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Carbon-based fuelis anyfuel whose energy derives principally
from theoxidation or burning ofcarbon.Carbon-based fuels are of two
main kinds,
biofuels andfossil fuels.Whereas biofuels are derived from
recent-growth organic matter[1]
and are typically harvested, as with logging of forests
and cutting of corn, fossil fuels are of prehistoric
origin[2]
and are extracted from the ground, the principal fossil fuels
being oil, coal, and natural
gas.
From an economic policy perspective, an important distinction
between biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former
issustainable orrenewable.
Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels
indefinitely in principle, the Earth's reserves of fossil fuels was
determined millions of
years ago[3]
and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable future is
concerned. The great variability in the ease of extraction of
fossil fuels however
makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over one or
more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion.[4]
From the perspective of climate and ecology, biofuels and fossil
fuels have in common that they contribute to the production
ofatmospheric
carbon dioxide,which has emerged in recent decades as the
fastest-changinggreenhouse gas,whose principal impacts areglobal
warming and
ocean acidification.However biofuels actively participate in
thecarbon cycle today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide, unlike
fossil fuels whose
participation was long ago, and can therefore in principle bring
atmospheric CO 2into an equilibrium not possible with the continued
use of fossil
fuel. But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process, and the
additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it
such as application of
fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the
accelerating processes,[5]
to a degree currently under active debate.[6]
In contrast the
speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because
they had millions of years in which to accumulate.
Biofuelis a type offuel whose energy is derived from
biologicalcarbon fixation.Biofuels include fuels derived
frombiomass conversion, as well as
solid biomass,liquid fuels and variousbiogases.[1]
Althoughfossil fuels have their origin in ancientcarbon
fixation,they are not considered biofuels
by the generally accepted definition because they contain carbon
that has been "out" of the carbon cycle for a very long time.
Biofuels are gaining
increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors
such asoil price spikes,the need for increasedenergy
security,concern overgreenhouse
gas emissions fromfossil fuels,and support fromgovernment
subsidies.
Bioethanol is analcohol made byfermentation,mostly
fromcarbohydrates produced insugar orstarch crops such ascorn
orsugarcane.Cellulosic
biomass,derived from non-food sources such as trees and grasses,
is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production.
Ethanol can be
used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually
used as agasolineadditive to increase octane and improve vehicle
emissions. Bioethanol
is widely used in theUSA and inBrazil.Current plant design does
not provide for converting thelignin portion of plant raw materials
to fuel
components by fermentation.
Biodiesel is made fromvegetable oils andanimal fats.Biodiesel
can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is
usually used as adiesel
additive to reduce levels of particulates,carbon
monoxide,andhydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is
produced from oils or fats
usingtransesterification and is the most common biofuel in
Europe.
In 2010 worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters
(28 billion gallons US), up 17% from 2009, and biofuels provided
2.7% of the world's
fuels for road transport, a contribution largely made up of
ethanol and biodiesel.[2]
Globalethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters (23
billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil
as the world's top producers, accounting together for 90% of global
production. Theworld's largest biodiesel producer is theEuropean
Union,accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production in 2010.
[2]As of 2011, mandates for
blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level
and in 29 states/provinces .[3]
According to theInternational Energy Agency,biofuels
have the potential to meet more than a quarter of world demand
for transportation fuels by 2050.[4]
Liquid fuels for transportation
Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually
require highenergy density,as occurs in liquids and solids.
Highpower density can
be provided most inexpensively by aninternal combustion
engine;these engines require clean burning fuels, to keep the
engine clean and
minimizeair pollution.
The fuels that are easiest to burn cleanly are typically liquids
and gases. Thus liquids (and gases that can be stored in liquid
form) meet the
requirements of being both portable and clean burning. Also,
liquids and gases can be pumped, which means handling is easi ly
mechanized, and
thus less laborious.
[edit]First generation biofuels
'First-generation' or conventional biofuels are biofuels made
from sugar, starch, and vegetable oil.
[edit]Bioalcohols
Main article:Alcohol fuel
Neat ethanol on the left (A),gasoline on the right (G) at
afilling station inBrazil
Biologically producedalcohols,most commonlyethanol,and less
commonlypropanol andbutanol,are produced by the action
ofmicroorganismsandenzymes through the fermentation of sugars or
starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more
difficult).Biobutanol (also called biogasoline) is
often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline,
because it can be used directly in a gasoline engine (in a similar
way to biodiesel in
diesel engines).
Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide,
particularlyin Brazil. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation
of sugars derived from
wheat, corn,sugar beets,sugar cane,molasses and any sugar or
starch thatalcoholic beverages can be made from (likepotato
andfruit waste,
etc.). The ethanol production methods used areenzyme digestion
(to release sugars from stored starches), fermentation of the
sugars, distillation
and drying. The distillation process requires significant energy
input for heat (often unsustainablenatural gas fossil fuel, but
cellulosic biomass such
asbagasse,the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract
its juice, can also be used more sustainably).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#Solid_biofuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_price_increases_since_2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States#Tax_creditshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedstockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_additivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel_in_the_united_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transesterificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Biofuels2010-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Biofuels2010-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Biofuels2010-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Biofuels2010-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Biofuels2010-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Biofuels2010-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ren212011-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ren212011-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ren212011-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E100http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propan-1-olhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biobutanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_beethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_canehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beveragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potatohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagassehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sao_Paulo_ethanol_pump_04_2008_74_zoom.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagassehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potatohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beveragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_canehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_beethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biobutanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propan-1-olhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E100http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ren212011-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Biofuels2010-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Biofuels2010-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transesterificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel_in_the_united_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_additivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedstockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States#Tax_creditshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_price_increases_since_2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#Solid_biofuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-based_fuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel
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Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for
gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most
existing car petrol
engines can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol with
petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smallerenergy density than does
gasoline; this fact
means that it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the
same amount of work. An advantage of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that it
has a higher
octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside
gas stations which allows an increase of an engine'scompression
ratio for increased
thermal efficiency.In high altitude (thin air) locations, some
states mandate a mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winteroxidizer to
reduce
atmospheric pollution emissions.
Ethanol is also used to fuel bioethanolfireplaces.As they do not
require a chimney and are "flueless", bio ethanol fires[5]
are extremely useful for
new build homes and apartments without a flue. The downside to
these fireplaces, is that the heat output is slightly less than
electric and gas fires.
In the currentcorn-to-ethanol production model in the United
States, considering the total energy consumed byfarm
equipment,cultivation,
planting,fertilizers,pesticides,herbicides,andfungicides made
from petroleum,irrigation systems, harvesting, transport of
feedstock to processing
plants, fermentation, distillation, drying, transport to fuel
terminals and retail pumps, and lower ethanol fuel energy content,
the net energy
content value added and delivered to consumers is very small.
And, the net benefit (all things considered) does little to reduce
importedoil and
fossil fuels required to produce the ethanol.[6]
Although corn-to-ethanol and other food stocks have implications
both in terms of world food prices and limited, yet positive,
energy yield (in
terms of energy delivered to customer/fossil fuels used), the
technology has led to the development ofcellulosic
ethanol.According to a joint
research agenda conducted through the U.S. Department of
Energy,[7]
the fossil energy ratios (FER)for cellulosic ethanol, corn
ethanol, and
gasoline are 10.3, 1.36, and 0.81, respectively.[8][9][10]
Even dry ethanol has roughly one-third lower energy content per
unit of volume compared to gasoline, so larger / heavier fuel tanks
are required to
travel the same distance, or more fuel stops are required. With
large current unsustainable, non-scalable subsidies, ethanol fuel
still costs much
more per distance traveled than current high gasoline prices in
the United States.[11]
Methanol is currently produced fromnatural gas,a non-renewable
fossil fuel. It can also be produced frombiomass
asbiomethanol.Themethanol
economy is an alternative to thehydrogen economy,compared to
today'shydrogen production from natural gas.
Butanol (C4H9OH) is formed byABE fermentation (acetone, butanol,
ethanol) and experimental modifications of the process show
potentially high
net energy gains with butanol as the only liquid product.
Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned
"straight" in existing
gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or
car),[12]
and is less corrosive and less water soluble than ethanol, and
could be distributed
via existing infrastructures.DuPont andBP are working together
to help develop Butanol.E. coli have also been successfully
engineered to produce
butanol by hijacking theiramino acid metabolism.[13]
[edit]Biodiesel
Main articles:Biodiesel andBiodiesel around the world
In some countries biodiesel is less expensive than conventional
diesel.
Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced
from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar
in composition to
fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty
acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel
include animal fats,
vegetable
oils,soy,rapeseed,jatropha,mahua,mustard,flax,sunflower,palm
oil,hemp,field pennycress,pongamia pinnata andalgae.Pure
biodiesel (B100) is the lowest emission diesel fuel.
Althoughliquefied petroleum gas and hydrogen have cleaner
combustion, they are used to fuel
much less efficient petrol engines and are not as widely
available.
Biodiesel can be used in anydiesel engine when mixed with
mineral diesel. In some countries manufacturers cover their diesel
engines under
warranty for B100 use, althoughVolkswagen ofGermany,for example,
asks drivers to check by telephone with the VW environmental
services
department before switching to B100. B100 may become moreviscous
at lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used. In most
cases,biodiesel is compatible with diesel engines from 1994
onwards, which use 'Viton' (byDuPont)synthetic rubber in their
mechanicalfuel injection
systems.
Electronically controlled 'common rail'and'unit injector' type
systems from the late 1990s onwards may only use biodiesel blended
with
conventional diesel fuel. These engines have finely metered and
atomized multi-stage injection systems that are very sensitive to
the viscosity of
the fuel. Many current generation diesel engines are made so
that they can run on B100 without altering the engine itself,
although this depends
on thefuel rail design. Since biodiesel is an effectivesolvent
and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel,engine filters may
need to be replaced
more often, as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel
tank and pipes. It also effectively cleans the enginecombustion
chamber of carbon
deposits, helping to maintain efficiency. In many European
countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and is available at
thousands of gas
stations.[14][15]
Biodiesel is also anoxygenated fuel,meaning that it contains a
reduced amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content
than fossil diesel. This improves thecombustion of biodiesel and
reduces the particulate emissions from un-burnt carbon.
Biodiesel is also safe to handle and transport because it is
asbiodegradable as sugar, 10 times less toxic than table salt, and
has a highflash point of
about 300 F (148 C) compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which has
a flash point of 125 F (52 C).[16]
In the USA, more than 80% of commercial trucks and city buses
run on diesel. The emerging US biodiesel market is estimated to
have grown 200%
from 2004 to 2005. "By the end of 2006 biodiesel production was
estimated to increase fourfold [from 2004] to more than" 1 billion
US gallons
(3,800,000 m3).
[17]
[edit]Green diesel
Main article:Green diesel
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pedia.org/wiki/Oxygenated_dieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_Injectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuPonthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pongamia_pinnatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thlaspi_arvensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflowerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhuca_longifoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatrophahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapeseedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid_methyl_esterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transesterificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel_around_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-butanol-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_metabolismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._colihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuPonthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_energy_gainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_acetobutylicumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanol_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_Energy_Ratio&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungicideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn-to-ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireplaceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octane_ratinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density
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Green diesel, also known asrenewable diesel, is a form of diesel
fuel which is derived from renewable feedstock rather than the
fossil feedstock
used in mostdiesel fuels.Green diesel feedstock can be sourced
from a variety ofoils includingcanola,algae,jatropha andsalicornia
in addition to
tallow.Green diesel uses traditionalfractional distillation to
process the oils, not to be confused with biodiesel which is
chemically quite different
and processed using transesterification.
Green Diesel as commonly known inIreland should not be confused
with dyed green diesel sold at a lower tax rate for agriculture
purposes,
using the dye allows custom officers to determine if a person is
using the cheaper diesel in higher taxed applications such a s
commercial haulage or
cars.[18]
[edit]Vegetable oil
Filtered wastevegetable oil
Main article:Vegetable oil used as fuel
Straight unmodifiededible vegetable oil is generally not used as
fuel, but lower quality oil can and has been used for this purpose.
Used vegetable
oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more
rarely) cleaned of water and particulates and used as a fuel.
Also here, as with 100% biodiesel (B100), to ensure that thefuel
injectors atomize the vegetable oil in the correct pattern for
efficient combustion,
vegetable oil fuel must be heated to reduce itsviscosity to that
of diesel, either by electric coils or heat exchangers. This is
easier in warm or
temperate climates. Big corporations likeMAN B&W
Diesel,Wrtsil,andDeutz AG as well as a number of smaller companies
such as Elsbett offer
engines that are compatible with straight vegetable oil, without
the need for after-market modifications.
Vegetable oil can also be used in many older diesel engines that
do not usecommon rail orunit injection electronic diesel injection
systems. Due to
the design of the combustion chambers inindirect injection
engines, these are the best engines for use with vegetable oil.
This system allows the
relatively larger oil molecules more time to burn. Some older
engines, especially Mercedes are driven experimentally by
enthusiasts without any
conversion, a handful of drivers have experienced limited
success with earlier pre-"Pumpe Duse" VW TDI engines and other
similar engines with
direct injection.Several companies likeElsbett orWolf have
developed professional conversion kits and successfully installed
hundreds of them
over the last decades.
Oils and fats can behydrogenated to give a diesel substitute.
The resulting product is a straight chain hydrocarbon with a
highcetane number,low
inaromatics andsulfur and does not contain oxygen.Hydrogenated
oils can be blended with diesel in all proportions Hydrogenated
oils have
several advantages over biodiesel, including good performance at
low temperatures, no storage stability problems and no susceptibil
ity to
microbial attack.[19]
[edit]Bioethers
Bioethers (also referred to as fuel ethers oroxygenated
fuels)are cost-effectivecompounds that act asoctane rating
enhancers. They also
enhanceengine performance, whilst significantly reducing engine
wear andtoxicexhaust emissions.Greatly reducing the amount of
ground-level
ozone,they contribute to the quality of the air we breathe
.[20][21]
[edit]Biogas
Pipes carrying biogas
Main article:Biogas
Biogas ismethane produced by the process ofanaerobic digestion
oforganic material byanaerobes.[22]It can be produced either
from
biodegradable waste materials or by the use ofenergy crops fed
intoanaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid
byproduct,digestate,
can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.
Biogas can be recovered frommechanical biological treatment
waste processing systems.Note:Landfill gas is a less clean form of
biogas which is produced in landfills through naturally occurring
anaerobic digestion. If it escapes
into the atmosphere it is a potentialgreenhouse gas.
Farmers can produce biogas frommanure from their cows by using
an anaerobic digester (AD).[23][edit]Syngas
Main article:Gasification
Syngas,a mixture ofcarbon monoxide,hydrogen and other
hydrocarbons is produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is,
combustion with
an amount ofoxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass
completely to carbon dioxide and water.[19]
Before partial combustion the
biomass is dried, and sometimespyrolysed.The resulting gas
mixture, syngas, is more efficient than direct combustion of the
original biofuel; more
of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted.
Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion
engines,turbines or high-temperature fuel cells.[24]Thewood gas
generator is awood-fueled gasification reactor mounted on an
internal combustion engine.
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iological_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_digesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_crophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradable_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_digestionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octane_ratinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenated_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-evans-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenated_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetane_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenationhttp://www.wolf-pflanzenoel-technik.de/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsbetthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injection#Direct_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VW_TDIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_injectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_Injectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsbetthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutz_AGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%A4rtsil%C3%A4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAN_B%26W_Dieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ediblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_oil_used_as_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Customs_seize_illegal_fuel-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salicorniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatrophahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_resource
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Syngas can be used to producemethanol,DME andhydrogen,or
converted via theFischer-Tropsch process to produce a
dieselsubstitute, or a mixture of alcohols that can be blended into
gasoline. Gasification normally relies on temperatures
>700C.
Lower temperature gasification is desirable when
co-producingbiochar but results in a Syngas polluted
withtar.[edit]Solid biofuels
Examples includewood, sawdust,grass trimmings,domestic
refuse,charcoal, agricultural waste,non-foodenergy crops (see
picture), and dried
manure.
When raw biomass is already in a suitable form (such
asfirewood), it can burn directly in a stove or furnace to provide
heat or raise steam. Whenraw biomass is in an inconvenient form
(such as sawdust, wood chips, grass, urban waste wood, agricultural
residues), the typical process is to
densify the biomass. This process includes grinding the raw
biomass to an appropriate particulate size (known as hogfuel),
which depending on the
densification type can be from 1 to 3 cm (1 in), which is then
concentrated into a fuel product. The current types of processes
arewood pellet,
cube, or puck. The pellet process is most common in Europe and
is typically a pure wood product. The other types of densification
are larger in size
compared to a pellet and are compatible with a broad range of
input feedstocks. The resulting densified fuel is easier to
transport and feed into
thermal generation systems such as boilers.
One of the advantages of solid biomass fuel is that it is often
a by-product, residue or waste-product of other processes, such as
farming, animal
husbandry and forestry.[25]
In theory this means there is no competition between fuel and
food production, although this is not always the case.[25]
A problem with the combustion of raw biomass is that it emits
considerable amounts ofpollutants such asparticulates and PAHs
(polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons). Even modern pellet boilers generate much
more pollutants than oil or natural gas boilers. Pellets made from
agricultural
residues are usually worse than wood pellets, producing much
larger emissions ofdioxins andchlorophenols.
[26]
Notwithstanding the above noted study, numerous studies have
shown that biomass fuels have significantly less impact on the
environment than
fossil based fuels. Of note is the U.S. Department of Energy
Laboratory, Operated by Midwest Research Institute Biomass Power
and Conventional
Fossil Systems with and without CO2 SequestrationComparing
theEnergy Balance, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economics Study.
Power
generation emits significant amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs),
mainlycarbon dioxide (CO2).Sequestering CO2from the power plantflue
gas
can significantly reduce the GHGs from the power plant itself,
but this is not the total picture. CO2capture and sequestration
consumes additional
energy, thus lowering the plant'sfuel-to-electricity
efficiency.To compensate for this, more fossil fuel must be
procured and consumed to make up
for lost capacity.
Taking this into consideration, theglobal warming potential
(GWP), which is a combination of CO2, methane (CH4), andnitrous
oxide (N2O)
emissions, and energy balance of the system need to be examined
using a life cycle assessment.This takes into account the upstream
processes
which remain constant after CO2sequestration as well as the
steps required for additional power generation. firing biomass
instead of coal led to a
148% reduction in GWP.
A derivative of solid biofuel isbiochar,which is produced by
biomasspyrolysis. Bio-char made from agricultural waste can
substitute for wood
charcoal. As wood stock becomes scarce this alternative is
gaining ground. In easternDemocratic Republic of Congo,for example,
biomass
briquettes are being marketed as an alternative to charcoal in
order to protectVirunga National Park fromdeforestation associated
withcharcoal
production.[27]
[edit]Second generation biofuels (advanced biofuels)
Main article:Second generation biofuels
Second generation biofuels are biofuels produced from
sustainable feedstock. Sustainability of a feedstock is defined
among others by availability
of the feedstock, impact onGHG emissions and impact on
biodiversity and land use.[28]
Many second generation biofuels are under development
such asCellulosic ethanol,Algae
fuel,biohydrogen,biomethanol,DMF,BioDME, Fischer-Tropsch diesel,
biohydrogen diesel, mixed alcohols and
wood diesel.
Cellulosic ethanol production uses non-food crops or inedible
waste products and does not divert food away from the animal or
human food chain.
Lignocellulose is the "woody" structural material of plants.
This feedstock is abundant and diverse, and in some cases (like
citrus peels or sawdust)
it is in itself a significant disposal problem.
Producing ethanol fromcellulose is a difficult technical problem
to solve. In nature,ruminant livestock (likecattle)eat grass and
then use slow
enzymatic digestive processes to break it intoglucose (sugar).
Incellulosic ethanol laboratories, variousexperimental processes
are being
developed to do the same thing, and then the sugars released can
be fermented to make ethanol fuel. In 2009 scientists reported
developing, using
"synthetic biology", "15 new highly stable fungalenzyme
catalysts that efficiently break down cellulose into sugars at high
temperatures", adding to
the 10 previously known.[29]
The use of high temperatures, has been identified as an
important factor in improving the overall economic feasibility
of the biofuel industry and the identification of enzymes that
are stable and can operate efficiently at extreme temperatures is
an area of active
research.[30]
In addition, research conducted atTU Delft by Jack Pronk has
shown thatelephant yeast,when slightly modified can also create
ethanol from non-edible ground sources (e.g. straw).[31][32]
The recent discovery of the fungusGliocladium roseum points
toward the production of so-calledmyco-diesel from cellulose. This
organism
(recently discovered in rainforests of northernPatagonia)has the
unique capability of converting cellulose into medium length
hydrocarbons
typically found in diesel fuel.[33]
Scientists also work on experimentalrecombinant DNAgenetic
engineering organisms that could increase biofuel
potential.
Scientists working with the New Zealand company Lanzatech have
developed a technology to use industrial waste gases such as carbon
monoxide
fromsteel mills as a feedstock for a microbial fermentation
process to produce ethanol .[34][35]
In October 2011, Virgin Atlantic announced it was
joining with Lanzatech to commission a demonstration plant in
Shanghai that would produce an aviation fuel from waste gases from
steel
production.[36]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyl_etherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer-Tropsch_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawdusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_crophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_pellethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ODI1-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ODI1-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ODI1-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ODI1-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ODI1-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ODI1-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_returned_on_energy_investedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO2_sequestrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_potentialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_cycle_assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briquettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virunga_National_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_generation_biofuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,5-Dimethylfuranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioDMEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer-Tropschhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignocellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruminanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_catalysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TU_Delfthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elephant_yeast&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliocladium_roseumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myco-dieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myco-dieselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliocladium_roseumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elephant_yeast&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TU_Delfthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_catalysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruminanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignocellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer-Tropschhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioDMEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,5-Dimethylfuranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_generation_biofuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virunga_National_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briquettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_cycle_assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_potentialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO2_sequestrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_returned_on_energy_investedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophenolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ODI1-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ODI1-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_pellethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_crophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawdusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer-Tropsch_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyl_etherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol
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Scientists working in Minnesota have developed co-cultures of
Shewanella and Synechococcus that produce long chain hydrocarbons
directly from
water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight.[37]
The technology has receivedARPA-E funding.
[edit]Biofuels by region
Main article:Biofuels by region
See also:Biodiesel around the world
There are international organizations such as IEA
Bioenergy,[38]
established in 1978 by theOECDInternational Energy Agency (IEA),
with the aim of
improving cooperation and information exchange between countries
that have national programs in bioenergy research, development
anddeployment. TheU.N. International Biofuels Forum is formed
byBrazil,China,India,South Africa,theUnited States and
theEuropean
Commission.[39]
The world leaders in biofuel development and use are Brazil,
United States, France, Sweden and Germany. Russia also has 22%
of
worlds forest[40]
and is a big biomass (solid biofuels) supplier. In 2010, Russian
pulp and paper maker, Vyborgskaya Cellulose, said they would be
producing pellets that can be used in heat and electricity
generation from its plant in Vyborg by the end of the year.[41]
The plant will eventually
produce about 900,000 tons of pellets per year, making it the
largest in the world once operational.
Biofuels currently make up 3.1%[42]
of the total road transport fuel in the UK or 1,440 million
litres. By 2020, 10 per cent of the energy used in UK
road and rail transport must come from renewable sourcesthis is
the equivalent of replacing 4.3 million tonnes of fossil oil each
year.
Conventional biofuels are likely to produce between 3.7 and 6.6
per cent of the energy needed in road and rail transport, while
advanced biofuels
could meet up to 4.3 per cent of the UKs renewable transport
fuel target by 2020.[43]
[edit]Issues with biofuel production and use
Main article:Issues relating to biofuels
There are various social, economic, environmental and technical
issues with biofuel production and use, which have been discussed
in the popular
media and scientific journals. These include: the effect of
moderatingoil prices,the "food vs fuel"debate,poverty reduction
potential,carbon
emissions levels,sustainable biofuel production,deforestation
andsoil erosion,loss ofbiodiversity,impact onwater resources,as
well as energy
balance and efficiency. TheInternational Resource Panel,which
provides independent scientific assessments and expert advice on a
variety of
resource-related themes, assessed the issues relating to biofuel
use in its first report Towards sustainable production and use of
resources:
Assessing Biofuels.[44]
In it, it outlined the wider and interrelated factors that need
to be considered when deciding on the relative merits of
pursuing one biofuel over another. It concluded that not all
biofuels perform equally in terms of their impact on climate,
energy security and
ecosystems, and suggested that environmental and social impacts
need to be assessed throughout the entire life-cycle.
Although there are many current issues with biofuel production
and use, the development of new biofuel crops and second generation
biofuels
attempts to circumvent these issues. Many scientists and
researchers are working to develop biofuel crops that require less
land and use fewer
resources, such as water, than current biofuel crops do.
According to the journal "Renewable fuels from algae: An answer to
debatable land based
fuels"[45]
,algae is a source for biofuels that could utilize currently
unprofitable land and waste water from different industries. Algae
are able to
grow in wastewater, which does not affect the land or freshwater
needed to produce current food and fuel crops. Furthermore, algae
are not part
of the human food chain, and therefore, do not take away food
resources from humans. The effects of the biofuel industry on food
are still being
debated. According to a recent study entitled "Impact of biofuel
production and other supply and demand factors on food price
increases in
2008"[46]
,biofuel production was accountable for 3-30% of the increase in
food prices in 2008. This has prompted researchers to develop
biofuel
crops and technologies that will reduce the impact of the
growing biofuel industry on food production and cost. One step to
overcoming these
issues is developing biofuel crops best suited to each region of
the world. If each region utilized a specific biofuel crop, the
need to use fossil fuels
to transport the fuel to other places for processing and
consumption will be diminished. Furthermore, certain areas of the
globe are unsuitable for
producing crops that require large amounts of water and nutrient
rich soil. Therefore, current biofuel crops, such as corn, are
unpractical in
different environments and regions of the globe.
[edit]Greenhouse gas emissions
According to Britain'sNational Non-Food Crops Centre,total net
savings from using first-generation biodiesel as a transport fuel
range from 25-82%
(depending on the feedstock used), compared to diesel derived
from crude oil [47]
.Nobel LaureatePaul Crutzen however finds that the emissions
of
Nitrous Oxide due to nitrate fertilisers is seriously
underestimated, and tips the balance such that most Biofuels
produce more greenhouse gases
than the Fossil fuels they replace. Producing lignocellulosic
biofuels offers potentially greater greenhouse gas emissions
savings than those
obtained by first generation biofuels. Lignocellulosic biofuels
are predicted by oil industry body CONCAWE[[1]]to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions
by around 90% when compared with fossil petroleum, in contrast
first generation biofuels were found to offer savings of
20-70%[48]
Some scientists have expressed concerns about land-use change in
response to greater demand for crops to use for biofuel and the
subsequent
carbon emissions.[49]
The payback period, that is, the time it will take biofuels to
payback the carbon debt that they acquire due to land-use
change,
has been estimated to be between 100-1000 years depending on the
specific instance and location of land-use change. However, no-till
practices
combined with cover crop practices can reduce the payback period
to 3 years for grassland conversion and 14 years for forest
conversion.[50]
Biofuels made from waste biomass or from biomass grown on
abandoned agricultural lands incur little to no carbon debt.
[51]
Fossil fuelsarefuels formed by natural processes such
asanaerobic decomposition of buried deadorganisms.The age of the
organisms and their
resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and
sometimes exceeds 650 million years .[1]
The fossil fuels, which contain high percentages of
carbon,includecoal,petroleum,andnatural gas.Fossil fuels range
fromvolatile materials with lowcarbon:hydrogen ratios
likemethane,to liquid
petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure
carbon, likeanthracitecoal.Methane can be found in hydrocarbon
fields, alone,
associated with oil, or in the form ofmethane clathrates.It is
generally accepted that they formed from thefossilized remains of
dead plants[2]
by
exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions
of years.[3]
Thisbiogenic theory was first introduced byGeorg Agricola in
1556 and
later byMikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.
It was estimated by theEnergy Information Administration that in
2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal
27.4%,
natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels
in primary energy consumption in the world.[4]
Non-fossil sources in 2006 included
hydroelectric 6.3%,nuclear 8.5%, and others
(geothermal,solar,tide,wind,wood,waste)amounting to 0.9
percent.[5]
World energy consumption
was growing about 2.3% per year.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPA-Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuels_by_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel_around_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_biofuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-nnfcc_adv-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-nnfcc_adv-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-nnfcc_adv-42http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issues_relating_to_biofuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_priceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_vs_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_reductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_emissionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_emissionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_biofuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Resource_Panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Non-Food_Crops_Centrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-nnfcc-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-nnfcc-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-nnfcc-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Crutzenhttp://www.concawe.be/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Science-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Science-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Science-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ES.26T-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ES.26T-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ES.26T-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Science2-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Science2-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Science2-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_decompositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_%28chemistry%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthracitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane_clathrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum#Biogenic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Agricolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Information_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste-to-energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste-to-energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Information_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Agricolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum#Biogenic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane_clathrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthracitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_%28chemistry%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_decompositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Science2-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-ES.26T-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-Science-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-47http://www.concawe.be/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Crutzenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-nnfcc-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Non-Food_Crops_Centrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Resource_Panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_biofuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_emissionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_emissionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_reductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_vs_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_priceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issues_relating_to_biofuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-nnfcc_adv-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_biofuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel_around_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuels_by_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biofuel&action=edit§ion=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPA-Ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel#cite_note-36
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8/13/2019 Carbon as Fuel
6/23
Fossil fuels arenon-renewable resources because they take
millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much
faster than new ones
are being made. The production and use of fossil fuels raise
environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation
ofrenewable
energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy
needs.
The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billiontonnes
(21.3gigatonnes)ofcarbon dioxide (CO2) per year, but it is
estimated that natural
processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is
a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon
dioxide per year (one
tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes
of carbon dioxide) .[6]
Carbon dioxide is one of thegreenhouse gases that
enhancesradiative forcing and contributes toglobal
warming,causing theaverage surface temperature of the Earth to rise
in response, whichthe
vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major
adverseeffects.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin 2 Importance
o 2.1 Reserves 3 Limits and alternatives 4 Environmental effects
5 See also 6 References 7 External links
[edit]Origin
Petroleum and natural gas are formed by theanaerobic
decomposition of remains of organisms includingphytoplankton
andzooplankton that
settled to the sea (or lake) bottom in large quantities
underanoxic conditions,millions of years ago. Overgeological
time,thisorganicmatter,
mixed withmud,got buried under heavy layers of sediment. The
resulting high levels ofheat andpressure caused the organic matter
to chemically
alter,first into a waxy material known askerogen which is found
inoil shales,and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous
hydrocarbons in a
process known ascatagenesis.
There is a wide range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in
any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives
a fuel its
characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point,
density, viscosity, etc. Some fuels like natural gas, for instance,
contain only very low
boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel
contain much higher boiling components.
Terrestrial plants,on the other hand, tend to formcoal and
methane. Many of the coal fields date to theCarboniferous period
ofEarth's history.
Terrestrial plants also formtype III kerogen, a source ofnatural
gas.
[edit]Importance
A petrochemical refinery inGrangemouth,Scotland,UK
See also:Fossil fuel power plant
Fossil fuels are of great importance because they can be burned
(oxidized tocarbon dioxide and water), producing significant
amounts of energy
per unit weight. The use ofcoal as a fuel predates recorded
history. Coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal
ore. Semi-solidhydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient
times,
[7]but these materials were mostly used for waterproofing
andembalming.
[8]
Commercial exploitation ofpetroleum, largely as a replacement
for oils from animal sources (notablywhale oil), for use in oil
lamps began in the
19th century.[9]
Natural gas,once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of
petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable
resource.[10]
Heavy crude oil,which is much more viscous than conventional
crude oil, and tar sands,wherebitumen is found mixed with sand and
clay, are
becoming more important as sources of fossil fuel.[11]
Oil shale and similar materials aresedimentary rocks
containingkerogen,a complex mixture
of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yieldsynthetic
crude oil when heated (pyrolyzed). These materials have yet to be
exploited
commercially.[12]
These fuels can be employed in internal combustion
engines,fossil fuel power stations and other uses.
Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills
andwatermills provided the energy needed for industry such as
millingflour, sawing wood orpumping water, and burning wood orpeat
provided domestic heat. The widescale use of fossil fuels, coal at
first and petroleum later, to firesteam
engines enabled theIndustrial Revolution.At the same time,gas
lights using natural gas orcoal gas were coming into wide use. The
invention of
theinternal combustion engine and its use inautomobiles
andtrucks greatly increased the demand forgasoline anddiesel
oil,both made from
fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation,railways
andaircraft,also required fossil fuels. The other major use for
fossil fuels is ingenerating
electricity and asfeedstock for thepetrochemical industry.Tar,a
leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in construction of
roads.
[edit]Reserves
An oil well in theGulf of Mexico
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-renewable_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigatonnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_recordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_opinion_on_climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_opinion_on_climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#Originhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#Importancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#Reserveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#Limits_and_alternativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#Environmental_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuel&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_decompositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_sea_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagenesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catagenesis_%28geology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerogen#Type_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuel&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grangemouthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_crude_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_sandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawmillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_lightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_power_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_power_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedstockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuel&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grangemouth04nov06.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gulf_Offshore_Platform.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grangemouth04nov06.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuel&action=edit§ion=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedstockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_power_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_power_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_lightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawmillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_sandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_crude_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embalminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grangemouthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuel&action=edit§ion=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerogen#Type_IIIhttp://en.wi
