd , wh i le d ec o r at i o n i s ob v io u sl y ve r ys u s c ep t i b l e t o i n n o v a t i o n ( e . g ., t h e c u r r e nt g e n e r al i z e du s e o f l e t t e r s o f t h e a l p h a b et i n t h e p a i n t ed de c o r a ti o n so f W e s t A f r i c a ) , c h a n g e i s s e e n t o p a r t i c u l a r l y a f f e c t t h ec o m po n en t s o f d e co r a ti o ns r a th e r t h an t h ei r o r ga n iz a -t i o n o r      “grammars.”   S o m e t h i n k t h a t i t w o u l d b e a t t h i ss e co n d l e v el t h a t t h e s y mb o l ic f u n ct i on o f d e co r at i onc om es i nt o p l ay a nd t ha t c ol l ec ti ve i d en t it ie s w ou lde x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s ( D a v i d e t a l .   1988 ).

Drying 

A c o m p a r i s o n o f d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e n o  “ rules”

a s r eg ar ds d r yi ng m od es a nd d ur at io n. F or i n st an ce ,s o m e p o t t e r s d e e m i t n e c e s s a r y t o p l a c e t h e w a r e s i n t h e

Ceramics in Africa. Fig. 4   D e c or a ti n g a v e ss e l w i t h a c o mb - li k e d e v i c e ( p h o to b y O l iv i er G o ss e la i n ).

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s u n d u r i n g t h e e a rl y s t a g e o f d r y i n g , w hi l e o t h e r s t a keg r e at c a re t o s h e l te r t h e m d u r in g t h e f i rs t h o ur s , t he f i r s t  d a y s , o r e v e n t h e w h o l e dr y i n g p r oc e s s . S i m i l a r ly, s o m em ay wa it s ev er al w ee ks or se ve ra l m on th s b ef or ef i r in g t he v e ss e ls , wh i l e o t he r s do i t a f te r 2 o r 3 d a ys .W h i l e d r yi n g p e r io d s a r e of t e n s h or t e r i n t h e S a he l t h a ni n t r o pi c al a r ea s , d i f fe r en c es in pr a ct i ce ap p ea r t o

 proceed essentially from personal conceptions andw a ys o f s c he d ul i n g m an u f ac t ur i ng o p e r at i o ns , r a t he r    

t h a n c l i m a t ic va r i a t i on s o r t h e c h e m i ca l a n d p h y s i ca lc h ar a ct e r is t ic s of r a w m a te r ia l s. T hu s , p o tt e rs w hom a ke v e s se l s o n d em a nd o r f r e qu e nt w e ek l y m ar k e tsg en er al l y r es or t t o s ho rt d r yi ng p e ri o ds . I f n ec es sa r y,w ar es c ra ck ed f ro m t oo f as t a d ry i ng a re s im pl yrepaired with fresh clay.

Such flexibility in drying procedures is due, in part,t o t h e a cc o m m o d at i n g n a tu r e o f t h e r a w m a t e r i al s u s e di n A fr i c a. B ut i t m a y be r e in f or c e d t h r ou g h th e u seo f p r ef i r in g t ec h n iq u es t ha t a l l ow t h e g r ad u al e v ap o r a-t i o n of r e si d u al w a te r t h r ou g h p re h ea t in g . F or i n st a nc e ,

 pots may be placed around or above a cooking earth

(Gosselain 2002: 1 45–1 4 6; P r i dd y 1971; Wo o ds 1984),on glowing embers (Kanimba and Bellomo 1990;M er ca de r et al . 2000) o r a r ac k- l ik e st ru ct u re b el oww h ic h a f i re i s k e pt g o i ng , a s am o ng s e ve r al K o ng og r ou ps f r om C en t ra l A fr i ca ( d e Ma re t   1974; Mpika1986).

Firing 

A l t ho u gh t h e e mp h as i s wi l l b e p u t h e re o n f u el s a nds t r u c t ur e s , s e v e r al o t h e r a s p e ct s o f f i r i n g m a y b e t a k e ni n t o c o n si d e r a t io n , i n c l u di n g t h e s c h ed u l i n g o f f i r i n gevents, the location of firing structures, the way vessels

a n d f u e l a r e p o s it i o n e d wi t h i n t h e st r u c t ur e , t h e o v er a l lf i r i n g s c h e du l e ( d u r a t i on , r e f u e l in g , w a y o f a s s e ss i n g

t h e d e gr e e o f f i r in g o f t h e w a r es ) , o r t h e i d en t i ty of                     people taking part in the operation.

Fuel  

A s su mm ar i ze d b y L iv in gs to ne S m it h ( 2 00 1a : 9 9 3) ,a lm os t e ve r yt hi ng t h at c an b e b ur n ed i s u se d f or f i ri ng

 pottery in Africa. Used independently or combined invarious proportions, the materials may be grouped intot h r e e c a t eg o r i e s c o r r es p o n d in g r o u g h l y t o t h o s e m a de

 by the artisans themselves when asked about thenature of                   “ appropriate” and “  inappropriate” materials(1) manure – c o ws , d on k ey s , ca m el s , or h o rs e s;(2) “light ” fuels – d r y gr as s or c er e al s ta lk s, c er e alc h af f , pa l m f r o nd s , le a ve s , tw i gs , b ar k s, o r r o ot s ; a n d(3) “ heavy” fuels –  branches and logs from dozens of          tree species.

  Neither the firing structure nor the firing conditions possibly sought by potters seem to impose restrictionso n t he s el ec ti on o f f ue l m at er ia ls . Wi th t he n ot ab lee x c e pt i o n o f m a n u r e , w h os e c o m b u s ti o n i s s l o w e r, a l lt h e fu e l s u s e d t h r o u g ho u t A f r i c a a l l o w p o t t e r s t o o b t a i n

s i m i l ar f i r i n g s c h e du l e s a n d t e m p e r at u r e s .

Structure

E i g h t f i r i n g s t r uc t u r e s ar e d o c u m e nt e d i n A f r i c a ( s eedetails in Drost  1967; Gosselain 2002 : 153–162)( 1 ) b o nf i r e, ( 2 ) e l ev a te d b on f i re , (3 ) b o n fi r e wi t h is o -l at io n, ( 4 ) d ep r es si on , ( 5 ) p i t, ( 6) p it w it h i so l at i on ,( 7) o ve n, a nd ( 8) u pd ra ft k il n ( Fig. 6).

T h e b o nf i r e   –   a l s o c a l l e d   “o p en f i r in g” –   i s o n e o f                    t h e s i m p l e s t a n d m o s t w i d e s p r e a d t e c h n i q u e i n A f r i c a .P o t s a r e p l a c e d o n a b e d o f f u e l , a t g r o u n d l e v e l , a n dc ov er ed w it h a no t he r l ay er o f f u el . T ho se s tr uc tu r es

v a r y t r e m e n d o u s l y i n d i m e n s i o n ( 5 0–2 5 0 c m i n h e i g h t  a nd 5 0–7 00 c m i n d ia me te r) , f ir in g d ur at io n ( fr om

Ceramics in Africa. Fig. 5   A p pl y in g a m i ne r a l p a i nt w i th t h e h e l p o f a b l ad e ( p ho t o b y O l iv i er G o ss e la i n) .

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2 0 m in t o s ev er al h ou rs ), a s w el l a s t he n um ber o f                    v es se ls f ir ed a t o nc e ( fr om 1 t o 5 00 ). T hi s n um be r    d ep en ds b ot h o n t he s to ck o f w ar es a va il ab le a t t hem om en t o f f i ri n g a nd o n t he p er so na l c on ce pt io ns o f                    t he p ot t er s. F o r e xa m pl e, s om e G ba ya p ot te rs f r omC a m e r o o n d e e m i t i m p o s s i b l e t o f i r e m o r e t h a t o n e t ot h r e e v e s s e l s a t o n c e . T h e y t h u s m u l t i p l y f i r i n g s e s s i o n so r c o n s t r u c t s e v e r a l b o n f i r e s s i d e b y s i d e .

E le va te d b on f ir es h av e o nl y b ee n r ec or de d s o f ar    i n t h e G r e a t L a k e s r e g i o n , a m o n g t h e T w a o f B u r u n d i

a nd R wa nd a a nd t he Ko nj o o f U ga nd a ( Cé li s a nd  Nzikobanyanka   1984) . T he t ec hn iq ue c on si st s o f                     placing the vessels on an elevated bed of fuelc on st it u te d o f a r a ck - li ke l ay er o f b r an ch es p la ce d o nf o u r o r f i v e b i g s t o n e s .

B o n f i r e s w i t h i s o l a t i o n d i f f e r f r o m s i m p l e b o n f i r e s i nt h a t a l a y e r o f f i r e p r o o f m a t e r i a l s   –   s h e r d s , o l d b a s i n s ,a n d s h e e t s m e t a l   –   i s p l a c e d e i t h e r b e t w e e n t h e v e s s e l s

a n d t h e u p p e r l a y e r o f f u e l o r u p o n t h e w h o l e s t r u c t u r e .I n t h e f i r s t c a s e , t h e a i m i s t o a v o i d c o l o r v a r i a t i o n s d u e

Ceramics in Africa. Fig. 6   F i ri n g s t ru c tu r es u s ed i n A f ri c a ( 1 ) b o n f ir e , ( 2 ) e l e va t ed b o nf i re , ( 3 ) b o n f i re w i th i s ol a ti o n,( 4 ) d e p r e s s i o n , ( 5 ) p i t , ( 6 ) p i t w i t h i s o l a t i o n , ( 7 ) o v e n , a n d ( 8 ) u p d r a f t k i l n ( d r a w i n g b y Y v e t t e P a q u a y ) .

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t o c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n f u e l a n d t h e s u r f a c e o f v e s s e l s ; i nt h e s e c o n d , i t i s t o p r o t e c t t h e s t r u c t u r e f r o m t h e w i n da n d k e e p t h e f u e l i n p l a c e .

D ep r es si on s a r e s ha l lo w e xc av at io n s m ad e i n t heg r o u n d ( b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 4 0 c m d e p t h ) i n w h i c h v e s s e l ss t a n d h i g h e r t h a n g r o u n d l e v e l a f t e r h a v i n g b e e n p l a c e d

o n t he b ed o f f ue l. T he ir s ha pe i s c ir cu la r, o va l, o r    r e c t a n g u l a r , w i t h d i a m e t e r s ( o r s i d e s ) b e t w e e n 1 0 0 a n d5 00 c m. A s f or t he b on fi re t ec hn iq ue , i mp or ta nt  v ar i at io ns a re o bs er ve d i n t he n um b er o f w ar es f i re da t o nc e a nd t he d ur a ti on o f t h e f ir i ng . Va r ia ti on s a ls oe xi st i n t he w ay v es se ls a re p os it io ne d w it hi n t hes t ru c t ur e . F o r i n st a nc e , w h il e m o st p o tt e r s p l a c e t h emh or i zo nt al ly o r v er t ic al ly, s om e p la ce t he m u p si ded o w n o n t h e b e d o f f u e l , i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a d a r k a n ds hi ny i nt er n al s ur f ac e ( Za gh aw a o f S u da n ( To be rt  1984) o r H a u s a a n d K a n u r i o f N i g e r ) .

W h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e s p i t s f r o m d e p r e s s i o n s i s t h e f a c t  

t h a t v e s s e l s s t a n d b e l o w t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e a f t e r h a v i n g been placed on a bed of fuel. Thus, their depth alwayse x c e e d s 5 0 c m a n d m a y r e a c h a s m u c h a s 1 0 0–1 5 0 c m ,f or a d ia met er b et we en 5 0 a nd 4 00 c m. A no th er    d if fe r en ce p er ta in s t o t he d ur at i on o f t h e f i ri n g, o ft eno b s e r v e d t o b e s e v e r a l h o u r s l o n g . I n a v a r i a n t o b s e r v e da mo ng Ba mi le ke f e’fe’   f r om w es te rn C am er oo n(Gosselain   2002 ) a nd K on go M an ya ng a f r om K on go(Mpika   1986) , t he w ar es a re p la ce d o n a r ack -l ik ew o o d e n s t r u c t u r e s t a n d i n g a b o v e t h e p i t a n d c a r e f u l l yt i p p e d i n t h e h o l e i n t h e c o u r s e o f f i r i n g .

P i t s w i t h i s o l a t i o n r e s e m b l e b o n f i r e s w i t h i s o l a t i o n i n

t h a t a l a y e r o f f i r e p r o o f m a t e r i a l s i s p l a c e d e i t h e r o n t h ev e s s e l s o r o n t h e u p p e r l a y e r o f f u e l . T h i s t e c h n i q u e i so f te n u se d i n s ou th er n A fr i ca ( La wt on   1967; K r au se1985) , b ut a lso i n t he S ah el a re a, f ro m S en eg al t oS u d a n . H e r e , f i r i n g i s u s u a l l y a w h o l e n i g h t l o n g , e v e nt h o u g h t h e f i r e a c t u a l l y b u r n s f o r a f e w h o u r s .

O v e n s c o r r e s p o n d t o w a l l - en c l o s ed f i r i n g s t r u c t u r e sw it h in w hi c h f ue l a nd v es se ls a r e p ut t og et he r. S uc hs t r u c t u r e s h a v e o n l y b e e n d o c u m e n t e d i n W e s t A f r i c a .T h e i r w a l l s a r e m a d e o f m u d , w i t h a h e i g h t b e t w e e n 5 0a n d 1 8 0 c m , a n d a d i a m e t e r b e t w e e n 1 0 0 a n d 4 0 0 c m .O n e o r s e v e r a l h o l e s i s / a r e m a d e a t t h e b a s e o f t h e w a l l ,

t h r o u g h w h i c h f u e l i s p u t i n d u r i n g f i r i n g . F r o m 2 0 t o2 00 v es se ls a re f ir ed a t o nc e, w hi ch a re p il ed a nds u b s e q u e n t l y c o v e r e d w i t h f u e l a n d / o r a l a y e r o f s h e r d s .B ur ni n g s ta lk s o r g ra ss es a re t he n p ut i n t he h ol e( s) ,e i t h e r a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o r t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o l e f i r i n g .A s im pl er o ve n t ec hn iq ue , o bs er ve d a mo ng s om eY o r u b a o f N i g e r i a ( F a t u n s i n   1992: 39–4 0 ) a n d B a r i b ao f B e n i n , c o n s i s t s o f u s i n g a b o t t o m l e s s j a r p l a c e d o nm ud b ri ck s u po n a s ma l l f ir e . S uc h t ec hn iq ue i s o nl yu s e d f o r f i r i n g s m a l l v e s s e l s .

U p d r a f t k i l n s a r e e v e n m o r e r a r e t h a n o v e n s , a s t h e yw ou ld b e u se d i n N ig er i a o nl y, a mo ng N up e o f B id a

(Nicholson   1934; Vernon-Jackson   1960 ) a n d Y o r u b a o f                    A b e o k ut a ( F a t u n si n   1992) . T h e f i r i n g s t r u c t u r e i s a l s o

e nc lo se d i n a m ud w al l, b ut f ue l i s p ut i n a d is ti nc t  c h a m b e r a n d s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e v e s s e l w i t h s h e r d s o r a

 perforated clay plate.A s s ta t ed a bo ve , m ea su re me nt s p er f or me d i n t h e

f i e l d s h o w t h a t t h e v a r i e t y o f f u e l s a n d s t r u c t u r e u s e dr e s u l t s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e h o m o g e n e i t y

o f f ir in g c on di ti on s. W he th er i t i s a q ue st io n o f                    t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e , t e m p e r a t u r e s r e a c h e d , o r t h e d u r a t i o no f e xp o su r e a t t em pe r at u re t hr es ho ld s, e ac h v ar ia nt  m ak es i t p os si bl e t o a ch ie ve t h e s am e g lo ba l r e su l ts( L i v i n g s t o n e S m i t h   2001a ) . T h i s h o m o g e n e i t y i n f i r i n gc o n d i t i o n s i s e c h o e d b y t h e w a y i n w h i c h p o t t e r s j u d g et h e d e g r e e o f p o t t e r y f i r i n g ; m o s t o f t h e m i n t e r r u p t t h e

 process or stop refueling when the wall of the pots becomes incandescent.

A s r e ga r d s r e l at i on s hi p s t o o t he r a c ti v it i e s, c e rt a ins i mi l ar i t ie s e x is t w i th c o ok i ng t e ch n iq u es ( G o ss e la i n2002: 1 6 5 ) . H o w e v e r , a n a c t i v i t y s u c h a s m e t a l l u r g y , a

 priori much closer, maintains no link with potterym a ki n g, e v en i n s o ci e t ie s w h er e b l ac k sm i th s a n d f e ma l e

 potters belong to the same endogamous subgroup. Thef a c t t h a t t h e s e t w o a c t i v i t i e s a r e p r a c t i c e d b y d i f f e r e n t  a ct or s s ee ms t o p re se nt a n o bs ta cl e t o t ra ns fe r. A t  t he s am e t im e, f ir in g i s s ur ro un de d b y a s er ie s o f                    

 prescriptions and prohibitions, but these are lessn um er ou s t h an a t o th er l ev el s o f t h e o pe ra ti ng c ha ina nd d o n o t s ee m t o h av e m u c h i n f lu en ce o n t h e a rt i sa n’st e ch n ic a l b e ha v io r. T h ey m a i nl y c o nc e rn a v oi d i ng t h es i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h b a d l y i n t e n t i o n e d p e o p l e o r t h o s e i ni m pu r e s t at e s j e op a rd i ze t h e o p e ra t io n s o le l y b y t h ei r    

 presence.T hi s w or ry s te ms f ro m t he g en er al ly p ub li c a nd

c o l l e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e f i r i n g s t a g e . I n m o s t r e g i o n so f A f r ic a , a r t is a ns h a bi t u al l y a s so c ia t e w i th r e la t iv e s,f ri en ds , o r n ei gh bo rs f or f ir in g t he ir w ar es . T he sea ss oc ia ti on s h av e s ev er al a dv an t ag es ; t he y n ot o nl ya ll ow a rt i sa ns t o i nv es t l es s e ff o rt i n g at he r in g f ue l,o r g a n i z i n g w a r e s , o r s h a r i n g i n f i r i n g s u r v e i l l a n c e , b u t  t h e y a l s o a l l o w a r t i s a n s t o c o n f o r m t o a r e s t r i c t i v e f i r i n gc a le n da r ( f or e x am p l e, w e ek l y m a r ke t s) w h en p l ac e -m e n t s r e s e r v e d f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a r e f e w i n n u m b e r .

Postfiring I n m an y r eg io ns o f A fr ic a, v ess el s r ec ei ve a l as t  t re at me nt a ft er f i ri n g, e it he r w he n r e tr ie ve d r ed h ot  f r om t he f i re o r a f te r h av i ng c oo le d o f f . T he se p os tf i ri ngt re at me nt s, t ha t a im a t i mp r ov in g t he p hy si ca l c ha r-a c t e r i s t i c s a n d a p p e a r a n c e o f v e s s e l s , m a y b e g r o u p e di nt o f iv e c at eg or ie s ( 1) o rg an ic c oa ti ng , ( 2) r es ina p pl i ca t io n , ( 3 ) s m ea r i ng , ( 4 ) s m ok i ng , a n d ( 5 ) w a te r    s p r i n k l i n g o r s o a k i n g .

Or ganic coatin g is b y f ar the most commo nt re at me nt . I t c on si st s o f c oa ti n g t he s ur f ac e w it h a no rg an ic m ix tu r e m ad e f r om t h e b ar k, f r ui t s, l ea ve s,

 branches, or root parts of several dozens of treesp ec ie s, t he m os t co mm on o f w hi ch a re   Bridelia

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 ferruginea,   Bridelia micrantha,   Parkia biglobosa, Parkia filicoidea,   Diospyros mespiliformis,   Ximenia

americana,   Pterocarpus angolensis, a nd s ev er al s pe -c ie s o f                      Acacia   and   Syzygium   ( se e d et ai ls i n D ro st  1967: 174–1 8 2; G o ss e la i n   2002: 184–1 9 0) . A f te r    h a v i n g b e e n c r u s h e d , t h e p a r t u s e d i s s o a k e d i n w a t e r    

f or s ev er al m i nu te s, s ev er al h ou r s, o r s ev er a l d ay s. I t  may be boiled ( decoct ion), put in to hot water    ( i n f u s i o n ) , o r k e p t a t a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e ( m a c e r a t i o n ) .A s f or t he a pp li ca ti on , i t i s d on e b y p lu ng in g t heh ot v es se ls i n t he m ix tu re , s pr in kl in g t he m w it h i t,o r s me ar in g t he su rf ac e w it h t he h el p o f a se ri eso f b r u sh - l ik e t o ol s . A l te r n at i ve l y, c o ol e d o f f v e ss e lsm a y b e c o a t e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f a r a g . B e s i d e s h a v i n ga d ec or at iv e p ur po se , o rg an ic c oa ti ng s a re s ai d t os t r e n g t h e n a n d w a t e r p r o o f t h e v e s s e l s .

R e si n a p pl i c at i on i s s o le l y a i me d a t w a te r pr o o fi n gt h e v e s s e l s . H e r e , t h e i n s i d e s u r f a c e i s c o a t e d w i t h r e s i n

e x tr a ct e d f r o m s e ve r al t r e e s p ec i es   –   e.g.,   Canarium schweinfurthii,   Copaifera demeusei   or     mildbraedii,

various   Acacia   species,   Euphorbia candelabrum, Dodonea viscosa, a n d  Guizotia abyssinica   –   e i t h e r b y

m el ti n g i t d i re ct ly i n t he v es se l o r s ep ar a te ly. I n b ot hc as es , t he v es se l i s r ot at ed r ap id ly s o a s t o e ns ur e ah o m o g e n e o u s s u r f a c e c o a t i n g .

O t h e r o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s m a y a l s o b e s m e a r e d o n t h es u r f a c e o r c o o k e d i n t h e v e s s e l i n o r d e r t o s t r e n g t h e n o r    w a te r pr o o f t h em : l e av e s o f                      Ricinus communis   or    Sida

rhombifolia, o i l o r s a p f r o m   Raphia vinifera   or    Elaeis

 guineensis, f ru it s, f ib er s, r oo ts , c er ea l h us ks , m il k,

 porridge, or cow dung (see examples and details inGosselain   2002: 1 9 1–192).

S m ok in g a im s a t c ov er i ng t h e v es se l s ur f ac e w it hw o o d t a r i n o r d e r t o g i v e i t a b l a c k s h i n y a s p e c t a n d ,a c co r di n g t o s o me p o t te r s, i m p ro v e t h ei r s t re n gt h a n di m pe r v io u sn e ss . To t h at a i m, v e ss e ls r e t ri e ve d r e d h o t  f r om t he f ir e a r e u su al l y b ur i ed i n o r ga ni c m at er ia lss uc h a s g ra ss , m ai ze s pa th s, c er ea l h us k o r c ha ff ,a ni ma l m an ur e, f ru it p od s, b ar k o r w oo d s ha vi ng s( s ee e x am p le s i n G o ss e la i n   2002 : 1 9 2–1 9 3 ) . A n o t h er    t e c h n i q u e , o b s e r v e d i n t h e G r e a t L a k e s r e g i o n , c o n s i s t so f m ai nt ai ni ng v es se ls a bo ve a f ir e m ad e o f g ra ss ,

 plantain leaves, or reeds (Trowell   1941).L a s t l y , v e s s e l s m a y b e p l u n g e d i n , o r s p r i n k l e d w i t h ,

f r e s h w a t e r o r b o i l i n g w a t e r ( s e e e x a m p l e s i n G o s s e l a i n2002: 1 9 3 ) . H e r e a g a i n , t h e a i m w o u l d b e t o w a t e r p r o o f                    a n d s t r e n g t h e n t h e w a r e s .

A s w it h c la y p rep ar at io n o r f ir in g t ec hn iq ue s,a r ti s an s g e ne r al l y h a ve a v e ry c l ea r - cu t o p i ni o n a b ou t  t he i ng re di en ts t ha t i t i s a dv is ab le t o s el ec t a nd t hew ay t o p re pa r e t he m. T he se o p in io ns a re e xt r em el yd i ve r g en t . I n s u b- S a ha r an A f r ic a , a b ou t 5 0 p l an t s a r ec ur re nt ly u se d f or m ak in g o rg an ic c oa ti ng s, a s w eh a v e s e e n a b o v e , b u t f e w p o t t e r s k n o w a b o u t m o r e t h a n

o ne a nd e ac h p ot te r b el ie ve s t he r e i s n o a lt er n at iv e t o

h i s o r h er c ho ic e. S im il a rl y, t ho se w ho p re pa r e t he ir    c oa ti ng i n d ec oc ti on o r m ac er at io n f or m a nd a pp lyt h em h ot o r c ol d c on si de r i t i nc on ce iv ab le t o p r oc ee do t h er w is e . I n r e a li t y, a l l c h o ic e s a r e p e r fe c tl y j u st i fi e df r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t e c h n i c a l a n d e s t h e t i c a i m s .A n a na ly si s o f t he v ar io us f ru it s a nd b ar ks u se d

i n c e r ta i n z o ne s o f s u b- S ah a r an A f r ic a i n de e d r e ve a lst he p re se nc e o f o ne s am e c at eg or y o f t an ni ns , t he procyanidins, which have excellent coloring andw a t e r p r o o f i n g p r o p e r t i e s ( D i a l o e t a l .   1995).

I n g e n e r a l , t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g a s p e c t o f t h e p o s t f i r i n gs ta ge h as t o d o w it h i ts n um er ou s r el at io ns hi ps t oo t h e r s p h e r e s o f a c t i v i t y . T h u s , m o s t o f t h e p l a n t t y p e st h at a rt is an s s el ec t a re u se d f or d ie t, l ea th er d ye s, f ab r ic so r b as ke ts , w al l a nd p av em en t w at er pr oo fi ng a nd ,a bo ve a ll , p ha r ma co po ei a. T hi s l as t d om a in i s p ar t i-c u l ar l y i n t er e st i n g a s t h e i l l ne s se s a n d i n ju r i es t r e at e dw i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e s a m e p r e p a r a t i o n s t h a t p o t t e r s u s e

a r e c h ar a ct e ri z ed e s pe c ia l ly b y d i sc h ar g es ( G os s el a in1999 ,   2002: 197–1 98 , 2 10–2 11 ): v ar i ou s w ou nd s,d i a r r h ea , g o n o r r he a , h e m o r r ha g e , m e n o r r ha g i a , u l c e r s,e t c . U s e o f t h e s e p r e p a r a t i o n s a l s o a p p e a r s d u r i n g b i r t ha n d c i r c u m c i s i o n r i t e s . W h a t w e f i n d a t w o r k , h e r e , i ss i m p l y t h e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n o f a n e x t r e m e l y w i d e s p r e a da s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n p o t t e r y m a k i n g a n d h u m a n b e i n g s(Barley   1994; David et al.   1988; G o ss e la i n   2002:205–2 0 8 ; R i t z 1989) . A n d s i n c e t r e a t i n g a p o t o r t r e a t i n ga b o d y a r e r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s f r o m a s y m b o l i c p o i n t o f                    v i e w , a s t r o n g c h a n n e l i n g o f b e h a v i o r s c a n o c c u r w h e ns e l e c t i n g i n g r e d i e n t s o r p r e p a r a t i o n m o d e s .

T hi s f a ct i ll us tr at es p er f ec tl y w hy a   chaîne opér-atoire   c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d t o m e r e a c t i o n s o n m a t t e r . A ss t r e s s e d b y L e m o n i e r ( 1991) a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r s c h o l a r s ,t e c h n i q u e s d o n o t s o l e l y a i m a t t r a n s f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l so r a c t i n g u p o n t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d . T h e y a l s o r e s p o n d t oa s e ri e s o f s o ci a l, p o l it i ca l , e c on o mi c al , a n d s y mb o li cc o n c e r n s , w h o s e c o m p o n e n t s m a y b e f o u n d a t a n y l e v e lof the m an ufactur ing process as we have seent h r o u g ho u t t h i s a r t i c le .

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 Journal   8 . 2 ( 1 9 4 1 ) : 4 7 –64.V e r n o n - J a c k s o n , H . C r a f t s W o r k i n B i d a .  Africa   2 5 ( 1 9 6 0 ) :

51–73.V i nc e n t e l li , M .   Women Potters: Transforming Traditions.

  New Bruns wick: Rutgers Univers ity Pres s , 2003.Wa l l ae r t, H . M a nu a l L a te r al i ty A p pr e nt i ce s hi p a s t h e F i rs t  

L ea rn in g R ul e P re sc ri be d t o P ot te rs : A C as e S tu dy i nH a n d m a d e P o t t e r y f r o m N o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n .  Urgeschich-tliche Materialhefte   1 4 ( 1 9 9 9 ) : 6 3 –84.

Wo o d s , A . J . M e t h o ds o f P o t t e ry M a n u f a c t u re i n t h e K a v a n g oR e g io n o f N a m ib i a : Tw o C a se s S t ud i es .   Earthenware in

 Asia and Africa.   E d. J . P i ct o n. L o nd o n: P e rc i va l D a v idF o u n d at i o n , 1 9 8 4 . 3 0 3–25.

Ceramics in China

J I A Z H I   L I , P . L . L E U N G , K . N . Y U , R . W U

C h in a w a s o ne o f t he e ar l ie st c ou nt r ie s t ha t p os se ss ed pottery, and was also the country that invented porcelain.

S he h as a u ni qu e a nd s us ta in ed h is to ry o f t ec hn iq ued e v el o p me n t o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 y e a rs . T h e e n t ir e d e v el o p me n t  c an b e s um ma ri ze d b y f iv e m il esto nes a nd t hr eet e c hn o l og i c al b r e ak t h ro u g hs . T h e o u t st a n di n g a c h ie v e -m e n ts i n t h is d e v el o p me n t c o n st i t ut e d a n i n d is p e ns a b lec o n t r i b u t i o n t o C h i n e s e c u l t u r e ( Table 1   a n d M a p 1 ) .

Five Milestones The First Milestone: Appearance of Pottery in the Early 

Neolithic Age

A cc or d in g t o a rc he ol o gi ca l i n fo r ma ti on , a ft e r t hed i sc ov er y o f p ot te ri es o f t h e Ya ng sh ao c ul tu r e, t hef o l l o w i n g w e r e d i s c o v e r e d :

.   T h os e o f t he H em u du c ul tu r e i n Yu ya o, Z he ji an gP r o v i n c e a b o u t 7 , 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o

.   T h o s e o f t h e C i s h a n c u l t u r e a n d t h e P e i l i g a n g c u l t u r ea b o u t 8 , 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o

.   T ho se o f t he P en gt ou sh an c ul tu re i n L i C ou nt y,H un an P r ov in ce a nd t h e J ia hu c ul tu r e i n W uy an gC o u n t y , H e n a n P r o v i n c e a b o u t 9 , 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o

.   T h o s e a t t h e Y u c h a n y a n s i t e i n D a o C o u n t y , H u n a nP r o vi n ce , t h e X i a nr e nd o n g s i te i n Wa n n ia n C o u nt y,J i a ng x i P r o vi n ce , a n d t h e N a n zh u a ng t o u s i t e i n X u sh u i

C o u n t y , H e b e i P r o v i n c e a b o u t 1 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o

4 4 Ce ra mi cs i n Ch in a