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Cell Reproduction
Chapter 8
Chromosomes = rod-shaped structures made of DNA and proteins
Histone = protein that helps maintain the shape of chromosomes and aid in the tight packing of DNA
Chromatid = each half of the chromosome, exact copies that have been replicated
Centromere = point where 2 chromatids are attached
Chromatin = DNA that is less tightly coiled
Sex chromosomes = determines the sex of an organism; humans have either an X or Y
Autosomes = all of the other chromosomes
o Every organism is produced by sexual reproduction has 2 copies of each autosome.
Homologous chromosome = homologues
= same size, shape, and carry genes for same traits
Karotype = photomicrograph of chromosomes = 46 chromosomes exist as 22
homologous pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes
Genetic Disorder
A disease or condition caused by an absent or defective gene or by a chromosomal aberration
Diploid = cells having 2 sets of chromosomes (2n)
Haploid = cell having 1 set of chromosomes (1n) = sperm and egg cells
approximately 2 trillion cells (25 million cells per second) are produced by an adult human body everyday
Cell division = process by which cells produce offspring cells
Binary Fission = division of a prokaryote cell into 2 offspring cells
Asexual reproduction = production of offspring from one parent
Mitosis = cell division in Eukaryote cells; new cells with genetic material that is identical to the first (original cell)
- Occurs in organisms undergoing growth development, repair or asexual reproduction
Cell Cycle
Interphase- time between cell divisions; cell spends most of its time
G1 phase – grow to mature size
S phase – DNA copied (synthesized)
G2 phase – prepares for cell division
Go phase – usually after G1; does not copy DNA, does not divide
Mitosis – nucleus divided Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides
Stages of Mitosis
Prophase shortening & tight coiling of DNA into rod-shaped chromosomes nucleolus & nuclear envelope breaks down centrosomes & centrioles appear in animal cells only centrosomes appear in plant cells spindle fibers = made of microtubules radiate from centrosomes in preparation of the next phase mitotic spindle = array of spindle fibers; serves to equally divide chromatids between 2 offspring cells
made up of kinetochore fibers – attached to a disk shaped protein and to one of the chromosomes and polar fibers extend from centrosome to centrosome
Kinetos means moving choros means place
Metaphase kinetochore fibers move chromosomes to center (equator)
Anaphase chromatids separate at centromere & slowly move toward opposite poles
Telophase spindle fibers disassemble; chromosomes return to a less tightly coiled chromatin state nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes; as well as a nucleolus
Cytokinesis (in animals)
begins with the cell membrane pinching inward in the middle between 2 poles (cleavage furrow)
Cytokinesis (in plants) vesicles from Golgi apparatus join together at the midline to form cell plate cell wall will eventually form from cell plate
Checkpoints
Meiosis- process of division that reduces the number of chromosomes in new cells to half the number in the original cell
synapsis – pairing of homologous chromosomes
Crossing-over = process where portions of the chromosome may break off and attach to adjacent chromatids on the homologous chromosomes
genetic recombination = a new mixture of genetic material is created
Meiosis I
Prophase I
• DNA tightly coils into chromosomes• Spindle fibers appear• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disassemble• Every chromosome lines up next to its homologue
(the pairing is called synapsis and each pair is called a tetrad)
Metaphase I• The tetrads line up randomly along the dividing
cell’s midline• Spindle fibers from one pole attach to the
centromere of one homologous chromosome (spindle fibers from opposite pole attached to the other homologous chromosome of the pair)
Anaphase I
• Each homologous chromosome (consisting of two chromatids attached by a centromere) moves to an opposite pole of the dividing cell (random separation of homologous chromosomes= independent assortment)
Telophase I and Cytokinesis I
• Chromosomes reach the opposite ends of the cell
• Cytoplasm splits• New cells contain haploid
number of chromosomes• Meiosis I result: 2 new cells,
containing one chromosome from each homologous pair but 2 copies of each because of the “sister” chromatids”
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
Prophase II• Spindle fibers form and begin to move
chromosomes toward the midline of the dividing cell
Metaphase II
• The chromosomes move to the midline of the dividing cell, with each chromatid facing opposite poles of the dividing cell
Anaphase II• Chromatids separate and move toward
opposite poles of the cell
Telophase II and Cytokinesis II
• A nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes in each of the four new cells
• Cytoplasm splits in each of the two dividing cells resulting in 4 cells that contain half of the original cell’s number of chromosomes
Meiosis II
Where are gametes formed in humans??
• Males: in the testes– In SPERMATOGENESIS: a diploid reproductive cell
divides meiotically to form FOUR haploid spermatids, each of which develop into a mature sperm cell (AKA spermatozoa)
• Females: in the ovaries– In OOGENESIS: a diploid reproductive cell divides
meiotically to produce ONE mature egg cell (ovum)• Why not four?
– During cytokinesis I and II, the cytoplasm of the cell is divided unequally between new cells….one cell receives most of the cytoplasm and therefore it can become the egg. The other three products that will eventually degenerate are called polar bodies
Sexual Reproduction
• The production of offspring through meiosis and the union of a sperm and an egg
forms a zygote (fertilized egg)• Offspring produced by sexual
reproduction are genetically different from the parents because genes are combined in new ways in meiosis