Carrying on the Tradition: A performance practice analysis

Carrying on the Tradition: A performance practice analysis of stylistic evolution in Texas contest style fiddling

by

Laura Jane Houle, B. Mus

A Thesis

In

Musicology

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

Master of Music

Approved

Dr Christopher J Smith Chair of Committee

Dr Angela Mariani Smith

Dr Curtis Peoples

Mark Sheridan Dean of the Graduate School

August, 2014

Copyright 2014, Laura Jane Houle

Texas Tech University, Laura Jane Houle, August 2014

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... ii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... iv PREFACE ........................................................................................................................ vii I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1 II. CONTEXT OF FIDDLE TUNES ............................................................................. 12III. BIOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT ............................................................................... 20IV. PERORMANCE ANALYSIS OF ECK ROBERTSON ....................................... 33V. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF BENNY THOMASSON ................................ 50 VI. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF MARK O'CONNOR .................................... 73VII. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 91BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 95

A. TABLE OF TRANSCRIBED FIDDLE TUNES .................................................... 98 B. AUTHOR TRANSCRIPTION OF ECK ROBERTSON FIDDLE

TUNES ........................................................................................................................ 99 C. AUTHOR TRANSCRIPTION OF BENNY THOMASSON FIDDLE

TUNES ..................................................................................................................... 106

D. AUTHOR TRANSCRIPTION OF MARK O'CONNOR FIDDLE TUNES ...................................................................................................................... 110


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ABSTRACT Texas contest style fiddling remains a distinct sub-genre within American

fiddling. It is performed in a competitive context that involves the direct use of

ornamented and varied folk melodies. As the contest tradition evolved in style of

performance and eventual locations outside of Texas, the term likewise evolved to

describe a virtuosic and indigenous type of fiddling. In order to trace stylistic evolution, I

analyze three successive generations of contest fiddle performers by focusing on

recordings and fiddle tunes that best represent the performance practice. These

individuals are Eck Robertson (November 1887- February 1975), Benny Thomasson

(April 1909- January 1984), and Mark O’Connor (August 1961). Basing comparative

analysis on transcriptions of each player’s recording, the thesis focuses upon bowing

styles, fiddle techniques, and improvisation to demonstrate a nuanced picture of stylistic

modifications made by the performer.

Combining historical backgrounds and memory narratives, this thesis shapes the

history of the Texas contest fiddle tradition, and contributes to the idioms continued

relevancy. Situating the fiddlers’ performance innovations within the expectations of the

fiddle tradition, it is clear these players carry on the tradition of fiddling while

nevertheless creating individualistic renditions of canonic fiddle tunes.


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LIST OF TABLES 1.1 Cross Tunings ............................................................................................18 4.1 Eck Robertson- Style Characteristics .........................................................34 4.2 Eck Robertson ‘Sally Gooden’ Variations .................................................39 4.3 Eck Robertson ‘Amarillo Waltz’ Variations .............................................47 5.1 Benny Thomasson- Style Characteristics ..................................................52 5.2 Benny Thomasson ‘Sally Goodin’ Variations ...........................................56 5.3 Benny Thomasson ‘Black and White Rag’ Variations ..............................68 6.1 Mark O’Connor- Style Characteristics ......................................................74 6.2 Mark O’Connor ‘Sally Goodin’ Variations ...............................................77 6.3 Table 6.3 Mark O’Connor ‘Yellow Rose Waltz’ Variations .....................87


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LIST OF FIGURES 4.1 Classical violin bridge. ...............................................................................35 4.2 Flattened fiddle bridge ...............................................................................36 4.3 G string riff. ...............................................................................................40 4.4 Robertson primary variation ......................................................................40 4.5 Robertson variation 2. ................................................................................41 4.6 Robertson variation 3 .................................................................................41 4.7 Robertson variation 4. ................................................................................42 4.8 Robertson variation 5 .................................................................................42 4.9 Robertson variation 6. ................................................................................43 4.10 Robertson variation 7 .................................................................................43 4.11 Robertson variation 8. ................................................................................43 4.12 Robertson variation 9 .................................................................................44 4.13 Robertson variation 10. ..............................................................................45 4.14 Robertson variation 11 ...............................................................................45 4.15 Robertson variation 12. ..............................................................................45 4.16 Robertson variation 13 ...............................................................................46 4.17 Robertson primary A section .....................................................................48 4.18 Robertson section A1 .................................................................................48 4.19 Robertson section B. ..................................................................................49 4.20 Robertson section B1 .................................................................................49 5.1 Thomasson variation 1. ..............................................................................57 5.2 Tag ending .................................................................................................57 5.3 Thomasson variation 2. ..............................................................................58 5.4 Thomasson variation 3 ...............................................................................58 5.5 Thomasson variation 4 ...............................................................................59 5.6 Thomasson variation 5 ...............................................................................60 5.7 Comparison of Robertson variation 4 . .....................................................60 5.8 Thomasson variation 6 ...............................................................................60 5.9 Thomasson variation 7. ..............................................................................61


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5.10 Comparison of Robertson variation 5 ........................................................61 5.11 Comparison of Robertson variation 6. .......................................................62 5.12 Thomasson variation 8 ...............................................................................62 5.13 Thomasson variation 9 ...............................................................................63 5.14 Comparison of Robertson variation 7 ........................................................63 5.15 Thomasson variation 10. ............................................................................63 5.16 Comparison of Robertson variation 9 ........................................................64 5.17 Thomasson variation 11. ............................................................................64 5.18 Comparison of Robertson variation 10 ......................................................64 5.19 Thomasson variation 12. ............................................................................64 5.20 Comparison of Robertson variation 11 ......................................................65 5.21 Thomasson variation 13. ............................................................................65 5.22 Thomasson variation 14 .............................................................................65 5.23 Thomasson section A1 ...............................................................................69 5.24 Modulation .................................................................................................69 5.25 Thomasson A material. ..............................................................................70 5.26 Thomasson B material ...............................................................................70 5.27 Tag A1 and A4. ..........................................................................................70 5.28 Tag A2 .......................................................................................................70 5.29 Tag A3 .......................................................................................................71 5.30 Double stop at cadence ..............................................................................71 5.31 Section C triplet figure ...............................................................................72 6.1 O’Connor variation 1 .................................................................................78 6.2 Comparison of Thomasson variation 5. .....................................................78 6.3 Comparison of Robertson variation 2 ........................................................78 6.4 Comparison of Robertson variation 5 ........................................................79 6.5 O’Connor variation 2 .................................................................................79 6.6 O’Connor variation 3 .................................................................................80 6.7 Comparison of Robertson variation 5 ........................................................80 6.8 O’Connor variation 4. ................................................................................80 6.9 O’Connor variation 5 .................................................................................81


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6.10 Comparison of Thomasson variation 9. .....................................................81 6.11 O’Connor variation 6 .................................................................................81 6.12 Comparison of Thomasson variation 10 ....................................................82 6.13 Comparison of O’Connor variation 2 ........................................................82 6.14 O’Connor variation 7 .................................................................................82 6.15 Comparison of Thomasson variation 6 ......................................................82 6.16 O’Connor variation 8 .................................................................................83 6.17 Comparison of Thomasson variation 13 ....................................................83 6.18 O’Connor variation 9 .................................................................................84 6.19 Comparison of Robertson variation 6 ........................................................84 6.20 Comparison of Thomasson variaton 8 .......................................................84 6.21 O’Connor variation 10 ...............................................................................85 6.22 Measure 65-66. ..........................................................................................85 6.23 Dense ornamentation .................................................................................88 6.24 Scalar section. ............................................................................................88 6.25 Double stop harmonics ..............................................................................89 6.26 O’Connor Ending tag .................................................................................90


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PREFACE In 2009 during my undergraduate studies at College of Charleston, this study was

sparked when my violin teacher told me I was unteachable because I preferred to play the

fiddle rather then the violin. Due to this, my research scope focuses on the virtuosity and

technical analysis of fiddle playing. Having completed this study, my playing style has

enhanced, and I have appropriated not only techniques but also melodic riffs from

fiddlers Eck Robertson, Benny Thomasson, and Mark O’Connor.

Having attended multiple fiddle camps held by O’Connor, I had the opportunity

to not only learn, but to play the fiddle alongside him. I am confident in my abilities to

complete such a academic study due to that experience as well as playing the fiddle in the

Texas style since I was a child. This study could have only been undertaken in such

precise stylistic detail by someone knowledgeable of the idiom and proficient on the

instrument.


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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Texas contest fiddling is a distinctive sub-genre of American fiddle playing

performed in a competitive context that involves the direct use of a folk melody that is

ornamented and varied throughout the performance. The connotations of the term Texas

contest fiddling vary as the style continues to disseminate throughout the United States.

The original definition as of the early twentieth century simply connoted fiddle contests

held in Texas. Local contest rules were commonly listed in local newspapers, and

included the requirement that contest participants be native Texans. As the fiddle

tradition evolved in its style of performance and eventual locations outside of Texas, the

term likewise evolved to more specifically connote a virtuosic type of indigenous contest

fiddling.

The evolution of the style involved a fusion of the square dance tradition,

technical pyrotechnics, saw bowings, and improvised variations of traditional fiddle or

dance tunes. Contemporary style characteristics typically combine elaborate technical

maneuvers in the left-hand, a smooth bowing style, and variations that seamlessly follow

each other. Within the genre, certain tunes and tune types acquire subsequent layers of

stylistic variations, which are in turn associated with individual performers.

The highly competitive nature of the early contests prompted fiddlers to

continuously seek more impressive and virtuosic performance. This in turn caused

audience expectations to rise and demand more intricate fiddle playing. As a result,


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individuals outside of Texas began fiddling in this demanding style. In present day

contests, the Texas style predominates and its exponents are often contest winners.

The term Texas contest fiddling oversimplifies subtler distinctions between the

generations of players they influenced. The conventional summary of the style, a

virtuosic performance utilizing smooth bowing technique with complex stylistic

variations, does not address distinctions in bowing style or performance practice variants

across different generations of players. This thesis traces stylistic evolution among three

successive generations of contest style fiddle performances. I will investigate these three

specific historical and stylistic generations by focusing on recordings of popular and

lesser-known fiddle tunes that represent the performance practice.

Comparative analysis of individual performers’ versions of traditional fiddle tunes

reveals how specific performance practice decisions of champion fiddlers yielded

influence upon others. Due to this, the three performers I have selected were chosen

because they share both a direct biographical lineage and the demonstrable evolution of

the visualized style across generations. These three landmark individuals are Eck

Robertson (November 1887-February1975), Benny Thomasson (April 1909- January

1984), and Mark O’ Connor (August 1961). Basing my comparative analysis on

transcriptions of each player’s recording and focusing upon bowing styles, fiddle

techniques, and improvisation, I provide a more precise and nuanced picture of the

stylistic modifications made by these fiddlers within the Texas contest tradition, focusing

on bowing styles, fiddle techniques, and improvisation.


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Discovering the specific history of Texas contest fiddling is a challenging

undertaking. Various genres, events, and individuals impacted the style as well as the

challenge of constructing a precise history due to incomplete and indirect data. The

repertoires for contest fiddling reflect the diverse ethnicities that settled Texas: the

influence of Germany, Irish, Mexican, and Canadian fiddle music can be found in various

song selections.

Dr. J Cranfill, Baptist preacher and fiddler, who recorded fiddle duets with Eck

Robertson for Victor Records October 10, 1929, describes the environment and attitude

of the early dance fiddlers. The four fiddle tunes discussed are still performed in the

contest tradition, particularly ‘Grey Eagle,’ a popular breakdown.

There were no violinists in those precincts. If any of those old-fashioned country folk had ever seen a violinist or had ever seen violin tunes set to music, they would have ‘folded their tents like the Arabs,’ and silently sought ‘the shades of the distant west in which to hide their disgust. But there were fiddlers, and such fiddlers they were! I can hear the lively notes of ‘Fine Times at Our House,’ ‘Cotton-Eyed Joe,’ ‘Mollie Put the Kettle On,’ and ‘Grey Eagle,’ as I write. Homely old times were those times that, like the buffalo and the Comanche warrior, sleep in the moldering ruins of a vanished age.1 Though Cranfill’s chronicles were published in 1916, he is describing the pre-

contest local square dances of 1875. This account provides a time frame for the decline of

interest amongst contest fiddlers; in its place and approximately the same period, contest

fiddling develops by appropriating the same tunes but shifting them in a transformative,

competitive context.

1 Dr. J.B. Cranfill, Dr. J.B Cranfill’s Chronicle: A Story of Life in Texas (New York: Fleming H. Revell


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The early 1870s dances required lengthy performances, which were a natural

breeding ground for the development of improvisational and creative variation on the

traditional binary form melody. The contest tradition maintained the idea of a steady

hard-driving rhythmic beat supporting multiple repetitions and variants of the melody. In

this instance, however, perhaps in order to retain interest in this purely instrumental

version of what had been a dance music, fiddlers began altering the melody with subtle

ornamentations such as grace notes, double stops, alternate rhythmic patterns, and bow

strokes. During contests, the fiddler would begin with a simplified variant of the tune and

employ a continuous “planned improvisation”—that is, the development and

ornamentation of the main melody that is largely precomposed before the contest.2 This

in turn allowed the exploitation of the instrument’s virtuoso capabilities, as contest

fiddlers continually increased the difficulty of the preceding variations.

No single date can be cited as the catalyst for Texas contest fiddling: on the other

hand, we can date certain events that impacted the rise of this tradition. Prior to Eck

Robertson’s first country recording of Texas contest fiddle tunes in 1922 with Victor

Talking Machine Company, there is comparatively little substantial data regarding

contests. Some of the most direct evidence includes newspaper articles promoting local

contests, diary entries such as Dr. Cranfill’s, and iconography highlighting popular

fiddlers of the time.3

2 Matt Glaser, “Controlled Improvisation” (Masters thesis, Tufts University, 1992). 3 Charles K Wolfe, Eck Robertson: Vintage Recordings 1922-1929 (Charlottesville: County Records1998), 1.


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The majority of research on the fiddle focuses on ethnographic reports, personal

narratives, and broad historical studies on both Texas contest fiddling as well as the wider

fiddle traditions. The following literature review examines select methodologies and

research that specifically addresses aspects of Texas contest fiddling, Southern fiddling,

and traditional North American styles. These sources examine broader contexts of fiddle

music as well as provide a solid foundation for a more detailed and specifically focused

study.

Matt Glaser’s 1992 thesis from Tufts University, “Controlled Improvisation,”

investigates the use of embellishments and improvisation techniques in Benny

Thomasson and Mark O’Connor’s performances of the fiddle hoedown ‘Grey Eagle.’4

The thesis presents a unique perspective, as the scholarly work was grounded upon a

collaborative project with the research subject. Glaser’s research was further supported

by informal interviews and on-stage performances with Mark O’Connor.

Glaser develops the concept of “controlled improvisation” through a comparative

stylistic analysis. He defines this concept: “Composition in this idiom involves those

processes of refinement that take place over a long span of time. In my own thinking I

tend to relate composition to larger formal segments (eight bars) and improvisation to the

microstructure (pitch-to-pitch).”5 Thus, my methodology and chosen players may seem to

overlap with his, however, Glaser’s thesis focuses exclusively upon multiple variants of

the single tune ‘Grey Eagle.’ In contrast, my analysis of multiple tunes from each of these

4 Glaser, “Controlled Improvisation.” 5 Ibid., 8.


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three fiddlers makes it possible to distinguish the evolution of style characteristics

through multiple generations.6

Glaser’s analysis likewise seeks to create a formula for ‘controlled improvisation’

using a quasi-Schenkerian analysis of premeditated improvisation at these performances.

In contrast, my analysis of three different players’ approaches to the same set of contest

pieces makes a comparative discussion of stylistic evolution over three generations

possible.

Christ Goertzen’s book, Southern Fiddlers and Fiddle Contests, provides a

discussion of stage performance, activities surrounding contests, tunes predominating in

the Southern contest tradition, and a summary of significant historical shifts regarding

Southern fiddling.7

Goertzen analyzed several modern contests such as the Weiser National Fiddle

Contest in Weiser, Idaho. This contest is relevant in studies of Southern fiddling as the

majority of participants fiddle in the southern or Texas style. He presents anecdotes that

illuminate the lengths to which fiddlers went to distance themselves from classical violin

performance. 8 Goertzen confirms that the Texas fiddle style is now the dominating style

in the Southern contest tradition, and credits the unification of fiddle contest expectations,

as well as the new emphasis on harmony, to the Texas tradition. Descriptive passages

6 Though Glaser acknowledges such evolutions, they are not a primary focus of his thesis. 7 Chris Goertzen, Southern Fiddlers and Fiddle Contests (University of Mississippi Press, 2008).8 Fiddlers deemed themselves “morally superior to violins, a violinist plays by note and a fiddler by plainnatural disposition and elbow grease; a violinist draws down about a thousand a night, a week, a month or whatever it is, if it’s so, the fiddler is lucky to get the neck of the chicken and what’s left in the bottle after its done been ‘round the room.” Goertzen, Southern Fiddlers, 11.


7

concerning customary events preceding and following the main event are supplemented

with Goertzen’s interpretations of the events’ purpose.

Goertzen’s primary focus is narrative and information, not a critical interpretation.

I will add a layer of such interpretation, arguing that these fiddlers intentionally construct

an image of unlearned and intuitive education and musical style in order to distinguish

themselves from the expectations of classical violin. This is evident in fiddler Mellie

Dunhams’s statement, “I don’t pretend to be a musician. I’m just a fiddler.” 9 A central

addition in my analysis will be to contrast this public persona of ignorance and intuition

with the actual musical content of fiddle renditions. As a result of this analysis, the

intentional and artistic relation of intonation, rhythm, and technique will be demonstrated.

Goertzen’s narrative focuses upon historical shifts in Southern fiddling, but also

conveys the player’s humorous personalities and relaxed mannerisms stating, “a good

fiddler is self-reliant, hard-working, full of humor, and skilled in an impressive but not

intimidating way.”10 It would be more accurate to say that these were characteristics that

fiddlers sought to embody when creating their public personae. The use of persona was

already evident in early contests when the audience was the judge; whoever entertained

the audience and most effectively portrayed the ‘cowboy fiddler’ won the contest. In

contrast to Goertzen’s study, the precise emphasis of my document is a detailed

discussion of performance practice.

9Goertzen, Southern Fiddlers, 12. 10Ibid.


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Earl V. Spielman’s doctoral dissertation, “Traditional North American Fiddling,”

summarizes the major fiddle traditions as of 1975.11 Spielman identifies noticeable gaps

in the research on North American fiddle styles, addressing such gaps through lengthy

historical and stylistic studies. In response to the 1970s scholarly neglect of traditional

music, Spielman places strong emphasis upon his justification for such analysis. The five-

part methodology sections offer useful tools in approaching basic analysis of traditional

music:

1. Formal and Structural Characteristics2. Melodic Characteristics3. Rhythmic Characteristics4. Harmonic Characteristics5. Miscellaneous CharacteristicsSpielman employs a musicological model of inquiry into fiddle performance

practices. The fact that Spielman’s very useful dissertation was nevertheless written in

1975, in a very different scholarly environment, makes an updated study even more

important. Although the dissertation is extensive, only a few chapters directly pertain to

my proposed research.

Overall, Spielman stresses the importance of familiarity with the instrument in

order to provide accurate transcriptions. He explains difficulties encountered, and argues

11 Earl V. Spielman, “ Traditional North American Fiddling” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1975).


9

that if a performance practice study is to be undertaken, an “intimate knowledge of

performance and performance style is almost essential for the proper notion of bowing.”12

Spielman provides a model for further studies in audience and performer

relationships as well as the impact of such relationships on performance decisions. In my

thesis, the interplay of the audience and performer is a determining factor for the success

of a fiddler. Spielman’s methodologies provide useful tools that are vital to my

discussion.13

Recognizing a gap in the existing literature, I provide a comparative analysis of

generational performance practice, which has included in-depth musical analysis. The

scholars cited do offer valuable insight into personal views as well as providing useful

information on contest culture. In this instance, however, they do not provide precise

stylistic analysis because their analyses are often limited to a single tune from a disparate

range of fiddlers. I seek to correct such overgeneralizations and to provide stylistic

analysis that is representative of the transformation of the performance practice in three

generations of biographically related performers. My detailed and comprehensive

analysis of recordings and transcriptions permits me to establish a list of distinct style

characteristics that can be used to situate these three fiddlers’ approaches within the genre

12 Spielman, “ Traditional North American Fiddling”, 139. 13Spielman suggests that contests can be considered a “legitimate outlet” for fiddle music as they can be found in most parts of the United States with rules that explicitly outline “good” fiddling. The premise of Spielman’s argument details that the application of formalistic principles in contest judging caused successful fiddlers to classify their approaches into the ‘super-style’ of Texas contest fiddling.


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of Texas contest fiddling. These style characteristics will be traced through different

fiddle performances and generations in order to demonstrate the evolving style.

In order to create a comprehensive study of circumstances that affected fiddlers’

performance practice, research materials include primary source material from

interviews, newspapers, iconography, recordings, and transcriptions of Eck Robertson,

Benny Thomasson, and Mark O’Connor. Primary sources, such as newspaper articles,

track the changing contest settings and the historiography of contest’s importance in the

culture. Interviews with Eck Robertson, Benny Thomasson, and Mark O’Connor provide

insight on their contest experiences and personal views of their performances. Drawing

upon oral history as a source for analysis of a player’s own stylistic characteristics, I will

compare the data from my own transcriptions of recordings with both prior transcriptions

and related commentary. Each of these players exerted influences upon others, and the

developments on the style brought forth by each can be best heard in recordings and

interpreting transcriptions.

Performances transcribed for the purpose of this research are drawn from Eck

Robertson’s album, The Old-time Texas Fiddler 1922-1929, Benny Thomasson’s

Legendary Robertson the Thomasson Texas Fiddle Player 1966-1969, and Mark

O’Connor’s album The Championship Years1975- 1984. These specific recordings were

chosen upon my desire to employ primary sources that are readily available and facilitate

wider discussion. I have transcribed two fiddle tunes per fiddler that are discussed in

Chapter 3, 4, and 5. Though the 78 RPM recording from the 1920s are difficult to clearly


11

hear, my transcriptions provide an accurate analysis of Robertson’s technical and melodic

decisions.

Fiddler Pete Martin transcribes the entire collection of Benny Thomasson’s

recorded tunes in the book Benny Thomasson Fiddle Transcriptions. Due to the presence

of erroneous bowings, slurs, and fingers, I have used the Martin transcriptions as a

foundation, but have found it necessary to significantly revise them based upon my own

hearings of Thomasson’s performances.

Stacey Phillips and Mark O’Connor undertook the transcription of all O’Connor’s

contest tunes in the fiddle manual, Championship Years 1975-84. After extensive

comparison of the recording and transcriptions, I have concluded that these transcriptions

are detailed and demonstrate an accurate portrayal of what is heard on the corresponding

recording. However, though confident of their reliability for purposes of my study, I have

corrected slight rhythmic mistakes and chromatic notations.


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CHAPTER II

CONTEXT OF FIDDLE TUNES

Texas contest fiddling is based on ritualistic principles found in select

generational performance consistencies and behaviors. Upon examination of the history

of this competitive and subjective tradition, watershed fiddlers emerged as significant

exemplars of their era. Texas contest fiddling is a selective genre and often “the expertise

behind playing this Texas style does not translate well to broader audiences…mainly

relegated to devoted aficionados.”14 Earl Spielman confirms that it is “largely through the

recognition of the high caliber of technique and musicality of individuals” that continued

stylistic evolutions have occurred.”15 Mark O’Connor, the foremost figure in the contest

years (1975-1984) stated, “Texas fiddling did not become popular for contests until I

eventually won every contest at least once around the country playing in the Texas style

by the time I was twenty –– I sort of proved it could be done, I suppose.”16 O’Connor’s

success in contests outside of Texas expanded and legitimized the genre beyond the

borders. Empirical evidence and commentary from scholars confirm that certain fiddlers

impacted the tradition in ways that both extend and legitimize it.

Although the tradition is competitive, it remains an environment of shared

learning, community, and customs. This is evident not only from the contest, but from the

jam sessions fiddlers participate in before and after the central event. It is during many of

these jam sessions that the ideas of assorted fiddlers are integrated.

14 Spielman, “ Traditional North American Fiddling”, 139.15 Earl V. Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson. The John Edwards Memorial FoundationQuarterly VIII (Winter 1972): 187. 16 Peter, Anick, Interview with Mark O’Connor. Fiddler Magazine (Fall 2010).


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The advent of recording and other technological advancements facilitates our

ability to trace stylistic movement and changes. Evident upon the analysis of Robertson,

Thomasson, and O’Connor’s recorded repertoires; one can trace the original melodic

motif as the variations emerge organically through the use of planned improvisation.

Analysis focuses on diverse bowing styles, fiddle techniques, and performers varying

performance style. World Champion fiddler Matt Hartz explained, the concept of

individual performance styles that one must “get inside somebody’s head and figure out

how they did things… and after that it’s up to you to not play the same version of that

tune for the rest of your life.”17 Largely learning through imitating mentors, a novice can

manipulate and twist the melody of tunes through improvisational techniques such as

added ornamentations, manipulation of the basic melodic pattern, rhythmic displacement,

and bowing patterns that group notes together with slurs or use varying levels of bow

pressure.

A fiddle tune is not merely an ornamented melody, but rather the developed and perfected result of the ‘working out’ of a tune melody. In other words, the melody supplies the fiddler with the raw, undeveloped, unprocessed material out of which a tune can grow and reach maturity.18

During competition, individuals are judged on tone quality, rhythmic

stability, skill on instrument, and inventiveness in their rendition of fiddle tunes.

Mark O’Connor describes components he believes to be integral in order to win in

fiddle contests.

17 Nate Olson, “ A Texas-Style Fiddle Primer,” Strings (September 2012).18 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 187.


14

You want to play as clean as possible. I mean super clean. Every note. I’d be mad at myself if I played one not that passed by. Every note right on top of the beat. That seems to do it. Other places in the country they don’t care if its scratchy or rhythmic but at Weiser there’s a thing about playing clean. It’s better to play a simpler tune, well, not necessarily simple but one that doesn’t go as many places and play it man, right down the line. Like crash it.19

O’Connor’s description emphasizes the importance placed on a pure and smooth

tone in combination with articulate note divisions. The desired tone is achieved through a

circular motion of the wrist in correlation with a controlled bow stroke in conjunction

with meticulously placed rhythmic patterns such as triplets or steady eighth notes.

Performance practices such as these reflect time honored as well as changing values. This

directly affects how participants and outsiders perceive the contests. Behaviors

surrounding contests represent the interplay between the historical and romanticized

traditions.

Texas fiddle contests are supported and affected by surrounding communities as

well as the actual contest community. Incentives and rewards for contests have included

prizes such as watches or fiddles, monetary gain, fame, status in the community, and the

opportunity to pursue recording contracts. Eck Robertson, upon the release of his record

with Victor talking company, was routinely referred to as the “World Famous Cowboy

Fiddler.” In the 1940s, during the height of singing cowboy cinema, Benny Thomasson

was offered the opportunity to appear in Gene Autry movies as well as to perform with

19 Stacey Phillips, Contest Fiddling (Pacific: Mel Bay, 1983), 24.


15

swing fiddle icon, Bob Wills.20 Mark O’Connor’s success in fiddle contests has facilitated

a vibrant musical career in recording, composition, and teaching at the university level.

Over the course of the traditions development, the competition time limit was

significantly shortened. Competitors were allowed only four minutes with no clapping

between songs.21 Time constraints were a reaction by contest organizer due to the

increase in participants.22 The contest census moved from around twenty fiddlers in an

age group to close to sixty.23 Performers responded by concentrating their performance in

order to display their talent most efficiently. Examinations of the fiddle tunes addressed

in this document confirm this phenomenon; it is clear the pieces not only become shorter,

but also utilize faster tempos and more intricate melodies. Similarly, more recent

generations of fiddlers are able to access legendary fiddle players through field

recordings, albums, or transcriptions. Such a range of resources allows young fiddlers to

cultivate their skill much faster.

Fiddle contests in Texas may be likened to sporting events; the festival

atmosphere encourages families’ picnic and individuals often holler and cheer in support

of their favorite fiddler. “Fiddling is a sport. They’re yelling ‘Go Go Go!’ it’s a way of

life. You stay up all night and get drunk, go to different peoples houses and play all

night.”24 The audiences rival each other while placing bets for their preferred fiddler.

20 Stacey Phillips, The Championship Years (Pacific: Mel Bay, 1991), 20.21 Phillips, Contest Fiddling, 24. 22 Phillips, The Championship Years, 30. 23 Phillips, Contest Fiddling, 25. 24 Ibid., 26.


16

In early Texas contests (1920s- roughly 1950s), it was acceptable for performers

to manipulate their instruments using cross-tuning and other gimmicks to achieve

distinctive sound effects and harmonies. Novelty, trick, or show tunes such as ‘Black

Mountain Rag,’ ‘Orange Blossom Special,’ ‘Listen to the Mockingbird, or ‘Gone Indian’

have characteristic trick sections such as unusual overtones, train whistles, hokum

bowing, birdcalls, and harmonized Indian whoops. The enactment of such tunes in Texas

fiddle contests (roughly as of 1950s) results in immediate disqualification. Performances

of such tunes are now only heard in contexts outside of competition.

An account of Thomasson's performance of the cross-tuned novelty tune, ‘Black

Mountain Rag’ in the 1950s, provides a sense of the lenient atmosphere of early Texas

contests. The performance incited members of the audience to yell “ get him off the stage

he is to good!” A prominent fiddler (and rival) of Thomasson, Major Franklin, was

impetus in mandating the ban of cross-tuning. It was rumored that Franklin would

“…stomp you nearly to death if you would [cross tune]. ‘Black Mountain Rag’ and stuff

like that, show tunes...”25 Opinions such as Franklins’ brought forth the eventual ban of

not only cross tuning, but any type of flashy fiddle playing.

The origins of cross tuning are attributed to various causes. The most legendary,

from the Rocky Mountains, claimed that a fiddler left his instrument outside overnight

and upon picking it up in the morning did not bother to tune it. Historically cross-tuning

derives from the 17th and 18th century scordatura, and was often employed in Scottish

25 Phillips, Contest Fiddling, 29.


17

fiddle music. Hence, its reappearance in fiddle music of the American west is logical.26

The following table represents the most commonly found alternate tunings in fiddle

music.27 These tunings often carry nicknames derived from the note names, an unusual

sound, or tunes particularly associated with them.

26 Gerald Milnes, Play of a Fiddle (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999), 8. 27 Peter Anick and David Reiner, Old-Time Fiddling Across America (Pacific: Mel Bay, 1989), 43.


18

Table 1.1 Cross Tunings

String Tuning Nickname of Tuning

G-D-A-E Standard “Eye-talian” [Italian]

F-C-G-D Cajun

G-D-G-B Open G

G-D-G-D Cross G Saw-hill

G-D-A-D “Gee-dad”

D-D-A-D Open D

Dead Man “Bonaparte’s Retreat”

A-D-A-E Old-timey D

A-E-A-E

Cross A High Bass

High Counter High Tenor

A-E-A-C#

Open A Calico

“Black Mountain Rag” “Drunken Hiccups”

A-E-A-D “Old Sledge” “Silver Lake”

E-D-A-E “Glory in the Meeting House”

E-E-A-E “Get up in the Cool”


19

The shift from novelty fiddle tunes indicates the establishment of a fiddle canon.

There are signature contest tunes that are frequently performed throughout generations

resulting in various versions of the same piece. This creates a noticeable evolution of

tunes such as ‘Sally Goodin,’ and also creates expectations for the performer.

The evolving roles of contest judges and contest rules resulted in adapting

approaches to contest fiddling. These changes delineate evolving performance practice

and behavioral patterns. Contest fiddling is perceived as a traditional idiom, and through

the evolving processes of the contest, the tradition maintains its currency throughout

generations.


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CHAPTER III

BIOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT

This chapter addresses the biographical and historical contexts within which these

fiddlers operated. The sketches focus upon image, self-identity, and help us understand

how fiddlers viewed their roles in contests as well as how they were perceived. I focus

upon these factors because they directly reveal the degree to which mythology was a part

of fiddlers' public personas. Understanding these fiddlers' myths helps us better and more

insightfully interpret their musical decisions. The complex constructions of these myths

likewise evolved and reflect changing context and reception.

Alexander “Eck” Robertson’s biography (November 1887-February 1975) is a

rich narrative that reveals Robertson’s persona as largely self-invented. Portraying

Robertson as a self-proclaimed “natural born fiddler,” these anecdotes reveal his

perception of and goals for his role as a fiddler within varied social contexts in the early

twentieth century.28

The iconic image of Robertson holding his fiddle in cowboy garb with an

American flag in the background best presents his public persona. The image is found on

his CD as well as in promotional materials for his record. The lasting impression of this

symbolic image is evident in its current use. Over fifty years later, the image was chosen

for the cover of Charles Wolfe’s book, The Devils Box: Masters of Southern Fiddling, as

the image is evocative of Robertson’s place in history as the first country music artist.

28 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 180.


21

Wolfe labels Robertson’s recording contract as iconic in country music history,

“both men [Robertson and Gilliland] traveling from a Confederate reunion in Virginia,

appearing in New York in their Confederate uniforms, and playing for astonished

executives.”29 This story displays Robertson’s brash attitude and drive towards

commercial success. The best account of this was written in the Victor catalogue after the

release of the 1922 78-RPM tunes, ‘Sally Gooden’/ ‘Arkansaw Traveler.’

When we first saw these two artists, it was at our own Victor door, in the garb of western plainsmen. They told us they could play the fiddle, and asked a hearing. As we knew several thousand persons who could play the fiddle, more or less, we were not especially impressed, but we asked them to begin. After the second number or so, we engaged them to make records of the old American country-dances.30

Though subsequent accounts and iconography verify that Robertson and fiddler Henry

Gilliland were indeed dressed in Confederate uniforms, it is striking that Victor Records

rephrased their outfits as “garb of western plainsmen.” Wolfe offers a convincing theory

that it was largely Robertson’s cowboy persona that allowed him to receive the contract.31

Upon the release of 78-RPM tunes, ‘Sally Gooden’ / ‘Arkansaw Traveler,’ Victor

records recognized that the recording of such music was alternative, and that it was

unlikely that a general audience would have been exposed to such music.32 The following

excerpt was found in the Victor recording catalogue accompanying notes to Robertson’s

recording, outlining his playing style.

29 Charles Wolfe, The Devils Box: Masters of Southern Fiddling (Nashville, Country Music Press, 1997), 13. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 As there are various spellings of ‘Sally Gooden,’ the spellings correlate with the specific performers choice of spelling.


22

These tunes—are played in the traditional fashion of the American country fiddler, without accompaniment. You will notice their fine, instinctive timing and if you are a musician, the difference in the quality of their tone from that of the concert violinist. Both these thing are characteristic—these records—exhibit ‘double stops’, or two string harmonies—the work of the American ‘country fiddler’ must not be judged by the same standards as apply to the concert interpreter of the classical and romantic music. Nevertheless, he is a master of his craft—that of furnishing music for the jig and reel, or for the derived ‘old-time’ dances. His fingers are nimble, his sense of pitch is acute, and his feelings for time and rhythm is without a flaw. 33

Robertson's performance practice has not been widely studied, with scholarly

emphasis placed on anecdotes and his status as the first country music recording artist. In

1964, John Cohen suggested that one of the problems in research on Robertson is the de-

emphasis upon his actual playing.

One attitude among folklorists today is that Eck Robertson is more interesting for what he says; the tendency is to collect only his stories and remembrance of the early days. Admittedly, this is important material, but in his music lays his real contribution and creative effort. It may seem that these tunes are known by a great many Texas fiddlers, but it is what Eck has done with them that makes him so unique. His lasting influence will be felt from his music, not his words.34

As Robertson is often associated with his pioneer recording, his winning contest

participation and innovative fiddle arrangements are often overlooked. Wolfe also

confirms Robertson “was a key figure in the development of the Texas fiddle style- the

style that has come to dominate most modern contest fiddling,” and that “neither of these

concerns has been especially well addressed in the various writings about Robertson.”35

33 Cohen, “Fiddlin’ Eck Robertson,”9.34 Ibid.,10. 35 Wolfe, Devils Box, 12.


23

Despite this, numerous advertisements and newspaper articles celebrated his

contest fiddling. An account titled “Eck Robertson of Borger Carries Off First For

Fiddlers,” serves as an example:

Eck Robertson of Borger carried away first money and the championship of the Southwest at the old fiddlers contest last night at the municipal auditorium before a crowd of about 700 people. Besides the contest there was plenty of entertainment. Eck Robertson and his family entertained for half and hour with songs, fiddling, banjo music and dancing.36

He was “possibly the best fiddler in the state of Texas at the time, winner of

dozens of contests, a musician so respected that when he merely entered a contest the

promoters would advertise it as a draw to get fans in.”37 KMTY radio station provided the

list of participants for the September 4, 1954 fiddle contest held in Clovis, New Mexico

for the Curry County fair. A footnote informed readers that Robertson arrived too late to

compete.38 The emphasis placed upon Robertson’s absence suggests that the outcome

might have been altered if Robertson had competed. Robertson's presence, like his

absence, was deemed crucial; this is evident in the 1928 Amarillo newspaper excerpt.

Some of the most famous troubadours of the rapidly passing art will play at the exhibition tonight. All of the more than twenty entries are champions of their home counties and were selected by legitimate elimination contests. Any one of the groups would be recognized as an entertainer of considerable talent. And they will be assisted by the best banjo and guitar pickers to be found in the country. Eck Robertson, worlds champion and Victor recording artist is officially entered in the class of competition. He will attract an audience any place. Mr. Robertson will find some strong

36 “Eck Robertson of Borger Carries off First for Fiddlers,” Amarillo Daily News, April 4, 1931.37 Wolfe, Eck Robertson, 1.38 Ken White JR, KMTY FM Radio, to 1954 Participants of 2nd Annual Old Fiddlers Contest, Clovis, NewMexico, 4 September 1954.


24

competition in the event tonight, and if he wins it will be one of his greatest achievements.39

Robertson's own commentary suggests that, despite having been labeled as old-fashioned,

his was the only way to correctly play the fiddle.40

Robertson's resistance to more modern evolutions of fiddle technique appears to

result from his disapproval of too-extensive alterations of original melodies. Dr. Cranfill

recollected in his memoirs, “Eck Robertson, with whom I played on this double record,

vows and declares every time he opens his mouth that he is the champion fiddler of the

universe, and nobody has ever been able to get him to deny it.”41 This is further exhibited

in Robertson’s statement: “There’s not one fiddler in a dozen that plays the tune like it

ought to be played!”42

A more consistent and methodical analysis reveals that Robertson's fiddling, often

categorized as “old-time,” employs melodic ornamentation and frequent variations,

which are not typical of the old-time tradition. Robertson’s playing is more appropriately

categorized as Texas contest fiddling due to the personal interpretations of the melody

and intricate ornamentations. Robertson believed his playing was entirely individualistic,

but in later years he self identified with the Texas style.43 It is evident through

Robertson’s bowing and improvisation style that he blended aspects of old-time

traditional style of fiddling with contest fiddling. The most notable retention of old-time

fiddling style is the clear, audible melody present in each variation. Although Spielman 39“Fiddlers Gather in Amarillo for Contest Tonight,” Amarillo Daily News, April 27, 1928. 40 Ibid., 180-‐181. 41 Mike H. Price, “Pioneering Sound,” Country-Western Magazine (January 1977): 21. 42 Ibid., 182. 43 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 186.


25

concluded that it was more of an “attitude” that associated Robertson with the Texas

contest tradition rather than old-time or country music, there are style characteristics that

mark Robertson’s music as both descended from dance fiddling and also a major

forerunner of what became the Texas contest tradition.44

His stamina and variation approach may have been first shaped during

Robertson's formative years, when he frequently traveled up to two hundred miles to

provide fiddle music for ranch dances.

I’d play the fiddle for a dance and done the call at the same time. I used to charm everybody I played around. Not only just outside people, but musicians that thought they could play a fiddle. They didn’t feel like they could strike a tune around me. Some of them would even express themselves that way. They’d make out like they thought they was the best fiddler ever heard. Then when they heard me, they seen they wasn’t. 45

It seems plausible that it was his experience of playing for dances that led Robertson to

develop fundamental rhythmic patterns and variation strategies while simultaneously

absorbing numerous old-time, square dance tunes. Throughout Robertson’s fiddle career

he took part in various fiddle contests around the United States though the majority of the

ones partaken were in Texas.

While Robertson largely promoted himself, outsiders largely mythologized Benny

Thomasson, a humble man who avoided the spotlight. Thomasson began fiddling at the

age of five, when his father allowed Benny to experiment with his fiddle until he taught

himself to play. 46 Thomasson was recognized as a prodigy, and asked by a talent scout at

44 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 187. 45 Ibid., 186. 46 Ibid.


26

the age of nine to travel East for formal training.47At this time, however, Thomasson was

needed on the family farm and did not accept the offer.48

As a child, Thomasson played with several skilled fiddlers, as “the Thomasson

household was a haven for any musician that might be traveling through. It was not at all

uncommon for fiddlers like Eck Robertson or Lefty Franklin to stop by and spend a few

days swapping tunes and techniques.”49 His grandfather, father, and siblings, all of who

were successful contest fiddlers as early as the 1800s, largely influenced him.50 Luke

Thomasson was not only a successful contest fiddler, but is also credited for composing

many fiddle standards that remain in the current repertoire such as ‘Midnight on the

Water.’ 51

He performed at local radio stations with his brothers, prior to his career as a

contest fiddler. Eventually the brothers broadcasted for the Sears Roebuck and Company

sponsored radio station in Fort Worth, Texas.52 Thomasson's initial attempts in the contest

circuit, at age nineteen, exposed the contrasting expectations of competition playing as

opposed to dance music. Though proficient at the instrument, he finished near sixtieth

place in his first contest. This experience marked a pivotal moment, when Benny made

the decision that “old tunes needed to be rounded out and smoothed up.” 53 This was a

direct reaction to the competition environment, evident in Thomasson’s principle, “the 47 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 186. 48 Benny Thomasson was born April 22, 1909 in Runnels Country, Texas and raised in Gatesville, Texas. 49 Charlie Faurot, Benny Thomasson: Legendary Texas Fiddler Recordings from 1966-1969 (Charlottesville: County Records 2005), 13. 50 Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 3. 51 The Devils Box, directed by Jason Hammond (2012, Nashville, TN: Dog on Fire Films), DVD. 52 Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 13-14. 53 Ibid.,3.


27

harder to handle [difficulty level of fiddle tune], the harder it was for the next guy to

do.”54

Thomasson learned quickly from his early experiences and made

conscious decisions to change his style. This is established by his growing

reputation in the Texas fiddle community. At a 1930 contest held in Hico, Texas,

all the other contestants quit when they heard Thomasson was competing.55 He

returned home with the first prize, a five dollar gold piece, without fiddling a

single note. 56

Georgia Slim Rutland of Tifton, GA, another self-proclaimed ‘world's greatest

fiddler,’ heard rumor of a Texas man who might offer competition for the title, and

decided to assess Thomasson for himself.

Rutland and the great Howdy Forrester, Roy Acuff’s fiddle player on the Grand Ole Opry, drove down to find out for themselves. Georgia Slim knocked on Benny’s door and asked him to play. Benny invited them in and he began playing. It wasn’t but a few minutes before Georgia Slim got down on the floor and cried.57

The legend of his fiddle skills were further disseminated as Thomasson won the

state title 15 times, and in the years 1955-57 won the World Champion fiddle competition

held in Crocket, Texas. 58 Western swing icon Bob Wills invited Thomasson to join him

in the Texas Playboys, and there was an offer to join Gene Autry in Hollywood and

54 Phillips, Contest Fiddling, 28. 55 Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 4. 56 Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 4. 57 Ibid., 6. 58 Ibid.,5.


28

record with Colombia Records. 59 Whereas Eck Robertson had dreamed of such

recognition feeling he was worthy of fame and national success, for Thomasson, family

was more important than a career in the spotlight. The contrast between their career

ambitions is revealed by to contrasting quotes. Reminiscing the height of his career

Robertson asserted he had violinists remark that he was indeed “the best fiddler ever to

pick up a fiddle on that kind of music, hoedown music.”60 Thomasson simply remarked

his own children, “ wouldn’t have been worth killin’ if he’d left home to go on the

road.”61

Beyond sheer virtuosity, an additional factor that enhanced Thomasson's

reputation is the way he personalized the idiom. While Robertson had emphasized

rhythmic bowings and relatively simple melodic shapes, Thomasson employs more

progressive melodic approaches apparent in the restructuring of traditional fiddle tunes.

Seattle born Mark O’Connor was not raised in a family of fiddlers, but began his

musical training on the classical and flamenco guitar until the age of eleven when his

parents purchased his first fiddle.62 O’Connor’s first fiddle exposure was to Cajun fiddler

Doug Kershaw playing standard old-time fiddle tunes such as ‘Soldiers Joy,’ ‘Boil them

Cabbage Down,’ and ‘Arkansas Traveller.’ Early performances were at local square

dances where he would rotate a repertoire of only three tunes. It was during these dances

that he began to develop his improvisation skills.

59 Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 5. 60 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 180. 61 Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 5. 62 Phillips, The Championship Years, 21.


29

I went to a square dance and played all night, the same three tunes. It was more fun than I could have imagined. I started to improvise a little on the tunes. I switched a note here and there and slid into a note. I wanted to avoid monotony. I was easily bored, and boredom gave me the urge to start improvising…Suddenly I’m grooving [on fiddle]… kicking it. There was immediate gratification.63

Fiddling for dances was common occurrence of all three fiddlers discussed. The

experience was significant in each player’s development of variation techniques as

dances provide a jam-session atmosphere. It is maintained, “the Texas style really comes

from the jam-session culture… that’s where the tunes get stretched farther than they

might on a contest stage.”64

Labeled a child prodigy O’Connor, at thirteen, was the youngest individual to

place first at the Grand Master Fiddler Championship. He is still the only fiddler to win

competitions on the fiddle, guitar, and mandolin.

As the contest tradition developed over generations, the previous generations have

established a romanticized aura. This is evident in an excerpt found in the forward of The

Devil’s Box: Masters of Southern Fiddling written by Mark O’Connor.

We fiddlers and fiddling enthusiasts of today are very much connected to these men from the past. It’s as if the same blood runs through our veins and a similar spirit enters the body as the bow is lifted to strike the tune. It is uncanny how the careers of modern-day fiddlers relate to those of the pioneers covered in the pages of this book.65

This idyllic view is particularly apparent when O’Connor described meeting Benny

Thomasson in 1973 at the National Fiddlers Contest in Weiser, Idaho. The moment he

63 Phillips, The Championship Years, 21. 64 James Reel, “Lonestar state of mind,” Strings 101, May 2005,27. 65 Wolfe, The Devils Box, X.


30

heard Thomasson play at a jam session was when he was “truly inspired by the music for

the first time.”66

Thomasson moved from Texas to Seattle for health reasons, he offered to give

eleven-year-old O’Connor lessons after overhearing him running through tunes. 67

I began to teach him when he was just a kid. I saw him in a corner down at a little old contest someplace. He was trying to get ‘Sally Goodin”. I showed him the whole part and he got it. That’s what impressed me. Then he started to come to my house. He’d come and stay for a few days at a time. I tell you, you could teach him for four or five tunes a day and he would never forget them I don’t guess that there’s a musician that ever lived that I know of that could compare with him. A great musician. I did have a little to do with straightening him out on his hoedowns. 68

O’Connor eventually began to spend days at the Thomasson household learning tunes

and techniques. It is significant that Thomasson mentioned “straightening him out on his

hoedowns.” He believed that the hoedown section was where one could best emphasize

skill, and that judges were more inclined to listen to a hoedown.69 It was during these

lessons that O’Connor honed his improvisation skill and amassed an extensive repertoire.

Benny Thomasson was particularly influential in the dissemination of Texas

contest fiddle outside the borders of the state, despite the fact that fiddle contests had

resisted accepting non-Texans after relocating to Seattle. The resistance of judges to the

participation of non-Texas born fiddlers is captured in a rhetorical question cited by

O'Connor, “How can anyone from Seattle know what real fiddling is?”70 Despite his

66Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 7.67 Ibid. 68 Phillips, Contest Fiddling, 33. 69 The Devils Box, Directed by Jason Hammond, DVD. 70 Anick, Interview with Mark O’Connor.


31

many championships across the United States playing in the Texas style, Seattle born

O'Connor only ever won a single Texas contest due to his ‘foreign’ birth.

As might be expected due to his contact with the older players, O'Connor's early

contest tunes reveal a debt to Thomasson's style. O'Connor recalls this as a “mental

struggle” in creating an individual voice.

I realized that I was sitting right across from musical greatness. As a matter of fact, I wanted to be like him so much at some point that I started to walk like him with a little bit of a bend in my back. He had a bad back. But it was that mentor-pupil relationship where I kind of idolized him. So we had a bit of a mental struggle there because he saw in me, maybe just a little like himself, a unique voice that was bubbling inside and just kind of waiting to come up.71

As he advanced in technique and grew with age, O’Connor’s performance style become

distinctively unique and demonstrates a further generational shift away from

Thomasson’s playing style.

I remember back when I was 12 and 13, it was only the adult players who could keep up with me anyway. As a matter of fact, I can only remember a handful of times when I was a kid where I performed with other kids my age on stage. When I was 13 and 14, I was routinely beating the great champion fiddlers two, three, four and five-times my age. At times, they thought it was pretty cute that a little kid could play their music as well as them and all of them taught me their renditions of the old tunes, but those champion fiddlers never liked to lose, especially to me.72

These three fiddlers built upon available resources of technique and repertoire,

adapting to changing informants’ contexts and outside influences, and shaping a mythic

persona intended to situate them as individuals within the received history of the

71 Anick, Interview with Mark O’Connor.72 “Mark O’Connor, Violinist and Former Child Prodigy Celebrates 40 Years of Music,” Huffington Post(June 9, 2013).


32

tradition. In the next chapter, analyses of Eck Robertson, Benny Thomasson, and Mark

O’Connor’s transcribed fiddle tunes reflect changing ideals and the struggle to maintain

the idiom's relevance and vitality.


33

CHAPTER IV

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF ECK ROBERTSON

Techniques from the contest tradition are centered upon developing melodic

variations, ornamentation, rhythmic dislocation, and higher positions, however,

Robertson’s explanation of his creative process does not emphasize ornamentation or

technique, “I didn’t skip anything. I didn’t leave out no part of the tune. I didn’t put parts

in there that didn’t belong in there.”73 Robertson’s ability to improvise and extend

performance pieces is revealed in the anecdote about a 1953 fiddle contest in New

Mexico, in which Robertson was thrown off the stage for playing beyond the time limit

while performing his signature ‘Sally Gooden.’74

Despite his claims of retaining the integrity of the tunes, Robertson nevertheless

performed contest-oriented tricks such as tossing his fiddle in the air while still playing,

turning somersaults, making the fiddle talk, and harmonizing Indian whoops. As an

Amarillo newspaper wrote, “ Don’t sell Eck short. That man can make a fiddle talk.”75

Particular tunes were vehicles for sound effects such as birdcalls or train whistles; these

tunes included ‘Lost Indian,’ ‘Listen to the Mockingbird,’ or ‘Orange Blossom Special.’

I used to do trick fiddling to beat the dickens. Throwing the fiddle in the air and all around me. I’d throw the sun-of-a-gun over and over, turn it over two or three times and never miss a note…Yea, and I’d make it talk even, make the damn fiddle speak a word just as plain as you can. I’m the only man that ever done that I heard of. I’ve heard people tell of a fellow trying to do it, but he never

73 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 185. 74 “History of Fiddle Contests,” last modified 2013, http://www.fiddlecontest.org/history.75 Jack Shaw, “ He’s Fiddled Away’ All His Life.” The Amarillo Sunday News-Global, May 1, 1949.


34

did do it as plain as I did by any means. I made it talk plain enough, you’d understand the word it was saying even.76

The performance practice and musical elements of ‘Sally Gooden and ‘Amarillo

Waltz’ reveals consistently employed ornamentations and performance techniques. When

organized in a comparative table, the performance practice and musical elements that

characterize Robertson’s style and his influence on subsequent generations are apparent.

Table 4.1 Eck Robertson- Style Characteristics Characteristics Description

Triplet usage Triplets are sparingly used. If present, they are found in waltzes.

Melodic sequences During improvisation, he does not rely on sequences for melodic development. Rather, he focuses on octaves and cross tuning.

Patterns and shaping of improvisation

The rhythmic patterns emphasize a strong eighth note beat. His tunes are lengthy, but many of the variations are repeated.

Slurs Simple Slur patterns that are typically two notes long.

Shape and flow of tunes The variations are structured to follow one another that accentuate the AB format.

Bowing The shove and pull bow method is used which results from a heavy and aggressive bow stroke.

Phrasing There is short phrasing that is generally only four measures of new material repeated.

Ornamentation Ornamentations are heard in the form of grace notes and double stops.

Slides Prominent upward slides are heard at the beginning of measures.

Hand Positions The majority of the tunes use first and third position. The pieces rarely move to higher positions.

Robertson was known for his skill as a luthier, and he adapted his fiddles design

in order to facilitate his style and sound quality. Robertson handcrafted his first fiddle

after he “shot the family cat and stretched the hide over the gourd.”77 During the breadth

of his career, his preferred instrument was a Jacob Steiner fiddle inherited after his older

76 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 185.77 Wolfe, Eck Robertson, 3.


35

brothers’ early death.78 Many Texas fiddlers prefer to use a flattened bridge in which the

action is lowered. A flattened bridge moves the strings closer together and closer to the

fingerboard. This better facilitates the use of double and triple stops. Due to less tension

on the bridge, the natural acoustics are enhanced as the overtones vibrate longer (figure

4.1) in comparison to the arched violin bridge (figure 4.2).

Figure 4.1 Flattened fiddle bridge79

78 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 184. 79 Photo by author


36

Figure 4.2 Classical violin bridge 80

Robertson preferred to use a heavy bow, “one that’s got enough strength. Fixin’ it

not to bend or nothing like that. It’s got to have strength enough in it to tighten the hair

reasonably tight.”81 Tighter bow hair is commonly used in Texas contest fiddling, as the

increased tension helps produce a crisp timbre, especially during rapid rhythmic sections.

Examining images captured of Robertson performing provides documentation of

his fiddle stance and bow hold. He did not use a shoulder rest, and there is no chin rest on

his fiddle. Removing the chin rest is a common practice among fiddlers as it allows

enhanced resonance and a smoother sounding timbre.

Robertson maintained he had three different ways of holding the fiddle, saying

“lots of times I hold it like a violinist does… it depends on my hands and the condition

there in, and my fingers, what the tune I’m playing is. Lots of times it has a lot to do with

80 Photo by author 81 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 184.


37

that part of it.”82 Unlike many other fiddlers, his left hand was not flattened to the

instruments’ neck, but usually held away from the neck. This would have allowed greater

mobility of the hand for slides, quick shifts of positions, and swift finger work.

Robertson described his bow grip, particularly regarding the thumb placement in

relation to the frog of the bow, as “underneath the frog… caught it right across the

bottom with my thumb and with the finger on the top. Sometimes I might hold it a little

above the frog. I just gripped the body of the bow.”83 What this means is that, instead of

tilting the bow slightly to the right, he kept the bow straight, with the bow hair flat

against the strings. This in turn would have produced the strong bow strokes that are a

significant factor in Robertson’s powerful sound. Robertson commented on how he found

the sound. “You’ve got to find out where to put your bow on the fiddle so you can get the

correct tone. It ain’t best to have it too close to the bridge or it ain’t best to have it too far

away. Find the best tone by searching it out.84

His bold hold caused his wrist to arch, rendering it less mobile. As a result, his

bow stroke moved from the arm rather than the wrist, creating a heavier and choppy

sound. This bow stroke is common among Southern and Appalachian fiddlers and is

known as the “shove and pull.”

Robertson’s bowing is often mislabeled as the longbow style that is associated

with the later generation of Texas contest fiddlers, specifically Benny Thomasson. The

Texas Old-Time Fiddle Association, for example, in a brief biographical sketch of

82 Spielman, Interview with Alexander “Eck” Robertson, 183. 83 Ibid. 84 Ibid.,185.


38

Robertson, labels his bowing in ‘Sally Gooden’ as an example of the longbow

technique.85 In a precise technical comparison of Robertson’s bowing to that of Benny

Thomasson, it is clear Robertson does not routinely utilize the longbow.

Robertson’s innovative and distinctive signature fiddle style blended southern,

old-time, and Texas contest fiddle elements. Though the idiom has significantly altered

throughout the years, it is clear that many interpretations of fiddle tunes are based upon

aspects of Robertson’s versions this is most notable in later recordings based upon his

performance of the hoedown ‘Sally Gooden,’ which Bill C. Malone has called “one of the

most justly famous renditions in country music.”86

The form of ‘Sally Gooden’ is in binary form with corresponding lyrics, though

the contest tradition omits lyrics, as “real fiddlers [ones from Texas] didn’t believe in

polluting their fiddling by singing along.” 87 The tune’s simple and repetitive structure

provides an effective framework for advanced ornamentation and planned improvisation.

As there are numerous opportunities for added drones, slides, ornamentations, and

positions, the piece is a standard contest tune that provides ready criteria for judges.

85 “TOFTA History,” last modified 2013, http://www.totfa.org/about/history.htm. 86 Charles Wolfe, The Devils Box,17. 87 Ibid.,18.


39

Table 4.2 Eck Robertson ‘Sally Gooden’ Variations Section Timings Variations Measure length Position on

fiddle Focal

ornamentation

1 0:00-0:07 1 8 First None

2 0:07-0:21 2 16 First Double stops

3 0:21-0:37 3 16 First, third Double stops, slides

4 0:37-0:43 4 8 First, third Double stops


6 0:57-1:04 1 8 First None

7 1:04-1:12 6 8 First Double stops, minor chords

8 1:12-1:19 7 8 First Syncopation, double stops

9 1:19-1:26 8 8 First Grace notes, double stops








17 2:28-2:35 1 8 First None


19 2:43-2:57 6 8 First Double stops, minor chords

20 2:57-3:09 1 8 First None


40

In the recording Old Time Texas Fiddler 1922-1929 [Country Records, 1975],

Robertson is described as performing thirteen variations of the melody, though it would

be more accurate to say that he plays thirteen different variations segmented into twenty

sections. The variations are presented continuously without any linking transitions.

Robertson cross tunes his instrument into A tuning, A-E-A-E. This tuning simplifies hand

positions while enhancing the instruments natural tone. The octave strings produce rich

harmonic overtones particularly during double stops. Formal clarity is attained due to the

consistent use of perfect authentic cadences. Twenty-five of the twenty-six phrases end

with the identical riff on the G string (figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3 G String riff

The piece begins with a slight pick up note before quickly shifting into a steady

eighth note shuffle pattern that is expected when listening to a hoedown. Robertson

emphasizes the tonic at the onset of each presentation of the melody through a more

pressurized and quicker bow stroke. The primary variation, repeated twice, is unadorned

and provides the foundation for subsequent variations (figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Robertson primary variation

This variation is heard in its entirety in the first section and again in the sixth, fifteenth,

and twentieth (final section). The second variation performed once and uses a similar


41

rhythmic structure as with the previous section. An added layer of double stops subtly

varies the melody. This presentation is twice as long as the previous; sixteen measures

instead of the typical eight. The melody is then repeated three times with the fourth acting

as a concluding tag ending (figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5 Robertson variation 2

The third variation uses four identical iterations of the melody for sixteen

measures. Within the section, he uses a continual four measure long motif for the

remainder of the section, typically eight to sixteen measures total. Upon listening to the

recording in its original context and impressive tempo, the reoccurrences are masked.

Upon examining the transcribed score, the redundancies are clear. Due to this, the

grandeur of Robertson’s famous thirteen variation is somewhat lessened.

In variation three, Robertson shifts to third position and employs an A string

drone while the melody is heard on the E string. The rhythmic structure is simplified, as

focal notes (tonic and dominant) half notes heard in octave double stops. He begins each

half note with an upward slide consistent with a shift from first position to third (figure

4.6).



42

Remaining in third position, variation four presents a lighter texture following the

previous sections dramatic slides and octave double stops. Robertson uses the primary

melody an octave higher in a succession of eighth notes. In this instance, however, he

creates a new variation by alternating each of the initial melody notes with the open E

string (figure 4.7).


Variation five is the longest, and most complex of the variations. At eighteen

measures, it is heard in its entirety in sections five, eleven, and fourteen. Returning to

first position, all four strings are employed as well as consistent double stops. This

combination of ornamentation forms a rich texture. Robertson uses a major second

double stop that creates unexpected dissonance. The motif, performed twice, is developed

through arpeggiated A chords interspersed with half note chords. Following this complex

section, Robertson lowers the intensity down by returning to the primary melody (figure

4.8).


Moving into the middle variations, Robertson alters the rhythm rather than

varying the note patterns. Variation six feels as if it is extended though it is only eight

measures. This is due to the sustained double stops held for four beats. The whole note is


43

prominent as it is directly contrasted with driving eighth notes. In between the whole

notes, Robertson quotes a segment from the main melody. This variation is found in

sections seven and sixteen (figure 4.9).


Variation seven bears a strong resemblance to the previous variation (six) as

Robertson employs longer note values interspersed with fragments of the primary

melody. The extended note is emphasized through the double stop, and is rhythmically

interesting due to the syncopation. The syncopated offbeat rhythm displaces the melody

even though there is little change harmonically to the melody (figure 4.10).


Variation eight continues Robertson’s pattern of developing the rhythm through

including longer notes between sections of the primary melody. He adds grace notes to

the quarter notes and emphasizes the grace notes by repeating the note pattern (figure

4.11).



44

Variation nine employs string crossing when he plays double stops that involve

multiple strings. The notes are identical; however, he inverts the intervals from a sixth to

a third. The back and forth of the notes evokes a turkey call.

I used to do it on the stage in theaters and take the house down. I offered a dollar to any child in the house who didn't understand what the violin said...And I made that dad-gummed fiddle talk just as plain as anybody could have said the words...I generally wind up on that by playing ‘Sallie Gooden’ I'd wind up on the last of it by making that fiddle talk, representing Sallie Gooden going to the cow pen to milk the cow. You'd hear her calling the calves, and then you'd hear the calf bawl. About that time her baby woke up and began to holler `mamma oh mamma. I want my mamma!' And just say it as plain as anybody could.88

During live performances of this tune, Robertson told an elaborate story before playing.

This usually included who ‘Sally Gooden’ was, and her life on the farm. During the

performance, Robertson would use trick fiddling to imitate different animals. This

variation appears to be reminiscent (figure 4.12).


Robertson replays variation five before introducing variation ten which uses little

additional ornamentations. Characteristic after a long or complex variation, Robertson

immediately simplifies the texture with rhythm, note patterns, or timbre. The music

retains the double stops on each note, but the rhythm is simplistic and parallels the

rhythm of the primary melody (figure 4.13).

88 http://www.oldtimemusic.com/FHOFEck.html. Feb 5,14


45


Variation eleven is identical to the tenth with the exception of one note. Robertson

replaces the F# quarter note with an A by shifting the interval from a sixth to an octave

(figure 4.14).


Labeling this a new variation is a point of personal contention as the note replaced

is still part of an A major chord. I believe Robertson intended the section to be a new

variation because without inclusion the piece does not add up to thirteen variations.

The final variations twelve and thirteen mirror variations ten and eleven.

Robertson uses the rhythmic structure of the first half of the phrase in straight running

eighth notes. He replaces the quarter note found in ten and eleven with an eighth note

(figure 4.15). The remainder of the phrase uses the same material as the previous two

variations. Variation thirteen presents identical material to twelve. In accordance with

variations ten and eleven, Robertson exchanges the notes F sharp for an A (figure 4.16).



46


Robertson’s performance of ‘Sally Gooden’ is used as a model for subsequent

generations’ performances of the tune. The thirteen variations became mythologized and

are legendary in the tradition of Texas contest fiddling. The influence of Robertson’s

recording is made explicit in those of Benny Thomasson and Mark O'Connor, as similar

riffs and organizational features appear in theirs. As Thomasson remarked, “ He

[Robertson] played that ‘Sally Gooden’ better than anybody else in the world.”89

In 1922, RCA Victor Talking Company recorded Robertson performing ‘Amarillo

Waltz.’ He claimed ownership of the piece though it is identical to the waltz, ‘Kiss Me

Again Waltz’ written in 1918 by Victor Herbert for the 1920 operetta Mademoiselle.

Modiste. ‘Kiss Me Again Waltz’ was a popular contest piece in the Midwestern and

Ozarks, but is rarely heard of in current contests or those in Texas. It seems plausible that

Eck Robertson came in contact with the tune during his travels on the vaudeville circuit.

Borrowing, adapting, and renaming older tunes to serve as sources for new tunes

was not uncommon in fiddle contests of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Many stories describe how fiddlers slightly altered a tune or changed the name because

another fiddler had already played that tune during a contest.

Robertson's held great pride for his ‘Amarillo Waltz’ which is evident in the

anecdote by his student Jim Chancellor “Texas Shorty.’ On a home recording of a jam

89 Phillips, Contest Fiddling, 30.


47

session, when Eck was about to play ‘Amarillo Waltz,’ he said "OK boys, put your

guitars down, I ain't never found nobody yet that can second me on this. I'm going to play

it by myself!"90

In the August, 12, 1929 recording, Robertson employed one chord per measure,

and performed in standard tuning using simple melodic variants and no vibrato. The form

is AABBaabbA with the melodic material differentiated through subtle distinctions in the

applied ornamentation and alternating instrument positions. The added embellishments

such as grace notes, double stops, and prominent slides separate ‘Amarillo Waltz’ from

‘Kiss Me Again Waltz.’

Table 4.3 Eck Robertson ‘Amarillo Waltz’ Variations

Section Timings Section Measure length Position on

fiddle Focal

ornamentation

1 0:00-0:20 A 16 First Grace notes, triplets


3 0:41-1:03 B 16 First, fourth Turns, triplets, grace notes

4 1:03-1:22 B 16 First, fourth Turns, triplets, grace notes

5 1:22-1:33 A1 8 First, fourth, fifth

Double stops, grace notes

6 1:33-1:44 A1 8 First, fourth, fifth

Double stops, grace notes

7 1:44-2:04 B2 16 First, third Double stops, grace notes

8 2:04-2:25 B2 16 First, third Double stops, grace notes



90 Joe Carr, “Jim ‘Texas Shorty” Chancellor: Legendary Fiddler,” Fiddler Magazine (June 2000).


48

The piece begins with an arpeggiated G chord leading into the main melody. The

first A section focuses on eighth note triplet figures every two measures within four

measures. The melody is adorned with grace notes, slides, and triplet figures. The

exaggerated slide at the end marks the cadence. Robertson plays the waltz with a slight

lilt caused by lifting the bow slightly on the dotted eighth notes. This style of bowing is

characteristic when playing a waltz as it provides a lighter more delicate bow stroke

(figure 4. 17).

Figure 4.17 Robertson primary A section

The following A1 section presents the subtle addition of grace notes to nearly

every measure. This more sprightly section provides effective contrast with the heavy-

bowed and lower register of the primary A section. The melody is focused on the upper

register, and employs a prominent slide shifting from first to fourth position at the section

cadence (figure 4. 18).

Figure 4.18 Robertson section A1


49

During part B, Robertson remains in fourth position and continues to incorporate

grace notes. Rests between eighth and sixteenth notes as well as the lilting bow enhance

the light texture. This emphasis is inconsistent with the majority of Robertson’s works.

This textural change demonstrates Robertson’s attempt at including the elegance of the

waltz as a dance form (figure 4.19).

Figure 4.19 Robertson section B

As there is less emphasis on playing vigorous and intricate eighth note patterns,

Robertson portrays a unique and technically proficient aspect of his playing. This is best

demonstrated in part B1 where he alternates first and third position double stops. Due to

the double stop, the texture sounds dense. In order to balance the sound in regard to the

rest of the piece, Robertson simplifies the rhythm to either half notes slurred to a quarter

note or a dotted half note (figure 4.20).

Figure 4.20 Robertson section B1

In comparison to the next generation, Robertson’s fiddling might seem simplistic

and unrefined. In this instance, however, these pieces provide the framework for the

stylistic innovations of the following generations. In the analysis of Benny Thomasson’s

tunes, certain variations and techniques will show striking similarities with Robertson’s

style of performance.


50

CHAPTER V

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF BENNY THOMASSON

Benny Thomasson (April 1909- January 1984) began studying the fiddle at the

age of five when his father allowed him to experiment on the instrument. Within Texas

contest fiddling’s complex mythologies, it is important to remember that, while Eck

Robertson actively promoted himself, Benny Thomasson’s playing was largely

mythologized by other individuals.

In order to “round out and smooth up” fiddle tunes, Thomasson shifted expected

rhythmic patterns, completely restricted traditional tunes, explored the virtuosic elements

of the instrument such as higher positions, difficult double stops, and included

unexpected melodies. Mark O’Connor’s admiration of his mentor is clear; “Thomasson’s

composed variations are similar to Bach’s in terms of the volume accomplishment

achieved, furthering a pre-existing musical form.”91 Performing in this style of fiddling

factored into Thomasson’s success at large fiddle contests in Athens, Gilmer, Hale

Center, and Burnett, Texas. 92 A rivalry between Thomasson and fiddler Major Franklin

resulted in narratives that reveal the contest setting and performance practice of the time.

Benny used to cross-tune his fiddle to EAEA to play ‘Sally Goodwin.’ At one contest Major accused Benny of cheating, claiming it was easier to play the double stops and it sounded better because of the ringing overtones created. At the next contest, after Benny played ‘Sally Goodwin,’ Major accused him again, stating that the reason it sounded so smooth and full was indeed because of the cross-tuning. But Benny had fooled him. He had gone home and worked out his rendition in the standard tuning and Major couldn’t tell the difference. Major demanded to inspect

91 Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 7.92 Ibid., 5.


51

Benny’s fiddle at once. Giving the strings a thump, he realized that he’d been fooled. Benny then proceeded to give Major “a good cussin’.” Sometimes they tied over and over. They say Benny would usually end of breaking the tie because he had better renditions of more tunes, while Major was a specialist on a few. Benny claimed his daddy knew a thousand fiddle tunes by memory and people say Benny knew more than that.93

Such anecdotes indicate the degree to which Thomasson was perceived as a

transformational player while adapting to new contest standards. The competition with

Major Franklin demonstrates the drive and ambition used to surpass fellow contestants

through dedication, proficiency, and innovative approach to variations.

Thomasson reconstructed two-part fiddle pieces by “weaving a web around it.”94

He uses the term weave to explain the added embellishments and alternate notes to the

original. Thomasson recognized that tunes continual adapt within different generations in

the statement, “They [Robertson’s generation] did what we do now, fix em up, turn em

around. They [tunes] have advanced so much from their time to this.”95 While

Robertson’s playing made the distinction between dance fiddling tunes and playing the

same tunes in the contest style, his variations function quite simply, one appearing in

succession. In contrast, Thomasson increased the number of parts, created transition

sections, and—generally speaking—transformed Robertson’s continual sectional

variations into less repetitive works.

93 Faurot, Benny Thomasson, 5. 94 The Devils Box, Directed by Jason Hammond, DVD.95 Ibid.


52

In Thomasson’s era, strict time limits were not imposed for all competitions; as a

result, it was permissible for him to add parts and elongate performances. This is a key

modification in the tradition between Thomasson and O’Connor’s generation.

Table 5.1 Benny Thomasson- Style Characteristics Characteristics Description

Triplet usage Many triplet figures found as embellishments and the rhythmic structure.

Melodic sequences The majority of melodic variations are based on sequential patterns.


In the pieces, particularly evident in the hoedown, the AB form is masked. Upon listening, the shape of the piece reaches a climax that directly correlates

with the most difficult variation.

Slurs Slurs are present in the majority of measures. Frequently slurs two eighth notes or three eighth notes when a triplet figure is present.

Shape and flow of tunes

A build up of intensity for subsequent variations by varying intricate and simplistic patterns.

Bowing Long bowing with a circular wrist resulting in a smooth and fluid sound.

Phrasing Medium phrasing- 4-8 measures.

Ornamentation Ornamentations include (but not limited) grace notes; double stops, varying rhythmic patterns.

Slides Upward slides are emphasized at the beginning of phrases while varying downward and upward slides are present at half cadences.

Hand Positions For the most part he stays in first and third position. During more climatic sections, fourth and fifth positions are used.

Developments integral to Thomasson’s stylistic contributions include a liberal use

of third position, extended ornamentation, and a changed bowing style. Thomasson best

describes his variations on tunes in an interview conducted by Michael Mendelsohn:

Now I play the same old tunes, but then I have arranged variations of the same parts in different positions on the fiddle, see. And like you’d be playing an old tune like “Dusty Miller” or something, and the low part there, and then you get up there on your higher positions and make it sound… get a little bit different variation, and get a good sound out of it. And it don’t make it come back to the same old monotonous. Two-part deals there…96

96 Michael Mendelson, “Fiddle Sessions,” JEMF Quarterly Vol. 10.3 (Autumn 1974), 35.


53

The “two-part deals” are the standard construction of traditional fiddle tunes.

Thomasson’s places importance in avoiding repetitive sections through transitional

phrasing linking contrasting variations.

Thomasson held the instrument beneath his chin, pushed slightly forward so as to

see his fingers clearly. He did not use a shoulder rest, but unlike Robertson did have a

chin rest. The addition of the chin rest impacts the sound and allows for easier mobility of

the left hand. The sound is dampened when the chin rest is added, however, the majority

of fiddlers and violinist find a chin rest more comfortable. The clearest indication of a

generational shift from Robertson to Thomasson is heard in their contrasted bowing

technique. Thomasson is credited with developing the longbow technique, rather than the

shove and pull method of Robertson. Distinguishing characteristics of the longbow style

include a particular motion called ‘the Texas wrist,” and a resulting seamless sound.

When listening to this bowing style, it sounds as if the fiddler is slurring all the notes. In

reality, the smoothness of the sound is due to the coordinating bow and wrist movement.

When using this technique, the wrist remains limber so there is no obvious spacing

between the notes. Executing this bow stroke involves the coordination of both the wrist

and forearm of the right bowing arm. The combination of long bowing and intricate

variations of the melody results in an articulate and expressive tone. He was known for

his dedication, proficiency, and innovative approach to variations.

Through ignorance of what we were doing. A different type of bowing on a different tune, to make it sound different. I'll fit the stroke, the long stroke fits in certain places. and the short stroke. the long bow is one that ties in with the different strokes, with the


54

different tunes, which placed in the right place there, is where you get your expression, and drive.97

Thomasson marks a pivotal transition moment in the history of Texas contest

fiddling, when the style became more focused on technical aspects and virtuoso

technique than upon entertainment. His interpretations were highly regarded and his clear

and smooth playing is a trademark of Texas fiddling as his fiddling is frequently imitated.

Mark O’Connor, Thomasson’s fiddle student says, “I judge fiddle contests all over the

world. And you hear the influence of Benny Thomasson in all the good fiddle players.

Some great fiddle players use his technique without even knowing who Benny

Thomasson was.” 98

Stylistic innovations can be identified throughout Thomasson’s version of ‘Sally

Goodin’ [1965/ County Records] that was recorded forty years after Robertson’s.

Robertson’s influence is clear, as many similarities in melodic variations are present.

I remember years ago, Eck Robertson came by, he was about forty years old at the time, and uh, I was just a kid ‘bout 12 years old” “ It was a fascination to me, I had heard of Eck Robertson ever since I could remember. He was a fine old fiddler, he was one of the greatest ole fiddlers in the whole country. So he played an old tune, kind of revved a whole lotta stuff to ‘Sally Goodin.’ So of course, I have sorta brushed it up a little since I learned it from Eck.99

Thomasson’s version creates a linear musical line with a multipart melodic

structure that is much less repetitive. As heard on the recording Legendary Texas Fiddler,

Thomasson’s version is broken up into eighteen sections and fourteen variations. While

97Margaret Elaine Schultz, “An Analytical Methodology for Study of Regional Fiddle Styles Applied to Texas Style Fiddling” (PhD diss., Oklahoma State University, 1979), 31. 98 Wayne Lee Gray, “The Legend of Benny Thomasson,” Dallas Life Magazine (June 1984), 10. 99 The Devils Box, Directed by Jason Hammond, DVD.


55

Thomasson borrows elements of Robertson’s melodic phrasing, his placement of those

phrases and carefully sequenced bowing patterns create a structural coherence that is

noticeably lacking in Robertson’s fiddling.


56

Table 5.2 Benny Thomasson ‘Sally Goodin’ Variations Section Timings Variations Measure

Length Position on

Fiddle Focal

Ornamentation

1 0:00- 0:08 1 8 First Double stops, nonchord tones

2 0:08- 0:17 2 8 First None

3 0:17- 0:26 3 8 First Double stops,

slides, nonchord tones


nonchord tones, triplets

5 0:35- 0:44 5 8 First

Third Double stops, nonchord tones, grace notes

6 0:44-0:53 6 8 First Third

Double stops, nonchord tones

7

0:53-1:02 7 8 First Double stop, nonchord tones, grace notes, slides, triplets

8 1:02-1:11 8 8 First Double stops,


9 1:11-1:19 9 7 First Triplets, syncopation

10 1:19-1:28 10 8 First Double stop, syncopation

11

1:28-1:37 7 8 First Double stop, nonchord tones, grace notes, slides, triplets



14 1:55-2:13 6 16 First Third

Double stops, nonchord tones

15 2:13-2:21 13 8 First Third

Double stops

16 2:21-2:39 14 14 First Double stops, triplets

17 2:39-2:48 1 10 First Double stops, nonchord tones

18 2:48-2:55 Tag 3 First Triplets


57

Rather than beginning ‘Sally Goodin’ with a primary, unadorned melody,

Thomasson immediately begins ornamenting the melody. Within the second measure, he

introduces a flat seventh in the A major melody. He plays the material twice for eight

measures using consistent eighth notes until the cadence where he extends the tonic with

a dotted quarter note. Thomasson uses transitional sections between contrasting

variations particularly when the variation is in a high position, or has any type of

rhythmic displacement. The transitions are one or two measures long and employ scalar

runs in straight eighth notes or slurred triplet eighth notes (figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 Thomasson variation 1

Variation two is an extension of the previous variation, and in terms of rhythmic

structure is similar to Robertson’s primary melody. The tag used by Robertson in the

majority of his variations is used at both variations cadences (figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 tag ending

Thomasson inverts the notes from the first measure of variation one for the first measure

in variation two. In variation one he plays eighth notes C#-B-A-C#. In the second, he


58

switches the notes A and B playing C#-A-B-G#. He also employs the seventh scale

degree instead of the third for the final note of the phrase (figure 5.3).


Robertson created tension for approximately two measures before minimizing

ornaments used and immediately bringing the texture down. As demonstrated through

Thomasson’s third variation, he deviates from Robertson’s pattern. Thomasson continues

to develop the melody through layers of embellishments. This pattern builds tension as

the piece strays further from the primary melody.

Variation three presents the first use of double stops in the piece, and subtly

alludes to variations in the higher register through the increased number of notes on the

higher strings, A and E. Thomasson employs a deliberate and feisty slides that adds a

comic nature to the piece between the first and second iteration of the third variation

(figure 5.4).



59

Variation four begins on the lowest octave A (in standard tuning) and ends on an

A two octaves higher (figure 5.4). He travels to these notes through a broken major A7

chord. He moves down an octave with a simple descending scale, and alternates a major

third sequence with two sets of triplets descending in stepwise motion. The entire eight

measures combines obvious broken chords, scales, and sequences that center on the tonic

and dominant. Triplets are added to the progressions that provide rhythmic interest to

simple notations (figure 5.5).


Thus far, Thomasson demonstrates a conscious effort to vary the musical material

throughout the entire eight-measure variation. Robertson often presented four measures

of new music and would repeat those four measures for a new variation. This is not the

case in Thomasson’s variations as the entire variation presents a new and developed

melody.

Variation five presents the first use of shifting out of first position by moving to

extended first position. This position is achieved by stretching the fourth finger up a half

step. Thomasson stretches the fourth finger to C natural and slides backs down the half

step to the B while maintaining an A string drone. In the first half of the section, the

rhythmic structure employs quarter notes and half notes. The end of the variation shifts


60

back to driving eighth notes (figure 5.6). The inspiration from this variation appears to

have been taken from Robertson’s variation four. Thomasson employs the same note

pattern as the moving notes in Robertson’s variation (figure 5.7).


Figure 5.7 Comparison of Robertson variation 4

The flat third heard in extended first on the E string foreshadows the following

variation. Variation six shifts to third position and the melody emphasizes the flat third.

The variation subsequently resembles Robertson’s variation four in terms of the note

patterns used. The timbre focuses on the higher register, and by removing the double stop

drone, he creates a refined tone (figure 5.8).



61

The following variation shifts back to first position, but in order to continue the

pattern of increasing tension within the piece, Thomasson incorporates multiple types of

ornamentations. Such ornamentations include non-chord tones C natural and G natural,

exaggerated slides, triplets, and adding and removing double stops (figure 5.9). The

progression was modeled after Robertson’s variation five as both versions are played in

the same register on the instrument, and the rendition of the melody is nearly identical

(figure 5.10).



Variation eight reduces the rhythmic drive of the piece through whole note double

stops. This type of rhythmic change is also present in Robertson’s variation six. I believe

it was intentional that Thomasson’s variations seven and eight model themselves after

two succeeding variations by Robertson, five and six (figure 5.11). Thomasson’s version

incorporates many of Robertson variations while including intricate and extended


62

variations. This shapes the overall performance into a through-composed musical

performance as opposed to merely a string of variations.

Whereas Robertson employed double stops in his version, Thomasson plays

singular notes and adds transitional phrases such as a triplet that descends in stepwise

motion. The triplet ties the melody onto the tag. Rather than repeating the same melody

twice, Thomasson incorporates a C natural and employs rhythmic diminution in order to

lead into the next variation (figure 5.12).



Variation nine models itself after Robertson’s variation seven (figure 5.13). As

expected, Thomasson stretches the eight-measure variation within each measure.

Thomasson supplements this melody with eighth and sixteenth note triplets. The tag

ending is refreshed through the triplet run immediately before the cadence (figure 5.14).


63



The next variation is nearly identical in notes and rhythm to Robertson’s variation

nine. Thomasson subtly alters Robertson’s by segmenting the eighth notes through slurs-

two notes per slur (figure 5.15). The double stop notes used are subsequently altered;

however, in both versions the double stop is a part of an A chord. Thomasson uses the

notes A and C# for the first double stop eighth note. Using these two notes, Thomasson

increases the technical difficulty. To execute the double stop, Thomasson uses fourth

finger on the D string and second finger on the A string. In Robertson’s version, notes E

and C#, he takes advantage of the open E string and employs the second finger on the A

string. In comparison, this is a simple hand position for double stops (figure 5.16).



64


Variations eleven and twelve are identical to Robertson’s variations ten and

eleven save for a few added notes (figure 5.17, 5.18). As the piece concludes, the texture

simplifies as less ornamentations are used as well as becoming more repetitive. Though

similar, Thomasson's version still emphasizes supplementary notes and has a superior

command of quick string crossings (figure 5.19, 5.20).





65


In both variations thirteen and fourteen Thomasson debt to the earlier recording is

reflected in the inclusion of the minor sounding section created by Robertson (variation

six), thereby repeating the progression four times. The minor progression is further

highlighted through double stops in third and sixth relationships, lower string arpeggios,

and triplet scalar runs (figure 5.21). The final two variations strongly contrast the

previous two variations. Thirteen and fourteen include slides from third position to first

as well as many chromatic notes noticeably absent from variations eleven and twelve

(figure 5.22).



Thomasson’s version of ‘Sally Goodin’ is an excellent example of maintaining a

tradition while continuing its relevancy through experimentation. This pivotal variation is


66

perceived as a standard model by taking Robertson’s melody and adding various

ornamentations.

Thomasson’s version of ‘Black and White Rag,’ on the recording Legendary

Texas Fiddler, marks his later performance style (1966-1969). In contests, the ‘tune of

choice’ section of a fiddle competition consists of a rag, hornpipe, or polka. The section

is an individualized category in which a performer may choose a tune that best represents

his or her skill set, but the selection may not include tunes from the other categories, the

hoedown and the waltz. Thomasson commented, “you don’t want to play anything that is

in the least bit controversial. You can play just about any rag, by Joplin or whatever. If

you think you can play a tune better than anybody else, it’s safer to play tunes the judges

recognize.”100 Ragtime lends itself naturally to Texas contest fiddling because it

showcases improvisation and intricate melodies.

Thomasson adapts ‘Black and White Rag’ from the George Botsford’s 1908

composition. This tune in its simplicity through less variations and ornamentations

articulates Thomasson’s rich tone and emphasizes note placement. Thomasson

manipulates both the A and B sections, and by weaving the two motifs together, creates

his signature improvisational texture. His interpretation alters the formal structure of the

classic rag, Intro, AA BB A CC DD. Reflecting the structure of traditional ragtime, more

direct repetition is found in this piece than found in subsequent fiddle tunes. The A

material is presented four times with three different turn around endings before the

transition to section B. Part B is played twice through and Thomasson transitions to the

100 Stacy Phillips, Contest Fiddling 25.


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section using a two measure modulation to the subdominant, C major. Grounding the

piece back in G major, the A material is repeated once before the C material is presented

four times. The piece closes with another two iterations of the A theme.

Emulating the right hand movement on the piano, the syncopated texture of

ragtime is imitated through chords and quick bow shuffles. The accompanist’s guitar,

banjo, bass, or mandolin provides the 2/4 downbeats typically heard from the left hand of

the piano. Unlike the hoedown or waltz where triplets are a prominent part of the melody

and ornamentation, the triplets are used as transitional material and as ornamentation.


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Table 5.3 Benny Thomasson ‘Black and White Rag’ Variations Section Timings Sections Measure

Length Position on

Fiddle Focal

Ornamentation

1 0:00 Pick Up 1 First Chromaticism

2 0:00-0:10 A1 8 First Chromaticism, triplets


4 0:19-0:28 A3 8 First Chromaticism,

triplets, harmonics


6 0:37-0:56 B1 8 First

Third Fifth

Chromaticism, triplets, double stops

7 0:56-1:14 B2 8 First

Third Fifth

Chromaticism, triplets, double stops

8 1:14-1:25 A 16 First Chromaticism, triplets


10 1:33-1:38 C 8 First Chromaticism,

triplets, double stops








15 2:19-2:30 A-Tag 9 First Chromaticism, triplet


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The bowings in ‘Black and White Rag’ have been specifically chosen to

compliment the rhythmic syncopation. The overall lack of slurs, in sections A and B,

exaggerates the ragged rhythms. Evocative of Robertson’s “shove and pull” style bowing,

Thomasson uses a firm and consistent up and down bow stroke. While the tone remains

smooth, the gaps heard in between bow strokes are pronounced. When slurs are present,

they are localized at the turnaround tags, transitions, and section C’s running triplets.

Example forty-three presents the first A section, where there is a noticeable lack of slurs

and embellishments (figure 5.23).

Figure 5.23 Thomasson Section A1

While modulations are found in traditional fiddle tunes, they are not frequent. The

modulation employed by Thomasson serves to define sections. For example, he

transitions to the subdominant through a four-measure turn around ending. The run spans

an octave, mimicking the melody so as to seamlessly lead to the new key (figure 5.24).

Figure 5.24 Modulation

Analyzing the transcription, we see that Thomasson avoids extensive shifting.

When he does, he emphasizes dynamic and textural contrast by moving from first

position to more extreme registers such as fifth position (figure 5.25). This shift also

delineates the section’s change from A to B. Thomasson employs this emphasis through


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shifting precisely because there is little change of rhythm or interval structure between

sections. Save for different pick up sections and the modulation, the patterns are nearly

identical (figure 5.26).

Figure 5.25 Thomasson A Material

Figure 5.26 Thomasson B Material

The piece begins with a straightforward construction of the melody before a

chromatic ascending run as a shift to the restatement of theme A. Thomasson repeats the

melody four times, distinguishing the repetition with three different turn around endings.

The ending tag one is used to end both A1 and A4 (figure 5.27). The three endings are

similar in shape and notes, but employ subtly different embellishments (figure 5.28,

figure 5.29).

Figure 5.27 Tag A1 and A4

Figure 5.28 Tag A2


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Figure 5.29 Tag A3

While chromaticism is a typical form of embellishment within Thomasson’s

playing, it serves an additional function in this rag. The neighbor and passing tones

emphasize the syncopation as the non-chord tones draw attention to the offbeat and

various hemiolas.

Compared to ‘Sally Goodin,’ the rag avoids double stops in most measures.

Instead, he employs double stops to accent specific notes and beats. In example fifty, the

double stop serves to emphasize the cadence (figure 5.30).

Figure 5.30 Double stop at cadence

Section C is the most dynamic of variations as it shifts away from the melodic and

rhythmic structures of parts A and B. Throughout the section, continuous triplet units

provide rhythmic drive. Melodically, the section is harmonically static. There are no

strong cadences, and the three iterations of the C material blend together through the

ambiguous section endings (figure 5.31). Regarding his technique, the execution of the

passage is interdependent on a flexible bowing wrist and the rapid precision of the left

hand. These techniques facilitate performing the rapid slurred string crossings as well as

the note articulation of various broken chords and arpeggios.


72

Figure 5.31 Section C triplet figure


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CHAPTER VI

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF MARK O’CONNOR

During Mark O’Connor’s teenage years [1975-1981] he began experimenting

with Thomasson’s style of contest fiddling and blending jazz, classical, and fiddle

elements. “When I began creating my own music as a young child, it was a blend of

everything my mind could absorb. To me, it was all just music. As I grew older, I began

to think of my playing as a bridge: from folk to jazz, jazz to classical, classical right back

to folk.”101 O’Connor comments, “I remember when I asked him when I was twelve,

“How do you get your own style, Benny?”102 He said, “Why Mark, you don’t sound like

nobody else I have ever heard, and that means you have your own style.” Evidence of the

generational shift O’Connor’s synthesis represented is the resistance expressed by older

fiddlers.103 Yet his participation in contests revealed the extent to which the Texas playing

style was disseminated beyond the state's borders. O’Connor suggests that during his

formative years there was resistance to such blending of fiddle styles.

When you grew up in Seattle, you didn’t have the luxury of being [musically] segregated…But the Texas fiddle people hated bluegrass, bluegrass people hated Texas fiddle. Eastern old-timers hated Texas fiddle. Cape Breton and French Canadian fiddlers hated each other. Right away I found that out. There were people that appreciated what I was doing, but they didn’t like that style of fiddling… or it wouldn’t sound right playing with them. That’s when I started to adapt. If I was going to play at jam sessions, I’m going to have to play their music.104

101 Cathy DeWitt, “Mark O’Connor: Blurring the Boundaries” (Summer 2005) Sing Out!, 29. 102 Anick, Interview with Mark O’Connor. 103 Phillips, The Championship Years, 22. 104 Ibid.


74

An analysis of O'Connor’s style informed by Stacey Phillips's 1991 interview

reveals a relatively consistent set of style characteristics. Concrete and specific terms to

identify particular elements consistent in O'Connor's evolving style are adopted and

expanded from Phillips.105

Table 6.1 Mark O’Connor- Style Characteristics Characteristics Description

Triplet usage Influx of triplet figures as ornamentation and rhythmic patterns

Melodic sequences Majority of melodic variations based on sequences though there are

added transitional sections between the A and B theme. Chromatic notes used as passing tones


Constructs a multipart tune rather than a consistent rounded binary structure

Slurs Varying slur patterns depending on melodic variation and place in piece. More variety then previous generations.

Shape and flow of tunes A build up of intensity for subsequent variations. Guitar chords are often outlined in arpeggiated form.

Bowing Smooth bow stroke. Long bowing with a circular wrist. Bow rocking between various strings.

Phrasing Medium phrasing- 4-8 measures.

Ornamentation Frequent grace note ornamentation and triplet and sextets. Quarter and eighth note triplets.

Slides Prominent upward slides at the beginning of phrases and varying downward and upward slides at half cadences.

Hand Positions Long sections in various positions on the instrument.

While Thomasson typically plays no more then two sections in a higher register,

O'Connor's more extensive and protracted use of third position represents a modern

evolution. In his early contest days he did not use a shoulder rest, however he later

adopted the usage. Not using a shoulder rest limits quick shifting which results in longer

passages in the higher positions. O’Connor employs the long bow, using quick bow

strokes that minimizes space between notes.

105 Phillips, The Championship Years, 22.


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The bowing is very rhythmic, but not in patterns. That's what I've always thought. I didn't like fiddling with pattern bowing. My approach is to drive it, really rhythmic with the bow, but never patterns… that’s hard… to get it perfectly in time. Even with all the rhythmic complexities, the rhythm is driving fast and constantly changing. I've always tried to keep my bow strokes interesting and never get out of time. Never use patterns for more than a couple of bars.106 O'Connor's distinctive sound is also a product of his unconventional bow grip. He

places his thumb flat against the bottom of the bow, along the pearl or ivory section of the

frog. This creates a grip that is notably more rounded and flexible. This combination

allows for increased speed in the bowing arm. O'Connor is known for his swift fiddling,

and often employs tempos ten to twenty beats per measure faster than typical contest

performances.

O'Connor retained many aspects of Thomasson’s playing such as highly

improvisatory performances, a variety of slur patterns, and the long bow technique. In

this instance, however, O’Connor’s approach to melodic development and ornamentation

significantly extends and differs from the tradition.

To what extent I improvised all the time… I’m not certain. The same tunes I played at contests, I played in jam sessions where I’d be throwing in extra things. When I got to the contest I didn’t improvise as much. Maybe I stuck to stuff that I knew I had done before, though not their placement. I remember the feeling of being able to improvise in contests. Not having it made up… people saying, “Aren’t you scared you might not know what to do?” At that point, for one, I didn’t care much. I was just going for it. By the time I started to care, I was able to do it fluently.107

The improvisation is centered on complex rhythmic patterns, rapid scalar runs,

and extensive ornamentations based in the classical tradition such as harmonics and 106 Phillips, The Championship Years, 19. 107 Stacy Phillips, Contest Fiddling, 27-8.


76

articulate trills. While many earlier fiddlers say they draw inspiration from various

traditions, it is most apparent in O’Connor’s playing.

O’Connor’s version of ‘Sally Goodin’ bears similarities to Robertson’s first

recording. This is logical because O’ Connor has stated that Robertson’s version of ‘Sally

Goodin’ continues to inspire his renditions.

It has been a constant source of inspiration for me. I met and played for him as a kid in New Mexico, and he taught my teacher Benny Thomasson in Texas. His historic (first professional recording of country music of any kind) rendition of ‘Sally Gooden’ inspired me to play my unaccompanied ‘Sally Gooden’ to this day. It has been a constant source of inspiration for me.108

O’Connor’s 1975 version of the tune, recorded at the Weiser Fiddle

Competition, reveals a virtuosic arrangement which still retains sections from

both Robertson and Thomasson. Perhaps as a reflection of strict time limits

imposed on contests, O’Connor’s rendition contains fewer sections than

Thomasson’s and is played at a quicker tempo.

108 Mark O’Connor. Facebook Post. September, 12,2012.


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Table 6.2 Mark O’Connor ‘Sally Goodin’ Variations Section Timings Variation Measure

Length Position on

Fiddle Focal

Ornamentation

1 0:00-0:06 1 8 Extended first Double stops,


2 0:06-0:15 2 8 Extended first Double stops,


3 0:15-0:19 3 4 First Triplet, nonchord tones

4 0:19-0:24 4 4 First Double stops, triplets



6

0:33-0:41 6 8 Third Double stops, nonchord tones, triplets, syncopation

7 0:41- 0:59 7 16 First

Third Double stops, nonchord tones, slides

8 0:59-1:07 8 8 First

Third Double stops, nonchord tones, slides





11 1:43-1:53 Tag 4 First Double stops, triplets

The recording includes sixteen different variations none of which are repeated.

Each variation, usually four measures long, presents new material. O’Connor continues to

use the G string riff for the ending of nearly every variation.

Thomasson’s decision to omit the melody at the opening is regarded as innovative

for his time period. The preliminary unadorned melody was used to establish the piece

and emphasize subsequent variations (figure 6.1). O’Connor further departs from the


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tradition by beginning with extended first, on a nonchord tone referencing Thomasson’s

fifth variation (figure 6.2).

Figure 6.1 O’Connor variation 1

Figure 6.2 Comparison of Thomasson variation 5

Variation two presents four different sections. He combines the “turkey call” variation

used by Robertson (variation nine) and Thomasson (variation ten) as well as the first half

of Robertson’s variation two (figure 6.3). In the first part of the variation, O’Connor uses

material Robertson’s variation two. In the second half of the variation he applies the same

riff heard in Robertson’s variation five (figure 6.4).



79


O’Connor develops the first half of the variation by adding pickups to the melodic

material and different double stop notes. An intriguing addition is transitional measures

that encompass part of a descending eighth note scale. The only ornamentations are

double stops that emphasize select notes and triplet neighbor tones (figure 6.5).


Variation three is an example of the shorter phrasing found in O’Connor’s

playing. While the variation is only four measures long, it includes multiple neighbor and

passing tones. The variation’s melody is an extension of the traditional tag. Within the

four-measure progression, the melody descends from a high A on the E string, and moves

an octave lower. While this variant is related to the tag, it is simultaneously a variant of a

chromatic A-scale (figure 6.6).


80


There is a smooth transition between variations three and four, and variation four

continues to use fragments of scales. It is modeled after the second half of Robertson’s

variation five (figure 6.7). For the first double stop, O’Connor simply lowers the double

stop octave of the E from a third to a sixth (figure 6.8).



Variation five presents the first use of rests in the piece, an O’Connor

innovation not previously common in hoedown performances. (Rests are more

commonly heard in waltzes or rags, particularly to emphasize the syncopation.) In

this variation, inspired by Thomasson’s variation nine, O’Connor intentionally

disrupts the melody with an eighth note rest on beat three. He reduces the texture

by using fewer notes and modifying the sixteenth note triplet to eighth notes

(figure 6.9). In the second iteration of the material O’Connor flavors the melody

with a chromatic B#, an unexpected addition and an example of O’Connor’s more

progressive harmonic choices (figure 6.10).


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Variation six recalls the culmination of Thomasson’s variation ten and

O’Connor’s variation two (figure 6.11). The major second double stop in measure two of

variation six is unusual, in what may be an accidental mistake during the live recording or

perhaps an intentional dissonance to add tension. He links the two variations by

beginning the section with the exact measure in Thomasson’s tenth variation (figure

6.12). Following this, he includes his own variation two’s second measure. The rest of the

sixth variation repeats that structure (figure 6.13).



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Figure 6.13 Comparison of O’Connor variation 2

Reminiscent to Thomasson’s variation six, O’Connor’s variation seven

employs a similar register, intervals, slurs, and tag ending. Thomasson’s influence

is notable in O’Connor’s use of the exact pattern of two slurred eighth notes

followed by single stroked eighth note with two more slurred eighth notes (figure

6.14). The double-stop tag ending used in both variations also alludes to the next

variation which also employs multiple double stops (figure 6.15).

Figure 6.14 O’Connor Variation 7



83

Remaining in the upper register for his eighth variation, O’Connor yet

again borrows from Thomasson. The two variations occupy a similar location in

the overall performance as well, that is the third full section before the end tag

(figure 6.16). O’Connor slightly alters his variation by adding the accidentals B#

and C# as well as adding an eighth note rest during the second iteration of the

melody (figure 6.17).

Figure 6.16 O’Connor Variation 8


Combining aspects of Robertson’s sixth variation and Thomasson’s eighth,

variation nine employs a synthesis of their rhythm, double stops, and melodic line (figure

6.18). This is the second to last variation, and presents the longest section of sixteen

measures. This variation intentionally weaves the two settings of ‘Sally Goodin’ together,

resulting in a variation that pays homage to both fiddlers (figure 6.19, 6.20).


84




The final variation presents the variation most similar to the tunes actual

melody. O’Connor uses Robertson’s primary variation as the foundation;

however, he adds an A string drone throughout. Whereas O’Connor begins his

version of ‘Sally Goodin,’ with a Thomasson variation, he closes the piece with a

Robertson variation. This could be coincidental, but it is likely O’Connor

intentionally quoted these phrases to act as a tribute (figure 6.21).


85


O’Connor’s 1975 ‘Sally Goodin’ does not directly show his later and more

comprehensive adaptation of form and ornamentation. In terms of his stylistic

evolution, this recording is conservative. An important aspect of this piece is

reflected in the careful integration of variations to yield a through-composed piece

rather than an arbitrary string of variations.

O’Connor’s1976 ‘Yellow Rose Waltz’ is a dense performance that presents an

especially clear example of O’Connor’s use of changing melodic motion. The piece

displays virtuosic abilities and masterful planned improvisation. The transcription reveals

unexpected turns, accidentals, sixteenth note triplets, and double stop harmonics.

As in ‘Sally Goodin,’ O’Connor avoids direct repetition and unadorned melodies.

Intricate rhythmic changes are emphasized throughout and one of the most elaborate

pieces in his contest repertoire [1975-1981]. An example is found in measure 65-66,

where O’Connor performs a sextet scalar run moving from third position to first position.

Rhythm and timbre changes of such complexity are more expected in the classical

tradition rather than a fiddle piece (figure 6. 22).

Figure 6.22 Measure 65-66


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I have broken the piece into six sections of sixteen measures each, AABBAA. In

contrast to general fiddle approaches to the waltz, O’Connor’s sections are not clearly

delineated. Rather, the sections flow seamlessly together and avoid strong cadential

motion.


87

Table 6.3 Mark O’Connor ‘Yellow Rose Waltz’ Variations Section Timings Sections Measure

Length Position on

Fiddle Focal

Ornamentation

1 0:00 Pick Up 3 eighth notes First None

2

0:00-0:25 A 16 First Third

Slides, double stops, chromaticism, triplet, rests

3

0:25-0:48 A1 16 First Third Fifth

Slides, double stops, harmonics, triplets, chromaticism, turns

4

0:48-1:11 B 16 First Second Third

Grace note, triplet, chromaticism, slides, multi note slurs, double stops

5

1:11-1:34 B1 16 First Third

Double stops, triplet, chromaticism, slides

6

1:34-1:58 B2 16 First Third

Triplet, sextet, thirty-second note slurs, slides, glissando, double stops, chromaticism

7

1:58-2:22 A2 16 First Third Fourth Fifth

Slow slides, double stops, harmonic double stops, chromaticism, triplet, turns, trills,

The waltz employs ornamentation consistent with Texas contest fiddling, but few

fiddlers would employ the level of difficulty, or the creative intricacy, which O’Connor

integrates into the performance. Perhaps as a gesture toward clarity, he repeats the A

section twice at the beginning as well as the closing section. The melody is always


88

recognizable and clear even through the high concentration of exaggerated slides,

extreme chromatic sections, and thirty-second note or sixteenth note rhythm units.

Nearly every measure of O’Connor’s performance contains passages of high

technical difficulty. In example seventy-four, within a eight measure phrase he includes

pronounced slides, grace notes, thirty-second note units, sixteenth note triplets played in

chromatic double stops, and shifting between first and third position within the span of

only two measures (figure 6.23).

Figure 6.23 Dense ornamentation

All three B sections employ similar material with an emphasis on the third

position motif. This material moves between the tonic and the mediant with a succession

of turns and triplets reminiscent of Thomasson’s triplet scalar runs functioning as

transitions. The embellished scales simultaneously display virtuosic technique and speed

while retaining a clear tone and note articulation. The majority of scalar sections are

interspersed with segments of the melody, as seen in example seventy-five (figure 6.24).

Figure 6.24 Scalar section


89

Other techniques that adorn the piece are rendered from the classical tradition.

This is notable in example seventy-six where O’Connor employs double stop harmonics

to indicate a half cadence (figure 6.25).

Figure 6.25 Double stop harmonics

Additionally appropriated from classical playing is the recurrent use of vibrato.

The majority of fiddle players do not use vibrato, and if they do it is a dampened sound

used for half or whole notes and waltzes. In contrast, O’Connor uses vibrato throughout

not only this waltz, but also the majority of his recordings. Beginning the note pure, he

adds quick and intense vibrato near the end of the note value. The use of vibrato is more

pronounced in his playing after 1975 and may reflect the influence of the French jazz

violinist Stephane Grappelli.109 He began touring with Grappelli in 1979 as a guitarist, but

additionally received violin lessons.110 This waltz was performed in 1976, and reveals

O’Connor’s admiration for Grappelli’s playing as well as his ability to fuse techniques

from various genres. Vassar Clement commented on this stating, “He just goes out

wherever he wants to—in any direction. That’s what I like about him. I think it does him

good. All of music goes together... the more you learn you can put it into whatever you’re

playing—jazz, bluegrass, swing or whatever.”111

109 DeWitt,” Mark O’Connor,” 2.110 Ibid. 111 Ibid.


90

As is characteristic of O’Connor’s playing, he employs notes that do not fall in

the diatonic scale. Evocative of the blues and jazz tradition, these notes usually occur

near slides and chromatic runs. The frequency with which these notes occur confirms that

they should be seen as intentional harmonic choices.

The final tag is a double stop arpeggio, moving from first position on the G string

to fifth position on the E string and ending on the mediant instead of the traditional tonic.

The final measures thus demonstrate the blend of traditions through the unexpected

ending note as well as the use of non-diatonic notes (figure 6.26).

Figure 6.26 Ending tag


91

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

The majority of musicological scholarship has focused on the rich narratives of

fiddler’s personalities and experiences even while acknowledging this anecdotal bias and

calling for more rigorous musical analysis. It should be recognized that the bio-historical

technique employed as part of this study could be applied to any vernacular fiddle

tradition. Studying a direct generation-to-generation lineage creates an effective

comparative perspective upon chronological style changes. Parallel studies could

similarly focus on the various genres developed within fiddle repertoires.

The narrative and historical factors have facilitated the analysis and illuminated

the origin of certain variations. As fiddler Larry Franklin said, “the versions of the songs

we’re playing now are directly because of people like Benny Thomasson, Major Franklin,

Orville Burns. All these people, they turned these songs into masterpieces.”112 The three

virtuosos discussed understood their historical situation and the tradition's expectations,

knew what they were doing, and made conscious and intentional choices to impact the

tradition. Nowhere is this more aptly expressed then in a 1974 quote by Benny

Thomasson, “You know young people coming up, learning the fiddle, they want to do

everything they can… in more modern ways, you know. Times change. And I think…that

as time changes, music should change to fit the playing now.”113

Many more Texas fiddlers than these three came in contact with one another in

travels and assorted contests. For reasons of scope, I chose to model a research technique

112 The Devils Box, Directed by Jason Hammond, DVD.113 Thomasson, Benny. Interview by Michael Mendelson. Old Time Fiddle Contest, Weiser, Idaho, 1974.


92

that focused upon three directly related and seminal players. Time permitting, the

tradition’s historical chronologies and pedigrees could be traced even further and with

more precise detail. Other and unique research problems could arise in tracing a larger

domain of fiddlers, particularly lesser-known or earlier-period fiddlers preceding the

recording era. The absence of direct sonic evidence pre-1920s would significantly restrict

analysis of performance practice, as research methods would be limited to oral history.

Anticipated future research on the subject will incorporate the rich resources of

unpublished materials held by the Southwest Archives at Texas Tech University.

The changing contexts of contests facilitated increased participation. While this

significantly impacted the tradition’s stylistic evolution, it also restricted players in other

ways, due to contest time limitations and the expectations of recorded formats.

Contemporary contestants have access to recording of various fiddlers and books of

transcriptions, which accelerates the adaptation of diverse styles and traditions. In an age

of such technological advancement, competition is heightened, and intensifies the

expectation for current fiddlers to perform innovative compositions that test the

boundaries. It is an evolutionary perspective, which largely supports innovation: “how a

lot of these songs kept getting better and better [through fiddle contests] and developed

into what we call the Texas style.”114

In the documentary The Devils Box, performers describe the challenges in

competition, particularly when select fiddlers continue to dominate the scene.115 After

Mark O’Connor won the Weiser national fiddle competition three consecutive years

114 The Devils Box, Directed by Jason Hammond, DVD. 115 Ibid.


93

(1981-1984), the participants and judges recognized the possibility that no one else could

win the contest if O’Connor continued to participate. In response, a rule was created

prohibiting three-time winners from further competition. This is a concrete historical

manifestation of the desire for the tradition to evolve through new generations of players

while also recognizing certain individuals to be seminal. Current contests

The Texas contest tradition is preserved through individuals and organizations

dedicated to continuing the craft and idioms’ relevancy. As contest fiddler Bubba

Hopkins remarked in The Devils Box, “It makes you wonder if these people are going to

be talked about by musicologists? Is this music going to be influential to some kind of

music we don’t know about?”116

Blending of traditions and enhanced awareness has carried Texas fiddle playing

across not only regional, but also national borders. O’Connor has displayed an implicit

awareness of these questions through his publication of a “traditional fiddle” teaching

method and in his adaptation of classical forms employing the style of vernacular music.

His Improvised Violin Concerto, for example, is based entirely on the improvisation

culture and in the recent recording with the Boston Youth Orchestra (2014), employs

fiddle techniques such as slides, double stops, and scalar passages. His success in

synthesizing various traditions is evident in the performance review from the New York

Times:

The audience was on its feet . . . They were moved by Mr. O'Connor's journey without maps, cheering for the only musician today who can reach so deeply first into the refined, then the vernacular, giving his listeners a

116 The Devils Box, Directed by Jason Hammond, DVD.


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complex, sophisticated piece of early-21st-century classical music and then knocking them dead with the brown-dirt whine of a Texas fiddle.117

A parallel example of preservation is Valeria’s Texas Fiddle Orchestra based out

of Burleson, Texas. This old-time fiddle orchestra’s main focuses are keeping the

performance and improvisatory tradition alive and well, in the hands not only of soloists

like Robertson, Thomasson, and O’Connor, but also in the amateurs and young players

they inspire. As one member stated, “The music is from the heart. We may play a song a

certain way just one time, and then never again. It’s sort of exciting.”118 The members

ranging from seven to seventy focus on teaching traditional tunes such as ‘Sally Goodin’

while promoting performance collaboration across generations. Such efforts in tandem

with academic studies help increase the rich history and an ongoing vitality of social,

musical, and performance practice techniques in Texas contest fiddling.

Combining historical backgrounds and memory narratives not only shapes the

Texas contest fiddle tradition, but also contributes to its continued relevancy among

contemporary listeners. By situating their own characteristic innovations within the

expectations of the fiddle tradition, these players evolved individual styles, which

nevertheless maintained the tradition's core aesthetics.

117 “Mark O’Connor Bio,” accessed March 25, 2014,http://markoconnor.com/index.php?page=bio&family=mark. 118 Sarah Bahari, “In Burleson, Fiddle Orchestra Preserves Traditional Music,” Star-Telegram, March 7,2014, accessed March 25, 2014, http://www.star-telegram.com/2014/03/06/5627441/in-burleson-fiddlers-preserve.html?rh=1.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY Anick, Peter. Interview with Mark O’Connor. Fiddler Magazine (Fall 2010).

Bahari, Sarah. “In Burleson, Fiddle Orchestra Preserves Traditional Music.” Star-Telegram, March 7, 2014. Accessed March 25, 2014. http://www.star-

telegram.com/2014/03/06/5627441/in-burleson-fiddlers-preserve.html?rh=1.

Carlin, Richard. Country Music: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Rutledge, 2003.

Carr, Joe. “Jim ‘Texas Shorty” Chancellor: Legendary Fiddler.” Fiddler Magazine (June 2000).

Cranfill, J.B. Dr. J.B. Cranfill’s Chronicle: A Story of Life in Texas. New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1916.

Cohen, John. “Fiddlin’ Eck Robertson.” Sing Out! (April-May 1964): 7-19.

DeWitt, Cathy. “Mark O’Connor: Blurring the Boundaries.” Sing Out! (Summer 2005).

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APPENDIX A TABLE OF TRANSCRIBED FIDDLE TUNES

Table A.1 Transcribed fiddle tunes Tuning Piece Fiddler Style Bowing Recording

used Cross tuned “A”

tuning

‘Sally Gooden’ Eck Robertson

Hoedown Shove and Pull One variation using longbow

Victor Records

Standard ‘Amarillo Waltz’

Eck Robertson

Waltz Shove and Pull Victor Records

Standard ‘Sally Goodin’ Benny Thomasson

Hoedown Longbow County Records

Standard “Black and White Rag”

Benny Thomasson

Rag Longbow County Records

Standard ‘Sally

Goodwin’ Mark O’ Connor

Hoedown Longbow Country Music

Foundation

Standard ‘Yellow Rose

Waltz’ Mark O’ Connor

Waltz Longbow Country Music

Foundation


99

APPENDIX B AUTHOR TRANSCRIPTION OF ECK ROBERTSON FIDDLE

TUNES


100


101


102

Cross Tuned AEAE


103


104


105


106

APPENDIX C AUTHOR TRANSCRIPTION OF BENNY THOMASSON FIDDLE

TUNES


107


108


109


110

APPENDIX D AUTHOR TRANSCRIPTIONS OF MARK

O'CONNOR FIDDLE TUNES


111


112


113


114

Documents

Carrying on the Tradition: A performance practice analysis