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THE WORDS OFENGLISH
NUR INTAN ASMARA
1503337
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The meaning of lexical categories
Structural criteria
Major categories
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The meaning of lexical categories
We distingish eight categoriesfor !nglish"
-
#!R$S %inclding AU&I'IARI!S(- N)UNS %inclding *R)N)UNS(- A+,!-TI#!S- A+#!R$S- *R!*)SITI)NS-
+!T!RMIN!RS- -)N,UN-TI)NS- INT!R,!-TI)NS
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anounisthenameofaperson,
placeorthing;
averbisadoingword;
anadjectiveisadescribingword
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M. lo/e of lingistics I lo/e lingistics
Althogh not a erson
lace or thingsAlthogh not an action
N #
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The. glched and gttled2 Mehiticall. alliaceos
/entriotent fodoodles and gotch. slerdegllions she
mssitated2 She filated iddling moliminosl. at the
4e4ne and nsaoros grots tofore her2 ac6ins *aloscomessations 8ere an ehialtes for the deinetic2 It 8as a
nimin. glosit. she 8iste it t the. egat s8il6 an
increment in her recrement a cidit. that 8as inelctale9
it 8as the flrch of ost94entaclar flamoints and licioslo:ens2 Thil6e trogalions she .issed a/idlosl.2 She cold
t gorm esrientl. at the ashet2 She fimled her falala
aganacticiosl.2
12 What t.e of fodoodles are the.;
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Strctral criteria
>rammatical
eha/ior
Shae % i2e2 their morholog. (
*osition in the sentence % i2e2 their
s.ntax (
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MORPHOLOG!"L #$H"%O&R
'relating to the form of words(
Words of the same class 8ill t.icall. sho8 the samemorhological ossiilities in other 8ords the.?ll ta6e
the same sort of affixes
gulched) the *ed ending + /er' ending ses, )ed, )ing(
gulcher )adding )er + non
gotch. gotchier gotchiest) the *- ending the ier and est +
ad4ecti/es
gotchil.) the )l- ending + ad/er
gotchiness) the *ness ending + non
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S@NTA-TI- $!=A#I)UR % relating to
distrition(
Word s of the same class (like food, dinner, pastries, flampoint,
slubberdegullions and flurch) will fill the same basic slots in the
recurrent patterns of a language.
PHRASS
!roups of words which ha"e some sort of grammatical relationship with one
another.
HA#
$hese phrases are alwa%s named after the word which is the most important in the
string.
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*hrasal categories"
- noun phrases- verb phrases- adjective phrases- adverb phrases
Le/ical categories0
- noun phrases
1P- verb phrases
%P- adjective phrases
"P- adverb phrases
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MA,)R -AT!>)RI!S
!nglish 'exical -ategories fall into t8o main
gros"
Ma4or classes %lexical(
nons /ers ad4ecti/es and ad/ers
Minor categories %grammatical(
*reositions determiners and con4nction
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N)UN
) Refers to object 'both ph-sical objects and abstractions( and people
) 2ome properties which are associated with nouns are number, genderand case
) t is ver- common for language to distinguish noun b- number
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M)R*=)')>I-A' !ATUR!S
3he singular is unmar4ed 'i.e. coincides with the noun stem(
3he plural is e/pressed b- a suffi/ *'e(s. 'boo4)boo4s(
3here are some irregularities in number mar4ing 0) some nouns change their stem vowel 'man)men(- add the suffi/ *en ' o/) o/en(- one even does both 'brother) brethren(- identical singular and plural forms 'sheep, fish(
3he most fre5uent noun)forming suffi/es are0 the *
ness, )it-, )er, )ee, ation, )ment
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2ub)classes of nouns
!ommon nouns0- 3he most t-pical noun ' word, school, fascination, etc(- !an be subdivided into !ount and non count noun
Proper nouns0) 1ame of things li4e person, place and
organi6ations 'use capital letter(
!ollective nouns0
) #oth a plural ang singular form
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Pronoun
2everal different sub)classes of pronoun0
- Personal pronouns (I, you, them, him, etc. )
-
ndefinite pronoun (some-, any-, every- and no-withthing,-one andbody)
- Refle/ive pronoun (-self or *selves)
-
Reciprocal pronoun (each other and one another)- Possessive pronoun (my-mine, your-yours, his-his, etc.)
- 7emonstrative pronouns (this-these, that-those)
-nterrogative pronouns (who-subject case, whom-object
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#ers
'exical main /ers
Axiliar. /ers
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Ad&ecti"e
) Semantic 'eature
orphological 'eature S%ntactic *eha"iour
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Semantic 'eatures
Ad&ecti"e
+ualit%iceWise
Smart
StatesBigger
Thinner
Smarter
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orphological 'eatures
a.aturall% !radable Ad&ecti"es
NormalForm
ModificationForm
SuppletiveForm
Free- standingForm
Absolute 'unn% -ld *ad *eautiful
Comparative 'unnier lder -lder Worseore
beautiful
Superlative 'unniest ldest -ldest Worst ostbeautiful
Syllable -ne or two s%llable$wo or $hree
s%llable
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b. /nnaturall% gradable Ad&ecti"es do not takedegree of modification
Married, pregnant, dead..
8most pregnant9
8more dead9 deader9
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c. Some of the ad&ecti"es ha"e deri"ational endings
ounAd&ecti"e
0erbAd&ecti"e
9fl =oefl eatifl
)less Homeless
)- Hair -
)al Manual
9ale +oale
)ible Legible
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S%ntactic *eha"iour
Position
Attributively
$hebeautiful girl
1st 2nd
Predicatively
$he girl is beautiful
1st 2nd
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3ception4 Asleep, Awake, ain, /tter
Asleep
ot Attributi"e
5$he asleep bab%
$he bab% is asleep
A!a"e # The a!a"e baby
$he bab% is awake
Main
ot Predicati"e
5The point is main
$he main point
$tter5The chaos !as utter
$he utter chaos
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odifiers of Ad&ecti"e
6ntensifier ("er%, so, too) modif%4: !radable ad&ecti"e
7$oo good8: ongradable ad&ecti"e 70er% pregnant8: 9on"erted other categor% into ad&ecti"e 7So %esterda%8
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#ependent that follow ad&ecti"e complete themeaning of the ad&ecti"e
%So bad that it sucks you in&&'
Ad&ecti"e can follow the noun within the noun
%(ver done something stupidin the name of love)'
'ew ad&ecti"es alwa%s follow the noun
7money due'
%the information available8
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Ad"erb
Semantic 'eature orphological 'eature
S%ntactic *eha"iour
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Semantic 'eature
Ad"erbs e3press information like4time, manner, place, fre:uenc% etc.
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orphological 'eatures
*radable
6nflectional (er, est)
free standing form
+erivational
Ad&ecti"eAd"erb l%
Slowly, freshly
7soon, sooner, soonest8
7more:uickl%..8
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S%ntactic *eha"iour
Adding information to the verb
"er%one teases him cruell%and mercilessl%
$he% immediatel%hit him
T,M(
./
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(0press attitude
7/nfortunatel%, we could not come8
(mphatic7$hat;s entirel% the point8
Modify the meaning of ad1ective7otoriousl% famil% "alueobsessed8
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6ntensif% the interpretation odif% ad"erb
3ception4
Ad"erb with connecti"e role cannot takemodifiers at all
7at Stone, ho!ever, thinks
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!eneral $ests of determining categor%membership
Substitution $est
9oordination $est
orphological 9haracter
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$he resulting escapade was sill%
the resulting escapade was rubbish
9an the% take comparati"e and superlati"e
endings= (sillier4 %es, rubbisher4 no) 9an the% take intensifi%ing e3pression=
( 0er% sill%4 %es, "er% rubbish4 no)
9an the% coordinated with another ad&ecti"e=
$he resulting escapade was sill% and puerile>the resulting escapade was rubbish and puerile
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$he inor 9ategories
?ess meaning
ot easil% recepti"e to new member
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Semantic 'eature
Shows relationship between things and e"ent.
Put the apple on the table
to4 indicates abstract distance
$heir warped sense of humor to the attention
of4 relation between two noun, possession
$he% mimicked $err%;s st%leof animation
by4 has abstract role
$he Stan;s ga% dog is pla%ed b% no less a luminar% than R
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orphological 'eature
Simple
( to, of, with, b%
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S%ntactic *eha"iour
Preposition oun Phrase B Prepositional Phrase
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9on&unctions
9oordinators, link 4
noun noun, phrase phrase, clause clause
(but, and, or, either
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#eterminers
a, an, the
'unction within noun phrase
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Phrasal Categories and Their Structure
2 Complement
23Modifier
23Specifier
2'
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