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Philippine Institute for Development StudiesSurian sa mga Pag-aaral Pangkaunlaran ng Pilipinas
CELIA M. REYESP I D S P R E S I D E N TS E P T E M B E R 2 0 1 9
Outline Background
Objectives
Methodology
Key Findings
Concluding Remarks
www.pids.gov.ph 2
Since 2012, GDP growth in the Philippines and Mindanao have been above 6%.
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: PHILIPPINE STATISTIC AUTHORITY (PSA) 3
7.6
3.7
6.7
7.1
6.1
6.1
6.9
6.76.2
5.0 4.2
7.6
6.3
7.4
5.86.4
7.0 7.1
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Gross Domestic Product, Growth Rates, 2010 - 2018
Philippines Mindanao
Poverty rate has gone down
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: PHILIPPINE STATISTIC AUTHORITY (PSA) 4
34.4
26.6 26.3 25.221.6
28.8 28.6 27.9 27.6
21.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
1991 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018
Poverty incidence among Population, 1991 - 2018
Annual Estimates First Semester Estimates
But number of poor has not changed
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: PHILIPPINE STATISTIC AUTHORITY (PSA) 5
21.7
22.623.3
23.7
21.9
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
1991 2006 2009 2012 2015
In M
illio
n
Magnitude of Poor Population: 1991, 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2015 (Annual Estimates)
In 2018, 5 out of the 6 regions with high poverty rate (over 30%) are in Mindanao
www.pids.gov.ph 6
21.0
6.6
17.9
11.8
19.3
10.3 10.1
20.6
28.0
21.2 24.1
37.6 39.5
31.5
23.4
33.7 35.4
63.0
-
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
Poverty Incidence among Population by Region, 2018 (First semester)
SOURCE: PHILIPPINE STATISTIC AUTHORITY (PSA)
The country has not made significant progress in reducing inequality
www.pids.gov.phSOURCE OF BASIC DATA: PHILIPPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY, FAMILY INCOME AND
EXPENDITURE SURVEY (FIES)7
0.480
0.464
0.507 0.505
0.487 0.4840.474 0.471
0.4530.474
0.449
0.485 0.4780.451 0.450 0.446 0.448
0.429
0.3940.388
0.4190.426 0.429 0.430 0.428
0.447 0.429
0.35
0.37
0.39
0.41
0.43
0.45
0.47
0.49
0.51
0.53
0.55
1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015
All Areas Urban Rural
Very slow increase in share of poorest 20 percent while ratio of richest decile to poorest decile further decreased from 1997 to 2015
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE OF BASIC DATA: PHILIPPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY, FAMILY INCOME AND EXPENDITURE SURVEY (FIES)
8
19.0917.74
22.58 22.2520.89
19.618.07 17.97
15.98
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015
Share of Bottom 20% Ratio of Richest Decile to Poorest Decile
Objectives To examine inequality of educational
opportunity across regions and among ethnic groups in the Philippines
To provide insights on how to address such inequalities
www.pids.gov.ph 9
Methodology
Data
• 2000 and 2010 Censuses of Population and Housing (CPH)
• 2000 – 10% sample, 2010 – 20% sample
Variables
• Outcome: Years of schooling (aged 25 & above); Literacy rate (aged 10 & above); Access to primary education (aged 6-11) and secondary education (aged 12-18)
• Grouping: ethnicity
Inequality measures
• Gini coefficient
• Theil’s index
• Human opportunity index (HOI)
www.pids.gov.ph 10
Ethnicity and ethnic groups Ethnicity – is the primary sense of belonging to an
ethnolinguistic group, which is blood-related in nature inthe sense that the ties are reckoned by blood and tracedthrough family tree (Philippine Statistics Authority)
Philippines: 182 ethnolinguistic groups;151 are indigenous people (IP) groups
Major ethnic groups (based on classification of theNational Commission on Indigenous Peoples or NCIP):1. Muslim ethnic group (IPs and non-IPs)
2. Non-Muslim IPs ethnic group
3. Non-Muslim, non-IPs ethnic group
www.pids.gov.ph 11
www.pids.gov.ph 12
(1) Muslim ethnic group (2) Non-Muslim IPs ethnic group
(3) Non-Muslim/non-IPsethnic group
Muslim IPs sub-groupMuslim Non-IPs sub-
group
1. Badjao 1. Maguindanao1. Abelling/Abellen/Aberling/ Aborlin
37. Bontok 106. Mangguangan 109. Manobo-Dulangan 1. Bikol/Bicol
2. Iranon/Iranun/Iraynon 2. Maranao 2. Adasen 38. Bugkalot/Ilongot 107. Manobo 110. Mansaka 2. Bisaya/Binisaya
3. Jama Mapun 3. Palawani 3. Aeta/Ayta 39. Buhid 108. Manobo-Blit111. Manubo-Ubo/ Manobo-Ubo
3. Boholano
4. Kalagan 4. Sangil 4. Agta 40. Buhid (Bangon) 73. Itawis 112. Masadiit 4. Capizeño
5. Kalibugan/Kolibugan 5. Tausug 5. Agta-Cimaron 41. Bukidnon 74. Itneg/Tingguian 113. Matigsalog/Matigsalug 5. Caviteño
6. Sama Badjao 6. Yakan 6. Agta-Agay 42. Cagayanen 75. Ivatan 114. Molbog 6. Caviteño-Chavacano
7. Sama Bangingi 7. Agta-Dumagat 43. Calinga 76. Iwak/Iowak/Owak/I-wak 115. Muyadan 7. Cebuano
8. Sama Laut 8. Agta-Tabangnon 44. Clata/Klata 77. Kabayukan116. Obu-Manuvu/ Ubo-Manobo
8. Chinese
9. Sama/Samal 9. Agta-Taboy 45. Cuyonon/Cuyonen 78. Kabihug 117. Pala’wan/Palawan-o 9. Cotabateño10. Agutaynen 46. Diangan 79. Kadaklan/Kachakran 118. Pan-ayanon 10. Cotabateño -Chavacano11. Akeanon 47. Dibabawon 80. Kailawan/Kaylawan 119. Panay-Bukidnon 11. Davao-Chavacano12. Alangan 48. Dibabeen Mulitaan 81. Kalanguya 120. Parananum 12. Davaweño13. Ambala 49. Dibaben 82. Kalanguya-Ikalahan 121. Pulangien/Pulangiyen 13. Hiligaynon/Ilonggo14. Applai 50. Direrayaan 83. Kalinga 122. Ratagnon 14. Ilocano15. Aromanen-Manobo 51. Dumagat 84. Kamiguin 123. Remontado 15. Kapampangan
16. Ata 52. Dumagat/Alta 85. Kankanaey124. Sibuyan Mangyan-Tagabukid
16. Masbateño/Masbatenon
17. Ata/Negrito53. Dumagat/Remontado
86. Karao125. Subanen/Subanon/ Subanun
17. Pangasinan/Panggalato
18. Ata-Manobo 54. Eskaya 87. Karulano 126. T’boli/Tboli 18. Tagalog19. Ati 55. Gaddang 88. Kaunana 127. Tadyawan 19. Waray
20. Ayangan 56. Gubang89. Ke’ney or Ken-ey/ Tau’t-Bato
128. Tagabawa
21. B’laan/Blaan 57. Gubatnon 90. Kirenteken 129. Tagakaulo22. Bago 58. Guiangan 91. Lahitanen 130. Tagbanua
23. Bagobo 59. Halawodnon 92. Lambangian 131. Tagbanua (Kalamianen)
24. Bagobo-Tagabawa 60. Hanunuo 93. Langilan 132. Tagbanua/Calamian
25. Bajao/Bajau 61. Henanga 94. Livunganen 133. Talaandig26. Balangao 62. Higaonon 95. Mabaka 134. Talaingod27. Balatok 63. Ibaloi/Ibaloy 96. Maeng 135. Tau-buid28. Baliwon/Gaddang 64. Ibanag 97. Magahats 136. Teduray
29. Banao 65. Ibatan98. Mag-anti/Mag-Antsi/Mag-anchi
137. Tigwahanon
30. Bangon 66. Ifugao99. Magbekin/Magbukon/Magbukun
138. Tinananen
31. Bantoanon 67. Ilianen 100. Mag-indi 139. Tuwali32. Banwaon 68. Illaud 101. Magkunana 140. Yapayao33. Batak 69. Iraya 102. Majokayong 141. Yogad34. Batangan 70. Isinai 103. Malaueg 142. Zambal35. Belwang 71. Isneg/Isnag/Apayao 104. Mamanwa36. Binongan 72. Isoroken 105. Mandaya
Ethnic
groupings
by the NCIP
Key findings -Philippines
www.pids.gov.ph 13
Non-Muslim, non-IPs dominate the population in all regions, except ARMM & CAR; ARMM is home for most of Muslim; CAR is home for many Non-Muslim IPs
www.pids.gov.ph 14SOURCES: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG
ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
Majority of Filipinos are neither Muslims nor IPs; non-Muslim IPs – 9%; Muslims – 6%
Ethnic Group
2000 2010
NumberPercent
(%)Number
Percent
(%)
Philippines 69,168,155 100.0 91,012,285 100.0
Muslim 3,036,228 4.4 4,998,559 5.5
Non-Muslim IPs 5,641,657 8.2 7,792,792 8.6
Non-Muslim, non-IPs 60,490,270 87.5 78,220,933 86.0
www.pids.gov.phSOURCES: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG
ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42 15
Note: The figures in the table exclude population who did not state/report their ethnicity and/or
other variables used in the analysis. These samples account for around 10 percent and 2
percent of the total population of the country and of Mindanao, respectively.
Philippine population by major ethnic group, 2000 and 2010
Philippine educational system
www.pids.gov.ph 16
K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum
Regions 9, 12 and ARMM have the lowest net enrolment rates in elementary and secondary education in 2017
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DEPED) 17
94.2
92.8
94.4
92.5
98.4
97.9
96.3
92.3
93.6
97.2
98.4
92.6
90.3
96.4
96.9
91.9
95.9
72.6
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Net enrolment rate in elementary education, 2017
76.0
84.8
79.8
85.6
80.9
82.8
82.5
75.7
75.9
76.4
78.5
74.2
65.4
68.1
74.3
68.1
74.5
30.4
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Net enrolment rate in secondary education, 2017
Completion rates are lower for regions in Mindanao (lowest in ARMM, Regions 9 and 10)
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DEPED) 18
92.4
94.7
91.6
95.5
93.6
96.0
98.4
93.2
93.2
94.1
92.2
93.3
89.7
90.1
92.1
91.1
90.9
54.2
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Completion rate in elementary education, 2017
84.3
90.6
81.2
87.8
83.8
86.0
90.7
83.9
83.2
84.7
83.9
79.3
78.2
79.0
80.2
79.9
82.4
62.1
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Completion rate in secondary education, 2017
Region 9 and ARMM have the lowest cohort survival rates in elementary and secondary education in 2017
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DEPED) 19
93.7
95.9
92.7
97.9
94.9
97.4
99.0
93.7
94.5
95.4
93.9
94.3
90.5
92.9
93.4
92.7
92.3
54.6
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Cohort survival rate in elementary education, 2017
85.6
91.4
82.3
89.6
85.6
87.0
91.4
85.3
85.0
86.1
85.5
81.3
79.7
80.9
81.5
81.3
84.4
63.2
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Cohort survival rate in secondary education, 2017
Dropout rates for regions in Mindanao are higher than the national average (highest in ARMM, Regions 9 and 10)
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DEPED) 20
1.6
0.9
1.6
0.8
1.2
0.7
0.3
1.7
1.6
1.3
1.5
1.5
2.4
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.9
11.5
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Dropout rate in elementary education, 2017
5.2
3.3
6.5
3.6
5.2
4.7
3.2
5.3
5.4
5.0
5.4
6.8
7.4
7.0
6.7
6.8
5.6
14.1
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Dropout rate in secondary education, 2017
TVET certification rates in regions in Mindanao are lower than the national average (except Region 11)
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: TESDA 21
92.9
98.0
90.6
92.2 92.3 92.091.1
93.6
82.9
91.0
93.7
88.4
90.3
92.293.3
89.5
84.085.1
75.0
80.0
85.0
90.0
95.0
100.0
TVET Certification Rate, 2017
Simple and functional literacy rates in Mindanao are generally lower than the national average
www.pids.gov.ph SOURCE: FLEMMS, PSA 22
96.5
99.5
94.9
98.2
97.9
98.2
98.4
93.8
96.0
95.4
96.2
no data
96.0
95.4
95.2
90.8
96.2
86.1
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Simple literacy rate, 2013
90.3
95.3
91.2
93.0
97.2
92.3
95.0
86.9
87.1
84.8
87.3
no data
87.5
94.0
86.0
82.5
91.9
72.1
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
PHL
NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
Caraga
ARMM
Functional literacy rate, 2013
School participation among younger children increased; decreased among older cohort
www.pids.gov.ph 23
Proportion of children attending school, by single year of age and by major ethnic group, 2000 & 2010
SOURCES OF BASIC DATA: 2000 AND 2010 CENSUS OF POPULATION AND HOUSING, PHILIPPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY
Years of schooling and literacy rate of Filipinos had generally improved
www.pids.gov.ph 24SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC
GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
73.8
85.384.9
92.8
94.4
98.7
92.8
97.6
2000 2010Pe
rcen
t
Literacy rate of population aged 10 and over
5.5
6.16.7
7.3
8.3
9.1
8.1
8.8
2000 2010
Year
s
Average years of schooling of population aged 25 and over
Total inequality for years of schooling and literacy went down from 2000 to 2010 (Philippines)
Inequality componentYears of schooling Literacy
2000 2010 2000 2010
Theil's index
Within-group 0.1346 0.1101 0.0731 0.0240
Between-group 0.0036 0.0039 0.0014 0.0006
Total 0.1382 0.114 0.0745 0.0245
Gini coefficient
Within-group 0.2100 0.183 0.045 0.0100
Between-group 0.025 0.027 0.016 0.011
Overlap 0.039 0.035 0.011 0.003
Total 0.275 0.244 0.072 0.024
www.pids.gov.ph 25SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC
GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
Within-group component had largely contributed to total inequality (Philippines)
Inequality componentYears of schooling Literacy
2000 2010 2000 2010
Theil's index
Within-group 0.1346 0.1101 0.0731 0.0240
Between-group 0.0036 0.0039 0.0014 0.0006
Total 0.1382 0.114 0.0745 0.0245
Gini coefficient
Within-group 0.210 0.183 0.045 0.010
Between-group 0.025 0.027 0.016 0.011
Overlap 0.039 0.035 0.011 0.003
Total 0.275 0.244 0.072 0.024
www.pids.gov.ph 26SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC
GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
Muslim ethnic group had the highest inequality (Philippines)
www.pids.gov.ph 27
Year/Ethnic group
Gini Coefficient Theil's Index
Years of schooling
LiteracyYears of
schoolingLiteracy
2000 2010 2000 2010 2000 2010 2000 2010
Muslim 0.4791 0.431 0.262 0.147 0.451 0.362 0.304 0.159
Non-Muslim IPs 0.3559 0.337 0.151 0.072 0.238 0.212 0.164 0.075
Non-Muslim, non-IPs 0.2584 0.226 0.056 0.013 0.119 0.095 0.057 0.013
SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
IP groups like Sama Laut, Sama Badjao and Badjao had low educational outcomes; non-IP groups like Palawani and Maranao had high educational outcomes (Philippines)
www.pids.gov.ph 28
97.290.6 88.1 86.0 82.5 82.2
86.1
96.0
85.9 85.3 83.4 82.5 80.7
37.2 35.9
24.6
81.6
9.8
7.4
5.4 5.65.0
6.0 6.2
7.3
5.44.6
5.15.9 6.2
2.1 1.9 2.1
5.7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
Muslim non-IPs Muslim IPs
Year
s
Per
cen
t
Literacy rate of aged 10 and over Years of schooling aged 25 and over
SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
There had been equitable distribution of primary education services; a need for a more equitable distribution of secondary education services (Philippines)
Indicator /Major ethnic group
Human opportunity index (HOI)
Primary education (aged 6-11)
All groups 88.97
Muslim ethnic group 73.46
Non-Muslim IP ethnic group 82.12
Non-Muslim, non-IP ethnic group 91.68
Secondary education (aged 12-18)
All groups 72.16
Muslim ethnic group 60.56
Non-Muslim IP ethnic group 65.40
Non-Muslim, non-IP ethnic group 73.99
www.pids.gov.ph 29SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC
GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
Key findings in Mindanao
www.pids.gov.ph 30
Majority of Filipinos in Mindanao are Muslim 22% and Non-Muslim, non-IPs 63%
Ethnic Group
2000 2010
NumberPercent
(%)Number
Percent
(%)
Mindanao 16,111,584 100.0 21,455,482 100.0
Muslim 2,905,761 18.04 4,716,222 21.98
Non-Muslim IPs 1,918,522 11.91 3,201,321 14.92
Non-Muslim, non-IPs 11,287,301 70.06 13,537,939 63.10
www.pids.gov.ph 31
Note: The figures in the table exclude population who did not state/report their ethnicity and/or
other variables used in the analysis. These samples account for around 10 percent and 2
percent of the total population of the country and of Mindanao, respectively.
Mindanao population by major ethnic group, 2000 and 2010
SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
Years of schooling and literacy rate of Filipinos had generally improved in Mindanao
www.pids.gov.ph 32SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC
GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
73.0
84.7
74.6
88.9
93.4
98.4
87.7
94.2
2000 2010
Perc
ent
Literacy rate of population aged 10 and over
5.3
6.0
5.0
5.8
7.8
8.6
7.1
7.7
2000 2010
Year
s
Average years of schooling of population aged 25 and over
Total inequality for years of schooling and literacy went down from 2000 to 2010 in Mindanao
Inequality componentYears of schooling Literacy
2000 2010 2000 2010
Theil's index
Within-group 0.189 0.167 0.125 0.058
Between-group 0.015 0.014 0.005 0.002
Total 0.204 0.181 0.131 0.060
Gini coefficient
Within-group 0.174 0.146 0.045 0.015
Between-group 0.074 0.076 0.046 0.030
Overlap 0.081 0.085 0.031 0.012
Total 0.329 0.307 0.123 0.057
www.pids.gov.ph 33SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC
GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
Within-group component had largely contributed to total inequality in Mindanao
Inequality componentYears of schooling Literacy
2000 2010 2000 2010
Theil's index
Within-group 0.1892 0.1667 0.1253 0.0576
Between-group 0.0146 0.0142 0.0054 0.0020
Total 0.2037 0.1808 0.1306 0.0595
Gini coefficient
Within-group 0.174 0.146 0.045 0.015
Between-group 0.074 0.076 0.046 0.030
Overlap 0.081 0.085 0.031 0.012
Total 0.329 0.307 0.123 0.057
www.pids.gov.ph 34SOURCE: REYES, C. M., C. G. MINA, R. D. ASIS. “INEQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES AMONG ETHNIC
GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES, PIDS DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 2017-42
Concluding Remarks Disparities in terms of years of schooling and literacy appear to be
narrowing between 2000 and 2010, as shown by various inequalitymeasures.
The non-Muslim, non-IPs are generally better-off in terms of years ofschooling and literacy.
Higher within-group inequalities exist. Inequality is highest within theMuslim group.
Filipinos had higher access to and more equitable distribution of primaryeducation services, while lower and less equal access in terms of secondaryeducation services.
The Philippine government has been exerting efforts to improve access ofIP groups to education (e.g., IP Education of the Department of Education;IP component of the Modified Conditional Cash Transfer, or CCT, program ofthe Department of Social Welfare and Development).
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Philippine Institute for Development Studies
Surian sa mga Pag-aaral Pangkaunlaranng Pilipinas
Service through policy research
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