Cenozoic palaeogeographic evolution of Sulawesi and Borneosearg.rhul.ac.uk/pubs/wilson_moss_1999 Sulawesi Borneo review.pdf · ELSEVIER Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

ELSEVIER Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 145 (1999) 303–337

Cenozoic palaeogeographic evolution of Sulawesi and Borneo

Moyra E.J. Wilson Ł, Steve J. Moss 1

SE Asia Research Group, Department of Geology, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK

Received 30 September 1997; revised version received 1 July 1998; accepted 6 July 1998

Abstract

Sulawesi and Borneo are located in the middle of the Indonesian Archipelago, an area which has been extremelytectonically active throughout the Cenozoic. This paper compiles current knowledge on the geology and palaeogeographyof this complex region and includes the first attempt to synthesise palaeogeographic data onto plate tectonic reconstructions.Construction of palaeogeographic maps helped to identify some of the strengths and weaknesses of current plate tectonicmodels for the region, thereby highlighting areas where further geological research is required. Palaeogeographic mapspresented, using plate tectonic reconstructions as a base, illustrate the evolution of Borneo and Sulawesi and highlightimportant changes in the environment during the Cenozoic. The Tertiary geological history of eastern Borneo and Sulawesiis inextricably linked to the progressive accretion of continental and oceanic material from the east, onto the eastern marginof Sundaland, and to the resultant development of volcanic arcs. Large tracts of western Sulawesi, eastern Borneo, the EastJava Sea and the Makassar Straits formed an extensive basinal area throughout much of the Tertiary. Implications for platetectonics, exploration for natural resources and biogeography are discussed from the palaeogeographic reconstructions ofSulawesi and Borneo. 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: palaeoenvironments; palaeogeography; tectonics; Cenozoic; Southeast Asia; biogeography; resources

1. Introduction

The islands of Borneo and Sulawesi lie in themidst of an extremely complex tectonic region wherethree major plates; the Indo-Australian, Philippine-Pacific and Asian plates interact and collide (Fig. 1).The areas between these major plates is a compos-ite domain of smaller microcontinental and oceanicfragments and a region where volcanism has beencommon throughout the Tertiary. Sulawesi and Bor-

Ł Corresponding author. Tel.: C44-17844-43592; Fax: C44-17844-34716; E-mail: [email protected] Present address: Robertsons Research Australia Pty Ltd., 69Outram Street, West Perth, W.A. 6005, Australia.

neo are frontier exploration provinces for many nat-ural resources, such as hydrocarbons, minerals, coal,material for use in the construction, agricultural orpharmaceutical industries. A knowledge of the re-gional variations in palaeogeography through time,when combined with information such as strati-graphic thicknesses or nature of volcanism mayprovide a useful tool for the exploration of thesenatural resources. An understanding of the evolutionof this region is also of critical importance to bio-geographers, since Wallace’s original faunal divideruns between the two islands, and is now taken torepresent the eastern boundary of Asiatic biota.

A range of geological information suggests thatlarge areas of Kalimantan and western Sulawesi had

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Fig. 1. Regional tectonic setting of Sulawesi and Borneo and the distribution of pre-Mesozoic cratonic areas and Tertiary basinal area in Sulawesi and Borneo. Modifiedafter Hamilton (1979), Hutchison (1989), Daly et al. (1991), Parkinson (1991), Van de Weerd and Armin (1992) and Hall (1996).

M.E.J. Wilson, S.J. Moss / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 145 (1999) 303–337 305

been juxtaposed and attached to southwestern Bor-neo, part of the eastern margin of Sundaland, “thestable core of SE Asia”, by the Late Cretaceous(Metcalfe, 1996). Tertiary subduction of the IndianOcean, Philippine Sea and Molucca Sea plates wasresponsible for the progressive collision, accretionand assimilation of fragments of continental andoceanic crust along the eastern margin of Sunda-land. Around the eastern and southern margins ofSundaland, within this overall compressional, sub-duction-related regime, various extensional episodeshave resulted in the formation of extensive sedi-mentary basins and in some cases, marginal oceanicbasins developed (the South China, Sulu and Celebesseas; Fig. 1).

During the last twenty years several Tertiary platetectonic reconstructions have been developed forSoutheast Asia (Carey, 1975; Hamilton, 1979; Ran-gin et al., 1990; Daly et al., 1991; Lee and Lawver,1994, 1995; Hall, 1996). There is now a growingconsensus over some of the main points of the platetectonic evolution of the area, although detailed el-ements of the reconstructions and the mechanismsdriving plate tectonics are still under dispute. Com-paring local palaeogeographic information with re-gional reconstructions is one way to test the validityof these reconstructions by highlighting matches ordiscrepancies in the inferred tectonic setting and dis-tribution of depositional environments. However, un-til now for Borneo and Sulawesi, palaeogeographicreconstructions have only been drawn on a localscale and rarely within a plate tectonic context. Al-though we are limited by the incomplete nature ofthe geological record or by imperfections in ourknowledge of the geology, for areas where data aregood a reliable test can be made. The first and oftenmost critical step in plate tectonic reconstructions isto delimit which areas formed plate boundaries andto evaluate how the nature of these plate marginsvaried through time. A study of facies variations canhelp to evaluate discontinuities or possible connec-tions between regions. Comparing palaeogeographicdata with plate tectonic reconstructions also high-lights gaps in the geological data base and suggestskey areas for future research.

Borneo and Sulawesi are of prime importance tobiogeography and palaeobiogeography of SoutheastAsia. The faunal divide of Wallace (1863), originally

thought to delineate regions of Asiatic and Aus-tralian flora and fauna, runs through the MakassarStraits between the two islands and also betweenBali and Lombok. This original faunal divide isnow taken as the western boundary of Wallacea(Dickerson, 1928), which is best described as a bio-geographic region with a high degree of endemismsituated between areas with Asiatic and Australianfloras and faunas (George, 1981; Whitten et al.,1987). The Makassar Straits appears to have been abarrier to dispersal for many groups of animals, al-though the clear faunal contrast (Earl of Cranbrook,1981; Briggs, 1987; Musser, 1987) is not reflected tothe same extent by the flora (George, 1981; Van Bal-gooy, 1987). Regional plate tectonic changes havebeen related to biogeography by a number of au-thors (Audley-Charles et al., 1981; Audley-Charles,1981, 1987; Burrett et al., 1991; Hall, 1998). Thiswork concentrates on Borneo and Sulawesi and sum-marizes how the Cenozoic plate tectonic variationsand the changes in palaeoenvironment may haveaffected past migrations=dispersals. A detailed dis-cussion of this topic can be found in Moss andWilson (1998).

The future potential economic growth of South-east Asia is in part dependent on utilising its wealthof natural resources. Borneo and Sulawesi are bothareas of proven coal, hydrocarbon, minerals andbuilding material accumulations and considerableeffort is being put into exploration for further dis-coveries. The location and amounts of these naturalresources depends on the geological evolution of thearea and the past distribution of environments, re-sulting in the formation of certain rock types and theeconomic accumulation of natural resources. There-fore constructing palaeogeographic maps is a usefultool for furthering the exploration of natural re-sources, and particularly in the hydrocarbon industrythis method is routinely used.

2. Data sources, quality and methodology

The bases for the plate tectonic template usedin this paper are the recent reconstructions of Hall(1996) which incorporate new data from eastern In-donesia to help constrain the motion of the PhilippineSea Plate (Hall et al., 1995). Many reconstructions of

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the region imply major strike-slip faulting followingIndia’s collision with the Eurasian margin (Peltzerand Tapponnier, 1988; Rangin et al., 1990; Daly etal., 1991; Lee and Lawver, 1994, 1995). The Indiancollision is seen in all these reconstructions as themajor driving force controlling Tertiary tectonics ofSoutheast Asia. The reconstruction of Hall (1996)still recognizes the important influence of majorstrike-slip faulting in Southeast Asia (with displace-ments of about 500 km, after Briais et al., 1993).However, the major driving forces are suggested tobe the motions of the Philippine Sea Plate and col-lision of the Australian plate (Hall, 1996). Althoughthese reconstruction differ in terms of their detailand mechanisms, most of Borneo and Sulawesi donot differ significantly for the purposes of plottingpalaeogeographic data.

Compiling palaeogeographic data onto selectedtimeslices of the reconstruction highlighted regionswhich were incompatible from a palaeogeographicpoint of view, thereby providing a test for the platetectonic reconstructions. The Atlas program used byHall (1996) to reconstruct the Tertiary history of theregion only allowed a certain number of tectonicfragments to be defined and internal deformationcould not be modeled within these fragments. In aregion which was variously undergoing extension,compression, transtension or transpression it is un-likely that the individual blocks defined would haveacted rigidly. Therefore, depending on the stressregime for different areas some internal deformationhas been incorporated and in certain areas, partic-ularly in Sulawesi, the reconstructions used differslightly from those of Hall (1996) as suggested bythe palaeogeographic data.

The rotation history of Borneo and western Su-lawesi is still highly contentious. Hall’s (1996) re-construction incorporated a counterclockwise rota-tion of southern Borneo and western Sulawesi of 45ºbetween 20 and 10 Ma. However, it is recognisedthat regional and local block rotations are difficult todistinguish and interpret on the basis of the currentpalaeomagnetic data available for the region (Ranginet al., 1990; Ludmadyo et al., 1993; Lee and Lawver,1994; Hall, 1996; Moss et al., 1997). Various authorseither favour no rotation (Ludmadyo et al., 1993;Lee and Lawver, 1994) or variable amounts of coun-terclockwise rotation (Haile et al., 1977; Schmidtke

et al., 1990; Fuller et al., 1991, 1999; Sunyata andWahyono, 1991; Moss et al., 1997) for southernBorneo and the South Arm of Sulawesi for the Ter-tiary. Since different timing and amounts of rotationwould have affected the evolution and accretion ofmaterial forming eastern Sulawesi and the natureof the change between northern mainland Borneoand the South China Sea, the 45º counterclockwiserotation of Hall (1996) remains in the palaeogeo-graphic reconstructions shown. However, there is aneed for further local and regional palaeomagneticwork to better understand the rotational history ofthe islands.

The series of palaeogeographic maps presentedhere illustrate the evolution of Borneo and Sulawesiduring the Cenozoic. The data used in constructingthese palaeogeographies were derived from an exten-sive literature review and considerable fieldwork byLondon University SE Asia Research Group on Bor-neo and Sulawesi. These maps have been constructedusing all the available geological evidence, includingfacies, stratigraphic, biostratigrapic, igneous, meta-morphic, structural and palaeomagnetic data. Signif-icant gaps exist within the data set, and particularlyfor some of the remoter areas there is limited in-formation. The maps represent time slices, and assuch are attempts to show the environments whichare inferred to have existed around that moment intime. The time slices shown were chosen to bestillustrate key periods in the palaeogeographic evolu-tion of these islands. In some areas, marked changesin environment may have taken place before, be-tween and after the time slices shown. Periods ofnon-deposition and erosion are not shown on thediagrams although they have been recognised inthe sedimentary record in several basins. Previousattempts at palaeogeographic reconstruction have ei-ther been limited to small areas, such as hydrocarbonexploration blocks (Wain and Berod, 1989) or verygeneralised palaeogeographies for very long time pe-riods (Umbgrove, 1938; Beddoes, 1980; Rose andHartono, 1978; Van de Weerd and Armin, 1992; Su-darmono et al., 1997). As far as we know this isthe first attempt to synthesise palaeogeographic andplate tectonic data, creating meaningful palaeogeo-graphic reconstructions for the whole area of Borneoand Sulawesi.


3. Geology and tectonics of Borneo and Sulawesi

Sulawesi and Borneo are situated in a tectonicallycomplex region between three major plates. Thepresent-day setting is mirrored by the complexity ofthe pre-Tertiary and Tertiary geology of these twoislands, which is briefly reviewed below.

3.1. Borneo

Borneo is bounded by three marginal basins (SouthChina, Sulu and Celebes seas), microcontinental frag-ments of south China origin (Dangerous Grounds,Reed Bank) to the north-northeast, mainland South-east Asia (Indochina and Peninsula Malaysia) to thewest-northwest and the Javanese volcanic arc to thesouth (Figs. 1 and 2). Borneo has been interpretedas the product of Mesozoic accretion of ophioliticmaterial, marginal basin fill, island arc material andmicrocontinental fragments onto the Palaeozoic con-tinental core of the Schwaner Mountains in the south-west of the island (Fig. 2; Hutchison, 1989; Metcalfe,1996). Borneo formed a promontory on the south-eastern margin of Sundaland, the stable margin ofthe Eurasian plate by the Tertiary. East of Borneo,and separating it from Sulawesi are the deep Northand South Makassar Basins (Fig. 2), comprising theMakassar Straits, the formation of which was initiatedby the middle Eocene (Situmorang, 1982). Two NW–SE-trending fault zones bound the North MakassarBasin to the north and south, respectively.

Pre-Tertiary rocks occur in the southwestern(Schwaner Mountains) and eastern (Meratus Moun-tains) parts of Borneo and from northeast to south-west across the island (Central Kalimantan Ranges;Fig. 2). The Schwaner Mountains include Palaeo-zoic metamorphic rocks intruded by numerous Creta-ceous granites and tonalites, and this area is thoughtto have formed part of the stable Sundaland cra-ton during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Permo-Tri-assic schists, gneisses, granites, gabbros and serpen-tinites also crop out within the Busang and Embuoicomplexes, located at the eastern and western endsof the Ketungau Basin, respectively, and are possi-bly bounded by low-angle detachment faults (Fig. 2;Pieters and Supriatna, 1990). To the north of theSchwaner Mountains and within the Central Kaliman-tan Ranges are other smaller Cretaceous (131–75 Ma)

granites which intrude deformed basic and ultrabasicrocks, a melange zone and cherts of probable Juras-sic to Cretaceous age (Amiruddin, 1989; Heryanto etal., 1993; Harahap, 1995). Upper Cretaceous to lowerTertiary turbidites of the Rajang and Embaluh groupscomprise much of the Central Kalimantan Rangesand have also been intruded by Cretaceous granitesin places (Pieters and Supriatna, 1990; Fig. 2). Anaccretionary prism origin has been inferred for thelithologies in the Central Kalimantan Ranges (Hamil-ton, 1979), although Moss (1998) suggested a rem-nant oceanic basin depositional setting for the tur-biditic lithologies. Cretaceous shelf sandstones (Se-langkai Formation), limestones, Triassic granites andolder metamorphic rocks also occur in the centre ofBorneo (Pieters and Supriatna, 1990; Fig. 2). A widevariety of tectonically intercalated sedimentary, meta-morphic and basic to ultrabasic igneous rocks occur inthe Meratus Mountains (Fig. 2). These have been in-terpreted as back-arc oceanic material and associatedvolcanic and sedimentary rocks accreted and thrustonto the eastern margin of the Sundaland craton inthe Early Cretaceous (Sikumbang, 1986, 1990). TheMesozoic geology of Borneo is reviewed in greaterdetail in Tate (1991) and Moss (1998).

Major tracts of eastern, central and northernBorneo are covered by Tertiary sedimentary rocks(Fig. 2), which were deposited in lacustrine, fluvialmarginal-marine or marine environments (Fig. 4).The depocentres, were often laterally interconnected,locally through intricate and narrow links (Fig. 2;Pieters et al., 1987; Pieters and Supriatna, 1990).Tertiary sediments rest unconformably on variablydeformed pre-Tertiary units (Hutchison, 1996a) andearlier basement structures influenced basin evolu-tion (Cloke et al., 1997). Tertiary sedimentation oc-curred contemporaneously with, and subsequent to,a period of Palaeogene extension and subsidence,which had begun by the middle Eocene (Hutchison,1996a; Moss et al., 1997; Moss and Finch, 1998;Moss and Chambers, 1999). The Tertiary sedimen-tary history in Borneo was punctuated by severalphases of volcanic activity (Fig. 4).

3.2. Sulawesi

Sulawesi is formed of distinct N–S-trending tec-tonic provinces (Fig. 3; Sukamto, 1975), which are


Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of Borneo after references given in the text.


Fig. 3. Simplified geological map of Sulawesi after references given in the text. Tectono-stratigraphic subdivisions and names of differentareas of Sulawesi used in the text are also shown.

thought to have been sequentially accreted onto Sun-daland during the Cretaceous and Tertiary. Thesetectonic provinces, moving from west to east, arethe Western Sulawesi Plutono-Volcanic Arc, theCentral Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt, the East Su-lawesi Ophiolite and the microcontinental blocks ofBanggai–Sula and Buton–Tukang Besi (Sukamto,1975; Hamilton, 1979; Parkinson, 1991). In partdue to a lack of information, and to different inter-

pretations of the available data, the evolution andjuxtaposition of fragments within Sulawesi remainshighly contentious. An attempt has been made todescribe the alternative hypotheses and to evaluatethe implications of these varying interpretations.

The Western Sulawesi Plutono-Volcanic Arc, com-prising the North and South Arms of Sulawesi, iscomposed of thick Tertiary sedimentary and volcanicsequences overlying pre-Tertiary tectonically interca-

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lated metamorphic, ultrabasic and marine sedimen-tary lithologies (Figs. 3 and 5; Sukamto, 1975; VanLeeuwen, 1981). However, given the very differentlithologies and geochemistry of the igneous rocksthe eastern part of the North Arm is now regardedas a separate tectonic province from the South Armand the neck of the North Arm (Van Leeuwen et al.,1994; see below). Central Sulawesi and parts of theSoutheast Arm of Sulawesi are composed of shearedmetamorphic rocks and in the east a highly tectonisedmelange complex is present, together comprising theCentral Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt (Sukamto, 1975;Hamilton, 1979; Parkinson, 1991). Similarities be-tween the pre-Tertiary rocks and a few potassium–argon dates from some of the metamorphic rocks havebeen used to suggest that these regions, which in-clude microcontinental fragments, had been accretedonto the eastern margin of Sundaland before the Ter-tiary (Sukamto, 1975; Hasan, 1991; Parkinson, 1991;Parkinson et al., 1998; Wakita et al., 1994). However,data from the Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt,particularly from the Southeast Arm, is sparse, and thetiming of accretion of this area is poorly constrained.The Tertiary stratigraphy of western Sulawesi is simi-lar to that of eastern Kalimantan and the East Java Seabecause the whole area had begun to subside by themiddle Eocene and a widespread basin formed (Vande Weerd and Armin, 1992).

The eastern side of the South Arm (Lamasi Vol-canics and Kalamiseng Formation) and much ofthe eastern parts of the East and Southeast Armsof Sulawesi are composed of tectonically interca-lated marine sedimentary rocks and mafic and ul-tramafic igneous rocks interpreted as an ophioliticsequence (Sukamto, 1975; Silver et al., 1978; Yu-wono et al., 1987; Simandjuntak, 1990; Parkinson,1991; Bergman et al., 1996). A somewhat confusingarray of Cretaceous to Miocene K–Ar and Ar–Ardates have been obtained from the mafic and ul-tramafic rocks in eastern South Sulawesi (Yuwonoet al., 1987; Bergman et al., 1996). If the Tertiaryages represent emplacement ages of this ophiolite se-

Fig. 4. Simplified Cenozoic stratigraphic correlation in Borneo (after references given in text). Abbreviations for units are: SI D SintangIntrusives; BB D Batu Baleh Limestone member; BA D Batu Ayau Formation; BK D Batu Kelau; RM D Ritan Member; UTF D UpperTanjung Formation; LTF D Lower Tanjung Formation; T D Tabul; ML D Meliat Limestone; MS D Meliat Sandstone; L D Latih; TF DTogopi Formation; TK D Tukau; LB D Libong; TJ D Tanjong; SB D S. Banggai; S D Setap Shales; K D Kalumpang; GL D GomantongLimestone.

quence (Bergman et al., 1996) then it becomes ques-tionable whether western, central and parts of theSoutheast Arm of Sulawesi were already juxtaposedby the Tertiary. Alternatively, these Tertiary datesmay be deformational ages related to collision andaccretion of material onto eastern Sulawesi (Polve etal., 1997). Central and part of the Southeast Arm ofSulawesi have been attached to western Sulawesi inthe reconstructions shown, although these may needrefinement as further data becomes available.

The East Sulawesi Ophiolite consists of a fullsuite of ophiolite lithologies, tectonically interca-lated with Cretaceous or Mesozoic pelagic sedimen-tary rocks. Metamorphic ages (28–32 Ma; Parkinson,1991, 1998) from rocks overthrust by the East Su-lawesi Ophiolite suggest emplacement of this ophi-olite sequence occurred during or after the middleto late Oligocene. Palaeomagnetic data (Mubroto etal., 1994), together with geochemistry and field re-lationships, have been used to infer that at least partof the East Sulawesi Ophiolite formed further to thesouth in a back-arc setting (Fig. 3; Parkinson, 1991).In comparison, a single back-arc basin origin for theEast Sulawesi Ophiolite, the Palaeogene Tinombo–Labuanaki Formations of the North Arm of Sulawesiand the Celebes Sea have been suggested on the basisof geochemical similarities (Monnier et al., 1995).Cenomanian to early Oligocene ages have been ob-tained from mafic rocks in the East Arm, suggestingthat the East Sulawesi Ophiolite may be composite innature (Parkinson, 1991). On the reconstructions, theback-arc basin in which the East Sulawesi Ophiolite,and other possibly related oceanic fragments, mayhave formed, are not shown due to the conflictingtheories on their origin. However, if the Paleogeneigneous lithologies on the North Arm of Sulawesiwere generated in a deep marine setting rather thanas a subduction related arc, the occurrence of a chainof volcanic islands in northern Sulawesi would thenbe questionable.

On the islands of Buton–Tukang Besi andBanggai–Sula, metamorphic and igneous litholo-

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gies of continental origin are exposed or arethought to underlie shallow and deep marine sed-iments of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic ages, respec-tively. The Palaeozoic lithologies are thought to haveAustralian–New Guinea affinities, whereas deposi-tion of shallow and deep marine sedimentary litholo-gies is inferred during rifting and drifting of the frag-ments in the Mesozoic (Audley-Charles et al., 1988;Hamilton, 1979; Pigram and Panggabean, 1984; Gar-rard et al., 1988). Buton is thought to have collidedwith eastern Sulawesi during the early (Davidson,1991) or middle Miocene (Smith and Silver, 1991),whereas latest Miocene or early Pliocene collisionwith the East Arm of Sulawesi is inferred for Bang-gai Sula (Garrard et al., 1988; Smith and Silver,1991). Fortuin et al. (1990) and Davidson (1991)suggested that Tukang Besi was a separate micro-continental block, which was accreted to Buton inthe Plio=Pleistocene, although not all authors recog-nise this as a separate microcontinental fragment(Smith and Silver, 1991).

4. Palaeogeographic evolution

A series of palaeogeographic maps for intervalsbetween the middle Eocene and the present day arepresented as Figs. 6–11. The palaeoenvironmentalelements distinguished are land areas, including lowlying regions of fluvial deposition, major river sys-tems and marginal marine=deltaic systems, as wellas regions of more mountainous topography. Areasof shallow water and deeper water fine grained andcoarser redeposited clastic and carbonate depositswere mapped. Volcanic activity, subdivided into ar-eas of inferred subaerial and submarine volcanism,is also shown on the reconstructions. The outlinesof the present day coastlines are shown on the re-constructions for reference. Stratigraphic correlationcharts for Borneo and Sulawesi are shown as Figs. 4and 5, respectively.

Fig. 5. Simplified Cenozoic stratigraphic correlation in Sulawesi (after references given in text). Abbreviations for units are: S=P V DSoppeng=Parepare Volcanics; RL D Ratatokok Limestone; BD D Bone Diorite; SL D Salayar Limestone; WF D Walanae Formation; TLD Tacipi Limestone; BF D Bone Formation; TL D Tonasa Limestone; PU D Puna Formation; PO D Poso Formation; UPL D UpperPlatform Limestone; LPL D Lower Platform Limestone.

4.1. Eocene (Figs. 6 and 7)

A land connection between southern Borneo andmainland Southeast Asia is inferred to have existedduring the Eocene (Pupilli, 1973) and may havebeen present since the Jurassic (Lloyd, 1978). A thincover (<300 m) of Quaternary sediments is reportedto overlie pre-Tertiary rocks on the Sunda Shelf(Ben-Avraham and Emery, 1973). However, sincefew wells penetrate the succession on the SundaShelf only a limited amount of geological informa-tion is available. Although a land area is inferred forthis area throughout much of the Tertiary, it is possi-ble that marine sediments deposited during possibletransgressions of this region may have been removedby later erosion.

During the late Cretaceous to late Paleocene=Eocene, turbidites and other deep water sedimentsof the Rajang Group, Belaga, Mulu, Kelalan, EastCrocker Formations and parts of the upper Em-baluh Group were deposited in deep marine basins inSabah, Sarawak and northern Kalimantan (Liechti,1960; Tate, 1991; Moss, 1998). Fluvial=marginalmarine sands of the Kayan Sandstone Formationfrom southern Sarawak have been variously dated asLate Cretaceous to Tertiary, although structural andstratigraphic relationships suggest that the ages mayvary across Sarawak (Tate, 1991). Therefore thesesandstones may in part represent the lateral terres-trial and marginal marine equivalents to the deepmarine sediments to the north. The sediments forthese shallow and deep marine clastics in northernBorneo may have been supplied via river systemsfrom Indochina. The upper Cretaceous and lowestPalaeogene sediments were deformed and upliftedin the ‘Sarawak Orogeny’, and are unconformablyoverlain by shallow and deep marine sedimentsof middle to late Eocene age, such as the Tatau,Silantek and Melinau Formations in Sarawak andthe middle Eocene Kiham Haloq Sandstone Forma-tion in Kalimantan (Benard et al., 1990; Hutchison,1996a).


Fig. 6. Palaeogeographic map for 50 Ma, early Eocene. A key to the environments is shown. Some place names are shown for reference.Rivers are shown schematically on all the palaeogeographic maps.


Fig. 7. Palaeogeographic map for 42 Ma, middle Eocene. A key to the environments is shown in Fig. 6.


Cretaceous dates from schists in the basementcomplexes in Sulawesi suggest that western andcentral Sulawesi had been accreted onto southernBorneo before the Tertiary (Sukamto, 1975; Parkin-son, 1991; Wakita et al., 1996). Outcrops of schists,gneisses and marbles, of unknown age, also occurin the Southeast Arm of Sulawesi, the island ofKabaena and the western part of the North Arm ofSulawesi. These areas and the South Arm of Su-lawesi are regarded as a region of microcontinentalmaterial and may have formed a contiguous land areaduring the early Palaeogene as shown on the recon-structions. However, it is stressed that data from thisregion, particularly the Southeast Arm of Sulawesi,is extremely limited and that as more data becomesavailable the interpretations may change. Much ofmainland Southeast Asia, southern Borneo and west-ern Sulawesi appear to have been emergent duringthe Paleocene and the early Eocene, with a distinctlack of reliably dated sedimentary rocks recordedfrom these periods.

Geochemistry, K–Ar and zircon fission-track dat-ing of calc-alkaline rocks from the Langi Formation(63 š 2.2 Ma; Sukamto, 1975 and 58.5 Ma; VanLeeuwen, 1981) and dating of interbedded sediments(Eocene=Oligocene foraminifera from the Langi andSalo Kalupang Formations) in eastern South Su-lawesi suggests that a volcanic arc occurred in thisarea during the Palaeogene (Sukamto, 1975; VanLeeuwen, 1981; Sukamto and Supriatna, 1982). Thecalc-alkaline nature and enrichment of light rareearth elements indicates that the volcanics were sub-duction related (Yuwono et al., 1985), probably froma W-dipping subduction zone (Van Leeuwen, 1981).Palaeogene volcanics, volcaniclastic and sedimen-tary lithologies of the Tinombo Formation also occurin west-central Sulawesi and on the North Arm.However, the Tinombo Formation has very differ-ent characteristics in the neck of the North Armcompared with the eastern part of the North Arm, in-dicating very different origins for these areas. In theneck, sedimentary lithologies dominate and includelocalised shallow marine limestones of middle andlate Eocene ages, shales and turbidites, of greywackecomposition containing clasts derived from conti-nental material (Van Leeuwen et al., 1994). Vol-canic suites consist of basalt–andesite–dacite, whichare dominantly volcanic arc tholeitic and calcalka-

line (Priadi et al., 1994), and are associated withlater diorite, quartz diorite and granodiorite intru-sives (T.M. van Leeuwen, pers. commun., 1998).Although Polve et al. (1997) suggested a back-arcsetting for this area during the Eocene based on threedyke samples only. Along the eastern part of theNorth Arm volcanic rocks with bimodal associationsof basalt–basaltic andesite and rhyolite dominate andare intercalated with pelagic limestones and chertswith a few middle Eocene to lower Miocene nan-nofossil dates (T.M. van Leeuwen, pers. commun.,1998). Gabbros and diorites intrude the successionsand the igneous lithologies are tholeitic and ‘MORB-like’ with a slight negative Nb–Ta anomaly andtheir geochemistry suggests a back-arc origin. ThePalaeogene igneous lithologies in the neck of theNorth Arm have similarities with those in the restof western Sulawesi and may be subduction related(Priadi et al., 1994), whereas an ophiolitic origin orearly stages of a volcanic arc have been inferred forthe eastern part of the North Arm (Carlile et al.,1990)

There was widespread formation of basins aroundthe margins of Sundaland by middle Eocene times.Much of eastern Borneo, western Sulawesi, theMakassar Straits and the East Java Sea was a re-gion of middle to late Eocene extension and sed-imentation. Depositional environments varied bothtemporally and spatially between fluvial, deltaic,shallow marine clastic and carbonate shelves andareas of deeper water sedimentation. Evidence forEocene extension, block-faulting and subsidence areseen on seismic lines crossing the Makassar Straits(Burollet and Salle, 1981; Situmorang, 1982; Gun-toro, 1995; Bergman et al., 1996) and this was thetime when the land connection between Borneo andSulawesi was severed. The marginal oceanic basinof the Celebes Sea had begun to form in the middleEocene (Weissel, 1980; Rangin and Silver, 1991)and probably influenced basin initiation in Borneoand Sulawesi (Hall, 1996, Moss et al., 1997). Basinformation was partly contemporaneous with Eocenerhyolitic volcanism (50–45 Ma), and ash-falls andlava flows crop out in the Tarakan (Netherwood andWight, 1992) and Kutai Basins (Van Leeuwen et al.,1990; Heryanto et al., 1993; Suwarna et al., 1993;Moss et al., 1997). Similar volcanism also occurredalong the southern margin of the Mangkalihat Penin-


sula (Sunaryo et al., 1988) and the in the MullerMountains (Pieters et al., 1993b).

In western Borneo, fluvial and lacustrine sedi-ments, such those forming the Ingar and DangkanFormations, were deposited throughout much of theEocene in elongate depocentres of the Melawi–Ketungau–Mandai Basins (Fig. 2). It is inferred thatsediment deposited in these areas was supplied byrivers flowing from the south (Schwaner Mountainsarea) or west from Indochina, since marine depocen-tres were present to the north and east and are un-likely to have been a sediment source. Fluvial andmarginal marine sediments were also deposited insoutheastern Borneo, although by late Eocene timesshallow and deep marine clastic and carbonate sed-imentation also occurred. Marginal marine litholo-gies with coals and intercalations of volcanic rocks ofthe Sembukung Formation occur with the Tarakan–Muara depocentres, although shallow and deeper wa-ter carbonate deposition was common by the LateEocene on the Mangkalihat Peninsula (Wilson et al.,1999). By middle to late Eocene times large parts ofthe Kutai Basin (NP17–19; Moss and Finch, 1998)and neighbouring western Sulawesi (Wilson, 1995)were areas of deep and shallow open oceanic sed-imentation (Wilson, 1995; Calvert, pers. commun.,1998) and a deep marine setting is inferred for muchof the North and South Makassar Basins. Aroundthe margins of this deep basin, in the Kutai Basin,the northern part of the Tarakan Basin and west-ern Sulawesi, Upper Eocene deltaic sands, coals andsome shallow marine clastics and carbonates weredeposited (Kusuma and Darin, 1989; Van de Weerdand Armin, 1992; Coffield et al., 1993; Moss et al.,1997; Moss and Chambers, 1999). In the western partof the South Arm of Sulawesi, marginal marine clas-tics and coals of the Malawa=Toraja Formation areconformably overlain by a thick sequence of shallowmarine carbonates of the Tonasa Formation, the baseof which is lower=middle Eocene to upper Eocene(Crotty and Engelhardt, 1993; Wilson and Bosence,1997). By late Eocene times shallow marine carbon-ate sedimentation had been established over much ofsouthern Sulawesi (the Tonasa and Makale Forma-tions) although some areas were separated by deepmarine basins (Wilson and Bosence, 1996; Wilson etal., 1999). In Sarawak and Brunei dominantly argilla-ceous sediments of units such as the Silantek and

Tatau Formations were deposited under marginal ma-rine to marine conditions (Liechti, 1960). The UpperEocene shallow marine carbonates of the Engkili For-mation, deposited in the Lubok region of southwest-ern Sarawak unconformably overlie the Lubok Antumelange (Haile, 1998). Shallow marine carbonates ofthe Melinau Limestone in northeastern Sarawak, arelate Eocene to middle Miocene (Adams, 1965), andprobably developed in areas of antecedent topographyisolated from clastic input.

4.2. Oligocene (Fig. 8)

A land connection between Borneo and Indochinais still inferred for the Oligocene (Pupilli, 1973;Lloyd, 1978). Turbiditic sediments and shales ofthe Temburong, Setap Shale and West Crocker For-mations were deposited in Sarawak and Sabah indeep marine basins. These may have been fed largequantities of sediment by river systems originat-ing in the Central Kalimantan Ranges or Indochina.These deep marine successions pass laterally intoshallow marine sediments (Temburong and SetapFormations) in Brunei (Tate, 1994) and deltaic sedi-mentation occurred around the margins of the basinin Sabah and Sarawak. Several areas of shallow ma-rine carbonate deposition (Melinau, Selidong andKeramit Formations) were present in the Sabah–Sarawak region throughout most of the Oligocene,although deposition was not continuous (Adams,1965). The Sarawak Basin was progressively infilledwith argillaceous sediments during the Oligocene(Doust, 1981).

In the North and South Makassar Basins, deepmarine sedimentation in uniformly subsiding basinsis inferred for the Oligocene based on flat lying re-flectors seen on seismic (Situmorang, 1982; Guntoro,1995). However, in other parts of the basin, partic-ularly along the eastern margin of the PaternosterPlatform, seismic and borehole data suggests activeextensional faulting may have continued sporadi-cally through the Oligocene, and possibly into theMiocene (Situmorang, 1982; Guntoro, 1995; Wilsonand Bosence, 1996). Oligocene deep marine sedi-mentation also occurred in much of the Kutai Basin(Moss et al., 1997) and in some areas of west-cen-tral Sulawesi (Wilson, 1995). In the Tarakan–Muaraarea, the Mangkalihat Peninsula, Barito Basin, off-


Fig. 8. Palaeogeographic map for 34 Ma, early Oligocene. A key to the environments is shown in Fig. 6.

shore southern Barito and in South Sulawesi ex-tensive areas of shallow water carbonate platformsdeveloped or continued to accumulate sediment dur-ing the Oligocene, whilst deeper water marls weredeposited in adjacent areas (Bishop, 1980; Van deWeerd et al., 1987; Bransden and Matthews, 1992;Netherwood and Wight, 1992; Saller et al., 1992,1993; Van de Weerd and Armin, 1992; Supriatna etal., 1993; Wilson, 1995; Wilson et al., 1999). A num-ber of Oligocene unconformities in these areas havebeen related to local tectonics, possibly enhanced byeustatic sea-level variations (Netherwood and Wight,1992; Saller et al., 1993; Satyana, 1995). An input of

volcaniclastic sediments is recorded in west-centralSulawesi.

The depocentre of the mainly fluviatile west Kali-mantan Basin (Melawi–Ketungau–Mandai Basins)had begun to diminish in size or had already beeninfilled by the early Oligocene. Fission track datingof derived apatite grains and seismic data suggestthat the Semitau ridge began to rise in the earlyOligocene (Moss et al., 1998), and this uplift wouldhave favoured erosion rather than deposition in thisarea. Deltaic and pro-delta environments appearedin the western part of the Kutai Basin towards theend of the Oligocene (Van de Weerd and Armin,


1992; Tanean et al., 1996; Moss et al., 1997). This isthought to be related to uplift of the central rangesof Borneo towards the end of the Oligocene, and theerosion of these areas supplied sediment eastwardstowards the Makassar Straits (Moss et al., 1998).

Tectonically intercalated ultramafic and maficrocks and intercalated marine sedimentary rockscomprising much of the East and Southeast Armsof Sulawesi have been interpreted as part of an ophi-olite sequence (Simandjuntak, 1986). Metamorphicages of between 28 and 32 Ma, obtained by K–Aranalysis, from the metamorphic sole at the base ofthe East Sulawesi Ophiolite suggest the ophioliticsuite was emplaced during or after the latest earlyor late Oligocene (Parkinson, 1991, 1998). Prior tothe emplacement of the East Sulawesi Ophiolite ontowestern Sulawesi, the ophiolite succession wouldhave formed as part of the ocean crust in a deepmarine environment, with a possible back-arc orsupra-subduction zone origin (Girardeau et al., 1995;Monnier et al., 1995; Parkinson, 1998). The progres-sive emplacement of the ophiolitic material wouldhave resulted in the development of more extensiveland areas in Sulawesi.

The microcontinental blocks of Banggai–Sula,Buton and Tukang Besi although drifting westwardsduring the Oligocene, had yet to be accreted ontoSulawesi. Permo-Triassic schists and slates of con-tinental origin are overlain by Upper Triassic toJurassic shallow marine clastics and carbonates anddeep marine Jurassic=Cretaceous shales, which arethought to have been deposited during rifting anddrifting away from the Australian continent (Gar-rard et al., 1988; Davidson, 1991; Smith and Silver,1991). Eocene to Miocene shallow marine clasticsand carbonates of the Salodik and Pancoran For-mations unconformably overlie older lithologies onBanggai–Sula (Garrard et al., 1988). In the Butonand Tukang Besi areas, deep water carbonates of theTobelo Formation were deposited between the LateCretaceous and the late Eocene or early Oligocene(Smith and Silver, 1991; Davidson, 1991). There-fore, although these microcontinental blocks wouldnot have been land areas during the rifting and drift-ing phase in the later part of the Mesozoic, someareas were regions of shallow marine sedimentationand may have become emergent during the Eoceneand Oligocene.

4.3. Miocene (Figs. 9 and 10)

On the east side of Borneo, particularly in theTarakan–Muara and Barito basinal areas, a switchin sedimentation style from extensive carbonateshelves to deltaic deposition and progradation oc-curred during the Miocene (Achmad and Samuel,1984; Netherwood and Wight, 1992; Van de Weerdand Armin, 1992; Siemers et al., 1992; Carter andMorley, 1996; Stuart et al., 1996). The predomi-nance of deltaic sedimentation around the northernand eastern parts of Borneo, particularly in the ex-tremely deep Kutai Basin, suggests that most of themajor river systems were draining into these areas.Abundant detritus was supplied from the uplift anddenudation of the centre of the island and coevalvolcanism (Tanean et al., 1996; Moss et al., 1997,1998). By the end of the Miocene, the drainagesystem within Borneo was similar to the present-day. The Mahakam delta had prograded to near itspresent-day position by the middle Miocene, andsiliciclastic marginal marine and deltaic depositionpredominated in this area (Addison et al., 1983; Landand Jones, 1987). The Makassar Straits was still amajor deep water basin separating Sulawesi fromKalimantan, although as the land area increased ineastern Borneo, due to the progradation of deltas,the distance across this seaway was progressivelyreduced.

In northern Borneo, the lower Miocene Melin-gan delta, middle to upper Miocene Champion deltaand upper Miocene to Quaternary Baram deltas pro-graded towards the northwest (Koopman, 1996). InSabah, shallow marine to marginal marine sedimentswere deposited (Tjia et al., 1990; Clennell, 1992).Several extensive unconformities occur within shal-low marine to deltaic Neogene successions in theoffshore West Sabah region. These resulted fromfaulting and folding, and the middle and upperMiocene unconformities are known as the ‘Deepand Shallow Regional Unconformities’, respectively(Bol and Van Hoorn, 1980; Levell, 1987). During thelate Miocene, the northern Borneo coastline changedfrom having a N–S orientation to a SW–NE orienta-tion, similar to today. A large area of shallow marinecarbonate deposition developed during the middle tolate Miocene in the Luconia Shoals area, which wassufficiently distant from areas of coastal siliciclastic


Fig. 9. Palaeogeographic map for 21 Ma, Early Miocene. A key to the environments is shown in Fig. 6.

deposition in Sarawak (Epting, 1980; Doust, 1981;Agostinelli et al., 1990; Rice-Oxley, 1991).

Volcanics and associated intrusives of the upperOligocene to Lower Miocene Sintang Igneous Suitecrop out sporadically over much of central Borneo(Bergman et al., 1987; Pieters and Supriatna, 1990;Pieters et al., 1993a,b, 1993c; Heryanto et al., 1993;

Hutchison, 1996a; Tanean et al., 1996; Moss et al.,1997, 1998). South-dipping subduction under north-western Borneo has been inferred as the reason forthis magmatism, although an alternative model ofcrustal thickening and sub-crustal melting has alsobeen suggested (Bergman et al., 1987; Pieters etal., 1993a,b, 1993c; Tanean et al., 1996). Volcanic


Fig. 10. Palaeogeographic map for 8 Ma, late Miocene. A key to the environments is shown in Fig. 6.

arc activity occurred along the Cagayan and Suluridges during the Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene, re-spectively, and probably resulted in emergent chainsof volcanic islands (Rangin and Silver, 1991). Ig-neous activity associated with these arcs may haveextended into Sabah and the Philippines, althoughthe dating of igneous rocks from these areas is olderthan from the arcs (Rangin and Silver, 1991).

In South Sulawesi, shallow marine carbonate de-position continued until the middle Miocene, on highblocks, surrounded by deep marine sedimentation(Coffield et al., 1993; Wilson et al., 1999). The EastSulawesi Ophiolite had been or was being accretedonto western Sulawesi, and it is inferred that landareas became emergent in central Sulawesi duringthe Miocene as a result of this collision. In theNorth Arm of Sulawesi magmatic eruptions duringthe Oligocene to Miocene produced successively is-land arc tholeiites and calc-alkaline igneous rocks

(Polve et al., 1997). Shallow marine carbonates areinterbedded with these igneous rocks and volcanicislands are inferred to have been emergent. Duringthe middle Miocene to late Miocene=early Pliocene,a volcanic arc with abundant intrusives and extru-sives developed along the length of western Sulawesi(Yuwono et al., 1987; Bergman et al., 1996). Theseigneous lithologies vary from calc-alkaline to mildlyalkalic, potassic, and shosonitic felsic and maficcomposition. This bimodal composition has beenrelated to lithospheric thickening, resulting from col-lisions onto eastern Sulawesi and the subsequentmelting of oceanic and continental crust (Coffield etal., 1993; Bergman et al., 1996).

The microcontinental blocks of Banggai–Sula andButon Tukang Besi were accreted onto eastern Su-lawesi during the Miocene or earliest Pliocene. Theinferred timing of collision of the various fragmentsonto eastern Sulawesi varies depending on the au-


thor. On Buton, obduction of ophiolitic materialand the erosion of upthrusted pre-Miocene strataand their subsequent reworking into clastic depositsof the Tondo Formation has been related to early(Fortuin et al., 1990; Davidson, 1991) or middle(Smith and Silver, 1991) Miocene collision of Butonwith the Southeast Arm of Sulawesi=Muna. Prior tothis collision, deep marine sediments were depositedon Buton, although uplift and thrusting associatedwith accretion (Davidson, 1991) may have createdemergent land areas in the middle Miocene. Lat-est Miocene to early Pliocene collision of Banggai–Sula with eastern Sulawesi has been inferred fromthe timing of compressional structures and sedimen-tological constraints (Garrard et al., 1988, Davies,1990). Eocene to middle Miocene limestones arepresent on Banggai Sula indicating shallow waterdepositional environments existed prior to collision

Fig. 11. Palaeogeographic map for 4 Ma, early Pliocene. A key to the environments is shown in Fig. 6.

(Garrard et al., 1988; Davies, 1990). These may havebecome emergent during the Tertiary and more ex-tensive land areas would have formed after collision.

4.4. Pliocene–Recent (Fig. 11)

The coastlines of Borneo and Sulawesi, by thePliocene, were similar to the present day. Ma-jor areas of shallow water carbonates persisted onthe east and west sides of the Makassar Straits.Deltaic and marginal marine sedimentation prevailedaround much of the coast of Borneo. The Mahakamriver carries a large sediment volume which is de-posited mainly in the delta (estimated at 8.106 m3

yr�1, Allen, 1996) and deltaic progradation occurredthroughout the Pliocene and continues to the presentday. Similarly, delta progradation on the Sarawakand Brunei side of Borneo has been rapid and


involved large quantities of sediment. The Rajangdelta, for example, has an average discharge of 3550m3=s (Staub and Esterle, 1994). During the latestMiocene or Pliocene, Borneo lost its land connectionwith mainland Indochina (Lloyd, 1978). Possiblereasons for this include global sea-level changes andthe end of late Miocene glaciation and=or plate read-justments. The present-day Karimata Strait probablydid not form until 7000 years ago, as suggested bythe presence of a drowned Pleistocene river drainagesystem on the Sunda Shelf, which is thought tohave developed during a relative sea-level lowstand(Umbgrove, 1938).

The final juxtaposition of fragments that com-prise Sulawesi occurred between the Pliocene andthe present day. Although most authors infer that in-ternal rotation and juxtaposition was achieved via asystem of linked strike-slip faults and thrusts, includ-ing the Lawanopo, Matano and Palu faults (Fig. 3),the linkage and displacements along faults is stillcontentious. The Pliocene reconstruction shown isbased on matching palaeoenvironments and assum-ing reasonable strike slip displacements along ma-jor faults and some internal deformation of blockswithin Sulawesi. Continued deformation of Sulawesihas been related to transpression due to collisionof fragments onto eastern Sulawesi and continuedsubduction east of Sulawesi. Indeed, intensely kars-tified upper Pliocene to Pleistocene limestones of theWapulaka Formation, which unconformably over-lie older formations in Tukang Besi=Buton, havebeen interpreted as syntectonic platform carbonatesdeposited on fault-blocks during the collision ofTukang Besi with Buton (Fortuin et al., 1990; David-son, 1991). Although, Smith and Silver (1991) con-sidered Buton and Tukang Besi to be part of a singleblock, which was accreted by the middle Miocene.The transpressional regime during the Neogene andQuaternary resulted in uplift of extensive areas inSulawesi and caused the rapid uplift of a numberof high mountain areas, particularly in central Su-lawesi. K–Ar and fission track geochronology datasuggest that between 2 and 5 Ma rapid uplift ratesof 200–700 m Ma�1, typical of fold and thrust belts,occurred in central Sulawesi (Bergman et al., 1996).

The transpressive regime operating in Sulawesiduring the Neogene and Quaternary, as well as caus-ing uplift of certain areas, also resulted in extension

and subsidence in other areas. The evolution of thedeep gulf separating the South and Southeast Armsof Sulawesi, known as Bone Bay, is inferred tohave developed as an extensional feature in the lateOligocene (Davies, 1992). Davies (1992) and Gun-toro (1995) suggested from seismic data that theform of Bone Bay was then further modified duringthe Miocene=Pliocene by transpressive and transten-sional movements. Historic legends and the natureof Quaternary sediments suggest that until quite re-cently a seaway separated the South Arm from therest of Sulawesi (Van Bemmelen, 1949; Sartono,1982).

Basaltic to trachyandesitic volcanics of the Met-alung Suite or Plateau Volcanics formed shield vol-canoes and lava fields in central Borneo in the latestMiocene to Pleistocene (Moss et al., 1997, 1998).Igneous activity continued in western Sulawesi untilthe Pliocene and Pleistocene and is similar in natureto late Miocene volcanism in the same area (Yuwonoet al., 1987; Bergman et al., 1996). On the NorthArm of Sulawesi, Miocene to Pliocene calk-alka-line volcanism, producing dominantly andesitic andsome rhyodacitic rocks, is related to S-dipping sub-duction of the Celebes Sea oceanic crust under theNorth Arm (Carlile et al., 1990). A string of activeQuaternary to Recent volcanoes, formed of andesiticto dacitic pyroclastics, dominate the Sangihe Islandsand the eastern part of the Minahasa region, andare related to W-dipping subduction under this area(Carlile et al., 1990).

5. Natural resources

Borneo and Sulawesi are areas of frontier explo-ration, with considerable economic potential. Provenand potential hydrocarbon reserves occur in the thickTertiary sedimentary sequences (Fig. 12), construc-tion materials are abundant and a number of differentmineral deposits occur associated mostly with ig-neous rocks (Fig. 13). Active volcanic areas with thepotential for harnessing geothermal energy occur inthe North Arm of Sulawesi and northern Borneo.This section provides a review of known resources ofthese two islands, relating them to spatial and tem-poral palaeogeographic variations. In the past eco-nomic deposits in the area have mostly either been

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discovered by enterprising local people or by explo-rationists and prospectors using standard geologicaltechniques. However, palaeogeographic reconstruc-tions have become a recognised and increasinglyimportant tool in the future exploration for naturalreserves and their potential usage is also reviewed.

Coals were deposited in western Sulawesi andeastern Kalimantan during the Eocene as part ofthe syn-rift succession in the Tertiary depocentres.These coals are usually marginal-marine, althoughsome lacustrine coals have been identified in south-eastern Kalimantan (Fig. 12). The thickness of coalbeds is usually up to a few metres, although 8 and15 m thickness beds occur in southeastern Kaliman-tan and the Lariang–Karama Basins in Sulawesi,respectively (Van Bemmelen, 1949; S. Calvert, pers.commun.). Although large, economically viable coalfields occur in southern Kalimantan (Van Leeuwen,1994), in most other areas of Borneo and Sulawesithe Palaeogene coals are mined on a local scale.In comparison, numerous economically viable coalseams occur in the Neogene successions, often indeltaic sequences, in Sabah, Sarawak, eastern andsoutheastern Kalimantan (Fig. 12; Pei, 1992; VanLeeuwen, 1994; Hutchison, 1996b). An example ofthese are middle Miocene coals near Samarinda inthe Kutai Basin where some 1000 Mt of resourceshave been recognised in some 43 seams ranging be-tween 1.5 and 13 m thick (Land and Jones, 1987).In Sabah and Sarawak the Meliau and Merit Pilacoal fields are estimated to have 400 and 200 Mtof reserves, respectively (Pei, 1992). The coal rankranges from lignite-A to high volatile C bituminousand are generally low ash, high moisture and low sul-phur. Palaeogene coals have higher ash and sulphurcontents and lower moisture contents than Neogenecoals due to their different respective environmentsof formation in swampy and fluvio-deltaic areas (VanLeeuwen, 1994).

Hydrocarbon exploration in Southeast Asia is forthe most part restricted to the Tertiary basins and thepre-Tertiary is mostly considered as economic base-ment (Hutchison, 1996b), although in the Tanjungfield, hydrocarbons do occur in fractured granitic

Fig. 12. Simplified geological map of Borneo and Sulawesi, showing Cenozoic sedimentary thicknesses, and peat, coal and hydrocarbonaccumulations (after Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989; Moss and Chambers, 1999).

basement. The Tertiary transgressive sequences fill-ing the extensive basins in Borneo, Sulawesi andthe surrounding seas (Fig. 12) are commonly com-posed of marginal marine clastics and coals passingupwards into shallow marine carbonates or deepermarine clastics (Figs. 4 and 5). In western Sulawesi,the source for oil and gas with Type-II and -III kero-gens has been geochemically traced back to Eocenecoals (Coffield et al., 1993) and to Neogene deltaiccoals and shales in Borneo (Durand et al., 1988;Schiefelbein et al., 1997). In Borneo, thick Neogenedeltaic sequences comprise major proven reserves(James, 1984; Du Bois, 1985; Durand et al., 1988;Courteney, 1995; Sandal, 1996; Graves and Swauger,1997; Schreurs, 1997), with 2.5 billion barrels of oiland 28 TCF of gas alone discovered to date in theKutai Basin (Paterson et al., 1997). Magmatism andorogenesis during the late Cenozoic facilitated hy-drocarbon generation in western Sulawesi (Coffieldet al., 1993; Wilson et al., 1997). In both areas clas-tics and carbonates with moderate to high poropermscomprise the reservoirs. Hydrocarbon traps may beeither stratigraphic, such as carbonate buildups (Ept-ing, 1980; Grainge and Davies, 1983; Ascaria etal., 1997) or deepwater clastic fans (Malecek etal., 1993), or structural, as in thrusted anticlines(Coffield et al., 1993; Paterson et al., 1997).

In Sulawesi, seeps with heavy oils occur on Butonisland and have been sourced from Triassic bitu-minous marine shales and limestones with Type-IIkerogens (Davidson, 1991). Oil generation has beenrelated to burial due to thrusting during the lateMiocene (Davidson, 1991). The primary and sec-ondary reservoir units are clastics and carbonatesof the Tondo and Sampolakosa Formations, respec-tively, and both structural and stratigraphic trapshave been identified (Davidson, 1991). Gas reser-voirs have also been discovered in Miocene carbon-ates in the Tomori area on the East Arm of Sulawesi,adjacent to the islands of Banggai–Sula (Davies,1990). Tertiary coals or organic rich carbonates mayform the source for the hydrocarbons and similar toButon, thrust loading is thought to have resulted ingeneration of hydrocarbons (Davies, 1990).

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All the elements of a complete petroleum systems,consisting of source rock, carrier bed, reservoir, seal,trap, kitchen areas and charge timing are present inBorneo and Sulawesi (Van de Weerd and Armin,1992; Coffield et al., 1993; Wilson et al., 1997).The actual occurrence of significant hydrocarbonscritically depends on a number of additional factorsincluding volume of source rock, focus of hydrocar-bon charge, diagenesis of carrier beds and reservoir,seal capacity and timing of migration of hydrocar-bons relative to the deposition of seal lithologies andtrap formation.

Construction materials, including granites, gneis-ses, marbles, serpentinites, limestones, sands andgravels, occur in Sulawesi and Kalimantan (Sukamto,1973; Ratman, 1976; Madiadipoera, 1990). These areutilised locally for road building, producing house-hold items or house foundations. However, con-struction materials are scarce in eastern Sarawak,Brunei, Sabah and some areas of eastern Kaliman-tan. Miocene–Pliocene microgranodiorites in Tawauare exported as far as Brunei (C.S. Hutchison, pers.commun., 1998). East Kalimantan imports most of itsroad and building aggregate material from the Paluregion of Sulawesi, because of the lack of igneousrocks in the developed parts of the province (T.M.van Leeuwen, pers. comm., 1998). In the South Arm,the Tonasa-II limestone quarry, one of the largest in-dustries in Sulawesi, produced 1,280,116 metric tonsof cement in 1992, which is exported throughout east-ern Indonesia and to adjacent countries (P.T. SemenTonasa, 1992). Clay and sand needed in the cementmaking process is either quarried locally or shippedin from eastern Kalimantan. Smaller quarries also oc-cur in South Sulawesi and eastern Kalimantan and thelimestone is used for a variety of purposes, includingdecorative facing stone, construction, lime for agri-cultural use and as a raw material for the pharmaceu-tical industry. The thick sequence of carbonates fromthe Tonasa Formation in Sulawesi is best for thesepurposes as it was deposited as an isolated platformaway from clastic input.

Fig. 13. Simplified geological map of Borneo and Sulawesi highlighting areas of pre-Tertiary basement, ophiolitic successions, igneouslithologies and structures. Mineral occurrences and areas of volcanic activity and geothermal prospects are also shown (after Clarke,1989; Van Leeuwen, 1994; Carlile and Mitchell, 1994; Hutchison, 1996b). Major and minor occurrences of minerals have not beendifferentiated, for this the reader is referred to the aforementioned references.

Mineralisation is commonly associated with ig-neous intrusions or fractures in Borneo and Sulawesi(Fig. 13). On both islands minerals such as gold,diamond and platinum have been reworked and nowoften occur as placer deposits. Chromite and nickelare associated with ultramafic rocks in ophiolitesuccessions in Sabah, the Meratus Mountains in Bor-neo and the Southeast and South Arms of Sulawesi(Van Bemmelen, 1949; Hutchison, 1972, 1996b; Go-lightly, 1979; Van Leeuwen, 1994). In eastern Su-lawesi, the Soroako and Pomalaa mines include con-siderable reserves of nickel and have been minedsince the 1970’s (Van Leeuwen, 1994). Minerals as-sociated with volcanic or intrusive rocks in Sulawesiand Kalimantan include gold, silver, copper, tour-maline and molybdenum (Sukamto, 1973; Ratman,1976; Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1990,1992; Van Leeuwen et al., 1990, 1994). The NorthArm of Sulawesi is a major area of mineralisationassociated with igneous activity and the nature of themineralisation is varied. Styles of mineralisation in-clude igneous dome-related (Kavalieris et al., 1992),mineralised breccia zones (Lubis et al., 1994), asporphyry Cu–Au and epithermal Cu–Au–Ag min-eralisation often associated with diatremes (Perello,1994) or associated with long-lived volcanic cen-tres (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992). Inthe Ratatokok area gold occurs as sediment-hostedin karstic infills in the Ratatokok limestone, alongpermeable zones at limestone–andesite contacts, asvein fills and eluvial gold deposits related to residualquartz-clay breccias (Turner et al., 1994). Lead bear-ing gossans, associated with the West Walanae FaultZone in South Sulawesi were investigated by PT RioTinto, but found to be non-economic (Van Leeuwen,1981). More significant, albeit still small, base metaloccurrences are at Riam Kusik and Long Laai inBorneo and Sangkaropi in Sulawesi (Van Leeuwen,1994). In Kalimantan, epithermal gold mineralisa-tion is common and includes the largest gold mine inIndonesia at Kelian located within the Kutai Basin.Several of the mineralisation sites in Kalimantan


appear to be located upon linear NE–SW-structuresand often occur where these are intersected by NW–SE-trending structures. The mineralisation in Bor-neo is also commonly associated with volcanic andintrusive rocks of uppermost Oligocene to middleMiocene Sintang intrusives (Van Leeuwen et al.,1990; Felderhof et al., 1996). Gold and other min-erals such as antimony have also been producedeconomically from placer deposits and eluvial orresidual deposits associated with carbonates in Bor-neo, particularly the Bau district (Wilford, 1955;Hutchison, 1996b). Diamonds have also been foundas placer deposits in western and southern Kaliman-tan and Sarawak, although the original source of thediamonds has never been traced (Sikumbang, 1986;Bergman et al., 1987; Hutchison, 1996b).

Hot springs are commonly reported in westernSulawesi, particularly from the North Arm, associ-ated with areas of recent or active volcanic activity,or from along faults, such as those along the marginsof the Palu Depression (Sukamto, 1973; Boedihardiet al., 1992). The Lahendong Geothermal Field islocated close to Menado in the centre of a smallcrater which formed during the Pliocene (Surach-man et al., 1987). Two water reservoirs have beenidentified at depths of 400–900 m and 1500 m withrespective acidic water temperatures of 260ºC and300–350ºC and development of a 55 MW powerplant was proposed for this area (Surachman et al.,1987). Geothermal prospecting has been undertakenin an area where hot springs, seepages, mud poolsand steaming ground occur on the Semporna Penin-sula in Sabah. These features are related to majorfracture systems and are associated with Quaternarydacites, tuffs and agglomerates (Siong et al., 1991).

As an aid to future exploration for natural re-sources the palaeogeographic maps can be used in anumber of different ways, although it is stressed thatpalaeogeographic information must be used in com-bination with the full range of geological data. In thehydrocarbon industry comparing different palaeo-geographic maps can help to identify temporal andspatial changes in source rock, reservoir and sealinglithologies within a basin. Since these are integralparts of any petroleum system, palaeogeographic re-constructions are routinely used in play and prospectscales of investigation. Palaeogeographic data canbe used to infer the nature of certain rock types;

for example Paleogene and Neogene coals in Bor-neo have very different characteristics due to theirfluviatile=marginal marine and deltaic settings re-spectively. Another example of this is where verypure carbonates are needed for cement production orin the pharmaceutical industry. Isolated carbonatesplatforms, which developed distally from any clasticor volcaniclastic input such as the Tonasa Formationin South Sulawesi, as identified on palaeogeographicmaps, are most likely to have fewest impurities. Insitu mineral occurrences are commonly associatedwith certain rocks types, often igneous lithologies inBorneo and Sulawesi, and=or structures active dur-ing particular time periods. Combined plate tectonicand palaeogeographic maps are useful for deducingthe timing of emplacement or extrusion of igneousmaterial and variations in stress regimes throughtime, hence giving valuable information on the likelytiming of structures.

6. Biogeographic implications

Borneo and Sulawesi occur on either sides ofWallace’s original faunal divide and are of primeimportance to biogeographers. In general, the organ-isms of Borneo show similarities with those of Asiaand other islands on the Sunda Shelf, whereas onSulawesi there is a particularly high degree of en-demism, with the biota showing both an Asiatic andAustralian influence (reviewed in: Whitmore, 1981,1987; Whitten et al., 1987; and MacKinnon et al.,1996). Both Borneo and Sulawesi contain a varietyof habitats, including high, mountainous areas, lowerrolling topography and flat coastal plains. A complexinterplay of factors, including physical differences inenvironment (such as altitude, soil type and slopeall influenced by local geology), local and regionalvariations in climate as well as regional geologicalevolution of the area, will all influence the nature anddiversity of organisms found on these islands. Todaythe region has a tropical climate, although some ar-eas of Sulawesi may experience long dry periods anda more monsoonal climate than areas in Borneo.

Important elements of the palaeogeographic re-constructions for biogeographers to consider are thetemporal and spatial extent of land areas and islandchains, the timing and nature of material accreted


onto the margin of the Sundaland craton and thedistribution of different environments through timeand space. The main palaeogeographic changes inthe region of Borneo and Sulawesi and their impli-cations for biogeography are briefly outlined belowand discussed in detail in Moss and Wilson (1998):– A continuous land connection between Borneo

and mainland Southeast Asia existed throughoutmuch of the Tertiary and would have allowed theunhindered migration of terrestrial biota.

– Western Sulawesi had been accreted onto east-ern Borneo by the Late Cretaceous and by theEarly Eocene land areas were emergent in theSchwaner Mountains, northwestern Kalimantan,the Mangkalihat Peninsula and parts of westernSulawesi. The dispersal of certain flora and faunabetween Borneo and western Sulawesi could haveoccurred at this time.

– Extension in the Makassar Straits region and theformation of surrounding Tertiary basinal areas inthe Paleogene resulted in the progressive separa-tion of locally emergent land or volcanic areasin western Sulawesi and Borneo and this isola-tion goes some way towards explaining the highdegree of endemism on Sulawesi.

– The East Sulawesi Ophiolite was accreted ontoSulawesi during or after the late Oligocene andresulted in the formation of more extensive landareas in Sulawesi. Since the ophiolitic suite orig-inally formed as part of the oceanic crust in adeep marine setting, it would not have acted as apotential raft for biota.

– Microcontinental fragments accreted onto easternSulawesi in the Miocene to Pleistocene may havebeen emergent as they drifted towards Sulawesiand comprised island hopping=rafting routes forbiota of Australian affinity.

– Island hopping routes for the dispersal of organ-isms to and from Borneo and Sulawesi and thePhilippines may have existed along volcanic arcs,such as the long-lived arc along the North Arm ofSulawesi and the Cagayan and Sangihe arcs, andlater along the younger Sulu arc.

– The uplift and subsequent erosion of Borneo fromthe late Oligocene to the present day and theemergence of more extensive land areas in Su-lawesi led to the progressive reduction in widthof the Makassar Straits. This may have facilitated

the interchange of biota during the later part ofthe Tertiary, particularly during periods of relativesea level lows when large areas of shallow marineshelves may have become emergent.

– Although Borneo and western Sulawesi remainedin near tropical latitudes throughout the Tertiary,the wide variety of micro-environments shownon the palaeogeographic maps would have ledto niche partitioning. This may help to explainthe higher number of endemic species in Borneocompared with Sumatra, which otherwise doesshow a marked similarity in fauna and flora withBorneo.

7. Plate tectonic reconstructions and furtherwork

Although much of the tectonic evolution of Bor-neo and Sulawesi during the Cenozoic can be in-ferred (above), the complex tectonic setting, inac-cessibility, and lack of detailed geological work insome areas may result in inaccurate, conflicting orconfusing interpretations. During the compilation ofgeological and tectonic information in order to con-struct the palaeogeographic maps it became clearthat a number of key points concerning the geologyof Borneo and Sulawesi need to be resolved andrequire further study. These include:– Whether Borneo and Sulawesi have rotated, and

if so which fragments and the direction, magni-tude, timing and causes of rotation. There is stillconsiderable controversy over the interpretationsof palaeomagnetic results, as to which palaeo-magnetic results are meaningful and which repre-sent local or regional rotations. Variable amountsof counterclockwise rotation or no rotation havevariously been inferred for Borneo and South Su-lawesi for the Tertiary (above). Different timingand amounts of rotation are of critical importancefor plate tectonic reconstructions of the regionbecause they would affect the evolution and ac-cretion of material forming eastern Sulawesi andthe nature of the change between northern main-land Borneo and the South China Sea.

– The nature, origin and evolution of the Tertiarybasins and gulfs in and around Borneo and Su-lawesi: notably the Tertiary basins which now


occur onshore, the Sabah and Sarawak Basins, theMakassar Straits, the Bone, Gorontalo and Tomorigulfs or bays. Although widespread basin initia-tion occurred around the margins of the Sunda-land craton in the Palaeogene, the mechanics andreasons for basin formations and detailed basinarchitectures are still unclear. Depositional envi-ronments varied considerably within and aroundthe margins of these basins, and there is still muchwork to be undertaken on detailed Tertiary faciesvariations.

– Further information is required concerning thenature of microcontinental and oceanic fragmentsand their original affinities and processes of ac-cretion onto the eastern margin of the Sundalandcraton. The direction, nature and precise timingof collision=emplacement of the microcontinentaland ophiolitic fragments accreted onto westernSulawesi in many cases is still unclear.

– One of the largest ophiolite complexes in theworld is located in Sulawesi and the nature, tim-ing and origin of this area is of importance bothin terms of regional plate tectonics and in under-standing ophiolite evolution. It is unclear whetherthe ophiolitic sequences in Sulawesi can be re-garded as one ophiolite sequence, or as a numberof accreted ophiolitic slices, possibly of differingages. The area of generation of these ophioliticsequences is still unclear, with origins suggestedas part of a larger back-arc basin including theCelebes Sea, or origination close to a spreadingcentre in a small back-arc basin.

– The nature, origin and evolution of the basementlithologies in western Sulawesi and Borneo. Dothe metamorphic and ultramafic basement litholo-gies represent a number of accreted microconti-nental and oceanic fragments, and if so what isthe origin and evolution of these different areas?Does the nature of the basement lithologies ex-ert a strong control on the subsequent Tertiaryevolution and sedimentation of the region.

– Further work on the timing, nature and prove-nance of the igneous lithologies in western Su-lawesi and Borneo, particularly the cause of thismagmatism and how igneous activity relates toplate tectonics.

– The nature of the basement in the North Arm ofSulawesi is still highly contentious. It is not clear

whether the North Arm of Sulawesi is floored onophiolitic, volcanic arc or continental basement.If the basement of the North Arm of Sulawesiis ophiolitic, can this area be regarded as part ofa larger ophiolitic formed in a back-arc setting,which might include the Celebes Sea and the EastSulawesi Ophiolite?

– The history of uplift in Sulawesi and Borneo andhow this relates to regional plate tectonic events.Changes in palaeoenvironment through time arevery difficult to evaluate for regions with no or avery thin Cenozoic cover, such as the Sunda Shelf.Although these areas were probably land areas formuch of the Cenozoic, sediments deposited dur-ing marine incursions may have been removed bylater erosion. Further provenance work on clasticsediments and their source lithologies would yieldinformation on transport routes and distances andthereby give clues to the timing of formation andareal extent of mountain areas.More information on any of the areas discussed

above could then be used to further constrain currentplate tectonic models of the region and refine palaeo-geographic interpretations. Additional work on thetemporal and spatial distributions of inferred envi-ronments or juxtaposition of certain rock types orstructures compared with known economic discov-eries or present day distributions of biota could aidfuture exploration or biogeographic studies. Estab-lishing a GIS database, including palaeogeographicdata, plate tectonic information, details of bioticdistribution and relationships and economic occur-rences, capable of being interrogated and displayingtrends would be an extremely useful tool in futureanalysis.

8. Conclusions

The evolution of Borneo and Sulawesi duringthe Cenozoic has implications for the plate tectonicprocesses involved in the accretion of microconti-nenal and oceanic material and to the developmentof volcanic arcs along convergent cratonic margins.The maps in this paper are the first attempt to plotdetailed palaeogeographic information onto plate re-constructions of these islands. Undertaking such atask helps to highlight discrepancies between plate


tectonic reconstructions and environmental data, andcan be used to further constrain plate tectonic modelsand to highlight areas for further study.

These islands, as well as being a remarkable nat-ural workshop to study plate tectonic processes, arealso of prime importance to biogeographers and ar-eas of proven accumulations and frontier explorationfor natural resources. An increased knowledge ofvariations in the deposition and=or formation of cer-tain rock types related to plate tectonic changes andpalaeogeographic differences may prove critical inthe future exploration for natural resources, such ascoals, hydrocarbons, minerals and building materi-als. Important elements of the palaeogeographic re-constructions for biogeographers to consider are thetemporal and spatial extent of land areas and islandchains, the timing and nature of material accretedonto the margin of the Sundaland craton and thedistribution of different environments through timeand space. Plate tectonics and the resultant variationsin temporal and spatial distributions of environmentsin Borneo and Sulawesi were therefore extremelyimportant factors influencing biogeography and theaccumulation of natural resources.

Acknowledgements

Discussions with Tony Barber, Stephen Calvert,John Chambers, Ian Cloke, George Grabowski,Robert Hall, Jon Noad and Chris Parkinson aregratefully acknowledged. Robert Hall is particularlythanked for allowing us to use the plate tectonicreconstructions. S.J.M.’s and M.E.J.W.’s post-doctor-ates with the University of London SE Asia Re-search Group are=were funded by a consortium ofoil companies, ARCO Indonesia, LASMO IndonesiaLtd, MOBIL Oil Indonesia, EXXON Inc, CanadianPetroleum Indonesia, Union Texas Petroleum andUnocal who are all gratefully acknowledged. Addi-tional funding for fieldwork and=or technical supportwas provided by British Petroleum, Maersk Oil,LASMO Runtu and Unocal and these companies arealso thanked. Drs. Irwan Bahar, Rab Sukamto andKustomo Hasan of GRDC, Bandung are gratefullyacknowledged for their help and encouragement withour research projects. Dharma Satria Nas, AlexanderLimbong and the people of Sulawesi and Kalimantan

are thanked for their invaluable help and friendshipin the field. The constructive comments of the re-viewers Charles Hutchison and particularly Theovan Leeuwen helped to improve the manuscript.

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Cenozoic palaeogeographic evolution of Sulawesi and Borneosearg.rhul.ac.uk/pubs/wilson_moss_1999 Sulawesi Borneo review.pdf · ELSEVIER Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology