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Running head: CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 1
Mitigating the Scarcity of Clean Water in Africa
Kaley Davidson
The University of North Alabama
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 2
Title Page………………………………………………………………………………1
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………...2
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………..4
Introduction and Statement of Problem……………………………………………..5
Justifications for the Study…………………………………………………………...5
Health Concerns………………………………………………………………..5
Societal Ramifications………………………………………………………....7
Lack of Awareness……………………………………………………………..8
Financial Concerns……………………………………………………………..9
Pairing of Education……………………………………………………………9
Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….10
Past Projects……………………………………………………………………10
Failure………………………………………………………………….10
Success…………………………………………………………………11
Different Approaches…………………………………………………………..12
Digging wells…………………………………………………………..12 Reverse Osmosis…………………………………………………….…12
Slow sand filtration………………………………………………….…13
Water stills………………………………………………………….…..14
Obstacles…………………………………………………………………….…15
Education………………………………………………………………15
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 3
Cultural Barriers……………………………………………...…………15
Volunteer Costs…………………………………………………….……16
Implementation Costs……………………………………………..……16
Awareness……………………………………………………………………….17
Fundraising……………………………………………………..….……17
Lack of Manpower………………………………………………………18
Application of the Literature to the Statement of Problem………………………….19
Cost Effective Method………………………………………………………..….19
Overcoming the Obstacles………………………………………………….……20
Proposed Solutions to the Problem……………………………………………………21
Awareness Plan…………………………………………………………………..21
Social Media……………………………………………………………..21
Visual Stimulation……………………………………………………….21
Fundraising Plan……………………………………………………….….…….22
Fast Food Proposal………………………………………………………22
American’s Benefit……………………………………………….……………..23
Corporation’s Benefit……………………………………………………23
Donator Incentives……………………………………………………….25
Education Plan…………………………………………………………….….…26
Volunteer Education……………………………………………………..26
Resident Education………………………………………………………26
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 4
Implementation of the Solutions…………………………………………………..….26
Evaluation and Follow-Up………………………………………………………..…..28
Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………….29
References………………………………………………………………….….….……31
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 4
Abstract
This Capstone Project will address the importance of water to the human body and the
devastating effects a lack of clean water can have on an individual’s health. The consequences
that unclean water can have on the surrounding society and economy will also be discussed. It
will identify the problems associated with current clean water projects, along with possible
solutions to mitigate the numerous issues.
Key Words: water, Africa, clean water, poverty, health, education, clean water projects, well
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 5
Introduction and Statement of Problem
Water is a basic human necessity. Our bodies are made up of approximately sixty percent
water. Depending on weight, gender, location, and other circumstances, humans need to consume
a varying amount to survive. The lack of water, or clean water, is a devastating issue in Africa.
Consuming contaminated water can lead to a number of different diseases, the most common
being diarrhoeal disease. The World Health Organization estimates “2.5 million deaths…from
diarrhoeal disease per year” (Cameron & World Health Organization, 2011, p. 84). Numerous
projects have been executed with the hope of alleviating the water stress. While the plans for
these projects are rooted in good intentions, they do not always provide as much relief as
intended or is needed. This Capstone Project will examine the issues that arise from the lack of
clean water access and the possible solutions to mitigate the deficiency of clean water in Africa.
Justifications for the Research
Health Concerns
The lack of clean water access in rural Africa negatively affects the health of the
continent’s residents. There is a scarcity of water in general, not just clean water. Not consuming
enough water is devastating to the human body. A person may be capable of surviving long
periods without food, but no longer than a few days without water. Many of our bodily functions
rely on the consumption of water. Water is a solvent in the body. A human’s blood is made up of
over eighty percent water. Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, and wastes through the body.
Urine consists of a majority of water. It flushes the body of toxins and if the body cannot produce
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 6
enough urine, its level of wastes build to dangerous levels (Popkin, D'Anci, & Rosenberg, 2010,
p. 448).
Another purpose of water in the body is protection. If a foreign object is in the eye, water
washes it out. Water allows the body to sweat when it becomes over heated. As sweat evaporates,
it maintains the body’s temperature at a safe level (Popkin, D'Anci, & Rosenberg, 2010, p. 443).
Water also ensures that our joints move efficiently by lubricating them. Water is necessary for the
body’s digestive system. As food moves through the large intestine, the colon soaks up water to
produce defecation. Without a proper amount of water, the body can become constipated. It is
also an electrolyte that is essential for conveying nerve impulses that cause the body’s muscles to
contract (Facts on File, Inc, 2007, p. 374).
Thirst occurs after the human body’s water level decreases just one percent. After five
percent, the body becomes fatigued. At ten percent a person’s vision becomes impaired. If the
body loses twenty percent of its needed water, death can occur ("Cruising Chemistry -
Importance of Water in Diet," n.d., para. 1). The necessity of water for the human body to
function is crucial.
Water is lost frequently through urinating, perspiring, vomiting, and diarrhea. When that
lost water is not replaced the body begins showing signs of dehydration. Dehydration is a
condition that can quickly become serious. Some of the symptoms are a decrease in urination, or
very dark colored urine, constipation, dry skin, irritability, confusion, lightheadedness, rapid
heartbeat, sunken eyes, shock, high blood pressure, unconsciousness or stroke. If dehydration is
not treated it can lead to seizures, permanent brain damage, or even death (Benelam, 2010,
p. 232).
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 7
Now that the requirement of water has been established, consuming unclean water needs
to be addressed. The World Health Organization states that “contaminated water and poor
sanitation are linked to transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A,
typhoid and polio” ("WHO | Water," 2014, para. 5). Diarrhea alone contributes to an estimated
840,000 deaths every year. Schistosomiasis is a disease that is caused from consuming food or
water containing parasitic worms. This disease affects approximately 200 million people ("WHO
| Water," 2014, para. 8)
There are several sources that contribute to the problem of water contamination. Some
sources of contamination occur naturally, others are from human or animal wastes, and many
sources stem from pollution produced by runoff from factories, farms, or landfills. Also, city
water pipes can become corroded which deposits metal into the water passing through
("Drinking Water Contaminants | Drinking Water Contaminants | US EPA," n.d.). All of these
contaminants are dangerous to a consumer and may result in one of the diseases listed earlier.
Societal Ramifications
Not consuming enough water or ingesting contaminated water is detrimental to a person’s
health. The poor health of many of Africa’s inhabitants prevents them from productively
functioning in society. According to Arvai and Post, “the lack of readily available clean water
also comes at a significant cost to the fledging economies and social structures of developing
countries. These costs have been linked mainly to the incidence of water-related illnesses, as sick
people cannot contribute effectively to economic and social growth, and the large amounts of
time that people spend looking for and hauling clean water over long distances” (Arvai & Post,
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 8
2012, p. 68). Besides the effects on adults, children miss school because of water related illnesses
and they are the most susceptible to death from diarrhea.
Poor health, caused by the lack of water or clean water, affects more than simply the
individual. When an individual is sick, they are unable to help support their family. The family
must in turn care for their sick family member. Not only is the individual’s participation in
societal and economic growth affected, but also that of the immediate family. That might not be
an issue on a small scale, but when a large number of individuals are affected, the surrounding
society suffers. Time is lost traveling in search of consumable water and when the water is
contaminated and people become ill, a greater amount of time is lost. “In sum, water-associated
diseases affect poor people in developing countries in a disproportionate way with extreme
poverty linked to ill-health, and ill-health leading to further impoverishment” (Arvai & Post,
2012, p. 68).
Lack of Awareness
Citizens of developed countries take their water availability for granted. More water is
used during a five minute shower than most people in Africa use in an entire day ("Water Facts:
Water," n.d.). Many do not realize how important water is for the human body or how many
people suffer from clean water scarcity. The relatively low awareness and concern about this
vital issue means there is not enough being done to alleviate the problem. Awareness produces
financing and manpower. Little can be accomplished without these two main ingredients. With
the combined knowledge of water’s importance and of its scarcity, this issue should jump to the
top of activists’ priority lists. Awareness leads to action and with a combined effort from people
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 9
in already developed countries, the dream of providing clean water to rural Africa could become
a reality. Mitigating the issue of clean water shortage could also positively affect other issues,
like poverty.
Financial Concerns
Continuing with the importance of awareness, clean water projects are costly. Digging
wells, building treatment facilities, running pipes, educating residents along with all of the other
facets of clean water projects require financial support. Water wells for Africa (WWFA) is a
nonprofit organization that has been working to provide clean water wells in Africa for over
seventeen years. It is hard to estimate the cost of a well because they vary depending on many
factors like the necessary depth of the well, village population, and the availability of skilled
workers. Water Wells for Africa estimates the median cost of a well at $7,000 ("Water Wells For
Africa," n.d.). That amount of money is astronomical to people who are already living in poverty,
but if people from already developed countries decided to participate in clean water philanthropy,
a great deal could be accomplished. Many of the water sources, wells and treatment facilities, are
not maintained properly due to a lack of continued funding. Providing a water source without
continued support is pointless in the long run. It ends up being a short term fix for an ongoing
problem and the initial cost is wasted.
Pairing of Education
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 10
Many clean water projects fail because implementing a water source is not always
coupled with providing education to the surrounding inhabitants. The water sources have to be
maintained by the locals, but without the education needed to properly sustain them, the effort is
moot. Also, many African citizens do not understand the risk of consuming contaminated water.
While boiling water before consuming it does not eliminate all hazards, it does reduce the risk.
Arvai and Post discussed how many Africans complained about the taste of boiled water and
opted out of boiling it (Arvai & Post, 2012, p. 74). This is an education issue. A greater number
of people would boil their water if they knew of the health risks associated with consuming it
otherwise.
Literature Review
Past Projects
Failure. While there have been many clean water projects implemented, not all have been
successful. When these well-meant projects fail, financial loss is a concern as well as the
disheartening effect it can have on the residents. Starkl, Brunner, and Stenstrom cite three major
factors that cause clean water initiatives to fail, a lack of infrastructure, an issue of improved
infrastructure that does not provide enough clean water, and the development of new
technologies without considering the potential for new obstacles (Starkl, Brunner, Stenstrom,
2013, p. 6102). They list a lack of infrastructure because over a billion people live without access
to an enhanced water supply and 2.6 billion people do not have access to better sanitation. The
main problems with improved infrastructure that does not sufficiently provide for residents are
its operation and maintenance needs. Improved systems still allow for “hidden failures.” These
types of failures occur when residents receive unsafe water because the sanitation treatment
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 11
process becomes insufficient, but the problem is undetected (Starkl, Brunner, Stenstrom, 2013, p.
6104). If the water source is not properly maintained many things can occur such as, corroded
pipes or leakage of wastewater into the clean water source. Traditional methods for obtaining
water (example: collecting rainwater) are being replaced with alternative systems. These
alternative “green technologies” were implemented because they were believed to be sustainable.
The issue with these systems is that economic, social, and institutional aspects were not taken
into account, which increased their risk of failure (Starkl, Brunner, Stenstrom, 2013, p. 6102).
Huby and Stevenson attribute failures of technology to financial constraints, lack of
community participation, neglect of female views, and past failures. Inappropriate technology is
caused by an oversight of social aspects. A certain technology may work for one community, but
may not produce an adequate amount of water for another. Many projects have failed because of
a withdrawal of donor funding. It is not enough to fund the implementation of a clean water
source without securing its longevity (Huby, Stevenson, 2003, p. 197). The lack of community
participation is due to a lack of education on the system and the risks involved with consuming
contaminated water. While water is vital, its cleanliness does not always rank high on rural
inhabitants’ priority lists. To ensure success, implementers must take responsibility for educating
the local residents. Women are the primary water gatherers in rural Africa, but their views do not
take precedence. The need for water in a close proximity is not a main concern of the community
because it appears to benefit only women, which is of little concern. Therefore, community
participation is low. In addition, when past clean water projects have failed the community is
hesitant towards future initiatives (Huby, Stevenson, 2003, p. 198).
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 12
Success. Acknowledging the issues that have arisen from past projects is the key to successful
projects in the future. A clean water project cannot be treated as a one-dimensional problem. It is
crucially important to consider economic, social, and institutional aspects, as well as financial,
educational, and environmental. In the projects that have succeeded, “policy design, planning,
implementation, and monitoring” (Starkl, Brunner, Stenstrom, 2013, p. 6109) were wholly
regarded.
Different Approaches
There are numerous approaches to providing clean water. They vary in cost, amount of
production, and by location. The systems that are used most frequently are water wells, reverse
osmosis, sand filtration, and water stills. Water wells are built with the sole purpose of providing
ground water, which may not be acceptable in all geographical locations. Reverse osmosis is an
exceptional choice for desalinating water, but requires large amounts of energy and may not be a
viable option in locations where energy is expensive. Water stills are run off of solar energy, but
only produce small amounts of clean water. Sand filtration is used mostly in highly developed
countries because it requires mechanical skills to operate and maintain. There are benefits and
detriments to each water treatment choice.
Digging Wells. Water wells are only efficient if the condition of the source’s water is taken into
account. In different areas, there are various environmental contaminants. The water must be
tested to identify which water treatment is needed to produce safe water (Foster, 2013, para. 2).
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 13
The drilling of wells is also an issue. The drilling plan frequently depends on an area’s geological
arrangement. In some areas, there may be no ground water to access. Drilling a full size well
initially would be a costly mistake. Small boreholes are usually made to identify where ground
water is available before widening the diameter. The fact that groundwater is not available in all
areas prevents wells from always being a viable option (Foster, 2013, para. 7).
Reverse Osmosis. Osmosis is a natural occurrence in which water moves from an area of high
water-low salt concentration to an area of low water-high salt concentration. An outside pressure
can be applied to reverse water’s natural flow, which is known as reverse osmosis (Stover, 2014,
p. 39). Reverse osmosis is a membrane procedure in which the smallest contaminants can be
discarded (Macedonio et al., 2012, p. 5). These systems consume a high amount of energy that,
depending on energy costs in the area of interest, could make this process unfeasible. Although,
in an area that has low energy costs, this is a reliable and established method for providing clean
water (Stover, 2014, p. 44). Reverse osmosis also requires manufactured equipment and
specialized labor. These are important factors to consider if the project’s ownership is planned to
be given to the local community (Hokanson et al., 2007, p. 5). Education and extended financial
help may be necessary.
Slow sand filtration. Sand filters are significant in water treatment because they eliminate
remaining solids after flocculation and sedimentation in order to produce low-turbidity waste
(Adelman et al., 2012, p. 999). Flocculation is a process in which insoluble particles, floating all
through the water, are being treated and the particles are pulled out of suspension to form flakes.
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 14
Sedimentation is a process in which the water and flakes of particles are sent through a filter of
coarse sand or other granular media. The flakes, formed from flocculation, are caught in the filter
and only the water flows through. Traditional sand filtration technologies have only been
practical in developed countries because of their mechanical sophistication. “Large-scale water
treatment processes have generally been developed for application in a ‘First World’ milieu
where electric grids are reliable, technical expertise is available to support operation and
maintenance, supply chains exist for replacement of machined parts, and communities have
sufficient economic resources to afford sophisticated treatment systems” (Adelman et al., 2012,
p. 999). However, a new technology called stacked rapid sand filtration has been developed and
it is believed to be a more sustainable procedure. Backwashing is a preservation measure that
allows the filter to be used again. The term refers to the pumping of water backwards through the
filter. Backwashing, in traditional sand filtration, requires costly methods such as “electric
pumps, elevated storage tanks, or large banks of parallel filters” (Adelman et al., 2012, p. 1007).
A stacked rapid sand filter is self-backwashing and it does not entail any electrical equipment.
This technology has only been tested in a laboratory setting and on a small scale. It sounds
promising, but is only in the beginning stages of research.
Water stills. Solar water stills are popular for their low energy cost and sustainability, but their
production rate is much lower than other desalination technologies. The current research in this
area is concerned with creating higher production rates while keeping costs low. One study found
that by adding a hollow slow rotating cylinder inside the still, raised the rate of production by at
least 200% (Ayoub & Malaeb, 2011, p. 27). In the simplest form, a solar still consists of a clear
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 15
roofed basin in which the water to be evaporated is contained. The sun heats the water; it
evaporates and then condenses when it hits the cover, which is cooler. When it condenses, it
drips down into a channel. Many modifications to produce a higher productivity have been
introduced, but many have added an undesirable cost. The proposed cylinder addition is a cost
effective method that increases the output by a substantial amount. The rotating shaft inside the
solar still constantly breaks the water surface and it increases the area of evaporation (Ayoub &
Malaeb, 2011, p. 28). The low cost and higher output of this solar water still could be an
attractive method for rural areas.
Obstacles
There are many other obstacles, besides cost and production rate, that must be taken into
account when implementing a clean water initiative. Educating the local residents on the
importance of clean water for their health and the maintenance involved in caring for their water
source are key issues to consider in order to produce a successful project. Educating the workers
and volunteers on whatever cultural barriers they may face in a specific area is an issue that has
been overlooked in the past. The women are the main gatherers of water; therefore, the men give
little priority to obtaining a close proximity water source. This is an example of an issue that
workers and volunteers need to be aware of in order to be prepared for how to handle certain
situations that they may encounter. Education is a major obstacle that if taken into account, could
lower the risk of project failure.
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 16
Education. As mentioned earlier, many clean water initiatives fail because education is not
coupled with the physical implementation. Regardless of what kind of technology is being
introduced, it will be manufactured. Man made products need regular operation and
maintenance. It is not enough to provide production of clean water without teaching the
surrounding community how to run and take care of the equipment. Many wells, and other water
projects, sit unused because they were not properly maintained and are no longer suitable to
utilize (Huby & Stevenson, 2003, p. 197). These failures result in a loss of water, money, and
create a negative perspective towards future projects.
Cultural Barriers. Coupling education with the physical and financial aspects of implementing
clean water plans is important for many reasons. Volunteers from developed countries are aware
of the significance of providing clean water to developing countries, but they may not have been
educated on the cultural barriers they may face when attempting to conduct the projects. Many
Africans do not understand the danger of consuming contaminated water, therefore, they may not
see clean water initiatives as high priority issues (Arku, 2010, p. 238). In addition, men are
affected very little by the long travel times associated with collecting water. Some women spend
more than six hours daily on travel and collection of water for their household (Lohan, 2010,
p. 57). Women do not have much of a voice in many rural African communities and because of
this factor, a close proximity water source is of little concern to the men (Huby & Stevenson,
2003, p. 197). These are just a few examples of cultural differences that workers and volunteers
must be made aware of before becoming involved in an international development project.
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 17
Volunteer Costs. Financial concerns are also issues that need to be considered. The costs on the
volunteers and implementation costs are surface concerns that require fundraising. Volunteers
must take off work and pay their own travel costs. This is acceptable, but does reduce the
potential pool of people that would otherwise be willing to provide labor and their expertise. If
there was a higher level of awareness and fundraising, there may be a possibility to lower these
expenses. With lower travel expenses, more volunteers may be enthusiastic for the cause and be
willing to sacrifice their time to assist.
Implementation Costs. In addition, clean water technologies are expensive. With a water well’s
implementation cost being approximately $7,000, that would be 350 donations of $20. That does
not seem to be a difficult feat, but that is only one well and there are hundreds needed across the
world. Many teams have raised just enough money to build the source, but not enough to sustain
it for any length of time after implementation. Without additional funds to maintain the source,
villagers will be no better off than they were before. Many of the villages where a clean water
source is needed do not have the luxury of donating even a small amount of money to the
source’s maintenance. These rural communities need further assistance with setting up their own
fundraising efforts and policies (Huby & Stevenson, 2003, p. 197).
Awareness
Fundraising. Fundraising campaigns raise awareness and financial support. Studies have shown
that Americans contribute more than $240 billion to nonprofit organizations annually, but they
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 18
are selective of which organizations they support (Waters & Tindall, 2011, p. 21). Different
theories exist on the most productive fundraising strategies. One theory suggests that people are
more likely to donate to community organizations so they can see the results of their donations.
Another theory proposes that this connection may be recreated by providing donors with visuals
and success stories (Waters & Tindall, 2011, p. 21-22). The press agentry theory is driven by
emotional appeals to the public and is believed to be the least ethical technique. Public
information fundraising is based on providing the public with factual information and trusting
them to make the right decision. This is considered the most ethical method of advertising, but
does not always generate the best results. The two-way asymmetrical method of fundraising
studies the interests and preferences of their donors in order to appeal to the partiality of future
donors. The two-way symmetrical approach searches for mutual ground between the donor and
the organization about their expectations. Most nonprofit organizations utilize a combination of
all of the theories listed (Waters & Tindall, 2011, p. 23).
Waters and Tindell (2011) conducted a study on the correlation between media coverage
and the fundraising efforts centered around the 2004 Asian tsunami. While the world’s water
crisis is not a natural disaster, it could be considered equally important. The study found that
American citizens were more likely to donate financially when they had been exposed to mass
media news coverage of the crisis. It was also discovered that the use of online media produced
positive results. Using public media outlets produces awareness, which in turn provides financial
backing (Waters & Tindall, 2011, p. 36).
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 19
Lack of Manpower. Awareness is vitally important for the success of clean water initiatives for
more than one reason. It not only raises funds for the projects, but it also has the potential to
provide more workers. Financial support is imperative, but there is a need for skilled volunteers
as well. There must be an array of skills represented among these volunteers. As this paper has
shown, a clean water team should be a group containing mechanical, cultural, and educational
specialists, as well as marketing and public relations specialists for fundraising. Every aspect that
could affect the successfulness of a clean water initiative must be considered.
The problems with past clean water projects that have caused their failures have been
identified. Obstacles that could develop an issue have been presented. Different available
technologies have been discussed. Diverse awareness and fundraising theories have been
acknowledged. With water being of an utmost importance for the human body, and Africa’s
water crisis being at such a devastating level, it is imperative that all different avenues be
considered and deliberated.
Application of the Literature to the Statement of Problem
Cost Effective Method
Many of the villages that are in need of sanitation treatments for water are located along
African rivers. The river water is unsanitary due to things like continual bathing, litter, and
animal wastes. Villages that are located near a river are prime sites for the implementation of a
water well. Water wells are not an available option if there is no ground water to access, but they
are the most prevalent and cost efficient clean water initiatives that are currently implemented. In
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 20
order to develop a cost effective method, this paper will narrow its’ focus from Africa to villages
that possess groundwater to access.
According to Water Wells for Africa, the estimated cost of a water well implementation is
around $7,000. The process of implementing a water well begins by locating an appropriate
location that is in close proximity to the village. “Each well is drilled to an average of 15 Meters
below the aquifer level. After a sufficient depth has been reached a 4-inch diameter polyvinyl
chloride casing is installed to protect the well from collapse and debris. Once the rest of the
system is in place, a temporary pump is placed over the well to monitor the water quality and
output. If after one week it meets regulation, it will then be finished at the surface with a stainless
steel positive displacement hand pump and mounted on a concrete slab” ("How To Build A Well :
Water Wells For Africa," para. 3). This approach appears to address issues concerning future
contaminations. Water Wells for Africa also cites that for every dollar invested in their clean
water initiatives, there is a nine dollar return in the community. Providing clean water in a close
proximity allows the inhabitants more time for other productive activities and prevents them
from becoming incapacitated due to waterborne illnesses.
Overcoming the Obstacles
A lack of pairing education with the implementation of a clean water source is a major
problem that causes many initiatives to fail. The residents in the surrounding area of the water
source need to be trained and educated in the maintenance and operation of whichever source has
been implemented. The villagers must be taught how to troubleshoot a problem and how to
address it. Another issue that must be taken into account is the accessibility and affordability of
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 21
replacement parts. The Afridev Hand Pump is the pump of choice for Water Wells for Africa.
Their website boasts, “It has a life of 20 years and all replacement parts are easily found in rural
areas at affordable costs” ("How To Build A Well: Water Wells For Africa," para. 4). Afridev’s
website states that the hand pump’s parts are non-corrosive, which contributes to its’ longevity. It
also informs the reader that the installation and maintenance is easy even at a village level of
education ("Afridev Deepwell Hand Pumps Exporters India | Afridev Deepwell Hand Pumps
Manufacturers India | Afridev Hand Pump Producers | Afridev Hand Pump Traders | India," para.
1).
These are all important issues to consider when choosing which products to implement. A
product that is easily maintained and has parts that are available within a close proximity at an
inexpensive cost would be a better choice than a product that is complicated and expensive. In
order to pair education with the implementation, a simple and reliable product would be ideal.
The leaders in the community, the ones who will be in charge of the water source, should be
involved in all aspects of the installation process. They should also be taught how to identify a
problem and address it. Even with a life of twenty years, manufactured products are not
infallible.
Educating the inhabitants is not the only education need. The workers and volunteers
should be made fully aware of the cultural barriers that they may face. Women are not perceived
as equals as they are in the United States. Female volunteers may not feel as respected as their
male counterparts. The inhabitants may not understand the importance of clean water to their
health. If water’s importance is not held in high regard, volunteers may experience a disinterest
in the implementation and maintenance process. There will most likely be a language barrier. A
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 22
contact that is fluent in the native language and English would be a vital requirement. The
volunteers need to be educated on the culture that they will experience and be taught how to
respectfully handle potential circumstances.
Proposed Solutions to the Problem
Awareness Plan
Social Media. With the utilization of social media, clean water awareness could be spread
quickly and almost effortlessly. “In recent years, social media has emerged as a popular medium
for providing new sources of information and rapid communications” (Yin, Lambert, Cameron,
Robinson, & Power, 2012, p. 52). A news story about the lack of clean water and its’ implications
or a link to a donation site could be shared with thousands with one click of a computer mouse.
With the emergence of social media sites, awareness movements have taken a completely new
meaning. Social media has improved the power of person-to-person discussion concerning
various issues by enabling each social media user to communicate with hundreds of other users
simultaneously and with little effort (Mangold & Faulds, 2009, p. 361).
Most Americans like to feel as if they are helping to make the world a better place, but
normally with as little effort as possible. Internet has made donating and raising awareness
simpler than it was just a decade ago. If a social media user shares a story with their 300 friends
and five of those friends share the story, and so on, the story has reached far more people than
would be possible without the use of social media networking. Utilizing social media platforms
provide instantaneous and widespread results. An idea can travel from New York to California in
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 23
seconds. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Vine, and many more social media sites provide an
invaluable avenue for raising awareness for clean water initiatives.
Visual Stimulation. Studies have shown that donators are more willing to contribute financially
when they are able to see the results of their involvement (Waters & Tindall, 2011, p. 21). This
means that pictures and videos should be utilized frequently. The organization could possibly
develop a live blog that contributors could visit in order to follow the project’s progress if they
chose to. The blog could be updated regularly with visuals, photographs and videos. It could also
provide a discussion forum for donators to ask questions and converse with one another about
the issues that their funds are assisting to alleviate.
Fundraising Plan
Awareness and fundraising are two separate entities, but they technically serve the same
purpose. With a greater amount of awareness of the devastating effects of consuming
contaminated water and the vast amount of people that suffer from a lack of acceptably clean
water, the greater amount of people will be attracted to supporting the cause financially.
Fundraising is a vital issue for clean water initiatives. Nothing can be accomplished without
financial backing to purchase the materials, fund the labor, provide travel expenses for the
volunteers, and to grant education to the surrounding inhabitants. A fundraising plan needs to be
developed that reaches a large number of the world’s population and provides potential donators
an easy way to contribute. The less effort for the donator, the more willing people will be to give.
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 24
As the United States is one of the wealthiest nations, that is where this paper will focus its’
fundraising effort.
Fast Food Proposal. Fast food restaurants are establishments that the majority of Americans visit
on a regular basis. In this country, citizens are accustomed to instant gratification. Fast food
restaurants provide easy, cheap, and fast services for their customers that fit conveniently into
hectic lifestyles. Most of the chain restaurants have meal options that include a side, usually
French fries, and a soft drink. If one, or more, of the fast food chain restaurants in the United
States allowed for an option for their customers to choose water instead of a soft drink and the
money were then donated to clean water initiatives, fundraising may skyrocket. Soft drinks
usually range between one and two dollars at these restaurants. Many customers may choose a
soft drink simply on the knowledge that they are paying for it regardless. If they were given the
option to choose water and the money that would have gone towards a soft drink was donated to
clean water projects that would provide an easy way for American citizens to contribute. A small
amount of money per customer would surely add up to a significant amount if a large quantity of
consumers chose the charitable option.
American’s Benefit. Weight management is an issue for many Americans. Fast food is rarely a
healthy choice, but its convenience may outweigh the effort required for healthier options. Soft
drinks are only an addition to the unwholesome choices that fast food restaurants have to offer.
“In the United States, consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, particularly soft drinks, has
been associated with rising obesity and diabetes. Sugar sweetened beverages contain large
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 25
amounts of refined sugars, conferring a high glycemic load while having poor satiating
properties, which is believed to contribute to excessive weight gain, the metabolic syndrome, and
insulin resistance” (Basu, McKee, Galea, & Stuckler, 2013, p. 2071). Choosing water instead of
a soft drink would not only be beneficial for clean water charities, but also for the health of
Americans.
Corporation’s Benefit. This type of corporate philanthropy is called “cause-related marketing.”
The company agrees to donate if the customer makes the exchange of a soft drink for water
(Dean, 2004, p. 91). In this case, the money being donated is actually that of the customer, since
fast food restaurants rarely charge for water. The restaurant that chose to participate in the
charitable act of clean water funding would receive great publicity with virtually no cost to them.
The company may experience a small loss from their soft drink mark up, but a larger consumer
market and a charitable tax deduction could possibly counteract that. “As a general rule,
individuals and corporations are allowed to deduct the fair market value of contributions to
qualified charitable organizations” from their taxes (Connolly, 2013, p. 5).
Customers may choose a restaurant that participates in charity over one that does not. As
stated earlier, many American citizens are attracted to the idea of charity, but most would prefer a
trouble-free way to participate. Many citizens may even go out of their way to support businesses
that contribute to charities and causes that the customer personally believes in. Studies have
shown that the American public favors companies that display social responsibility, “obeying the
laws and ethical norms, treating employees fairly, protecting the environment, and contributing
to charities” (Dean, 2004, p. 92).
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 26
The option of choosing water would still leave the consumer with a choice of whether to
donate or not. They would be able to receive a soft drink without any repercussions or negativity
if that is what they chose. It would simply be an option, but many American citizens would most
likely donate even if they preferred to drink a soft drink. Dean (2004) cites an example of cause-
related marketing and the generosity of the American public. “In 1983, American Express
launched a campaign to raise money to renovate the Statue of Liberty. The firm promised to
donate a penny to the renovation for each use of its credit card and a dollar for each new card
issued in the United States” (Dean, 2004, p. 92). Dean compared the usage of American Express
credit cards and the amount of new cards opened with the previous year. He found that there was
a 28% increase in card usage and a considerable rise in new cards that were opened (Dean, 2004,
p. 92). This is an example of how a company can gain and be charitable simultaneously, due to
the generosity of the American public.
In 2003, there was $240.72 billion donated to charitable organizations from Americans.
One might find it surprising that only 5.6% of that amount was contributed by corporate
philanthropy (Santelmann, 2004, para. 5). Successful corporations account for a large amount of
the American economy and can benefit in many ways from maximizing their involvement with
charity organizations. Corporate philanthropy provides many benefits other than financial profit,
such as establishment of goodwill with the public, differentiation of the corporation from its
competitors, superior customer approval of price increases, amplified employee morale,
attraction of new employees, use as a defense against criticism in period of crisis, and improved
profits (Dean, 2004, p. 92).
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 27
Donator Incentives. Mangold and Faulds (2009) cited many companies that employ a rewards,
contest, or voting programs. These marketing strategies work to engage customers and give them
a sense of ownership (Mangold & Faulds, 2009, p. 362). There could possibly be a plan
developed where for every donation, the person is entered into a contest to become a volunteer
on one the clean water projects with no out of pocket cost to them or they could choose some
other prize if they did not have an interest in the hands on aspect of volunteering. They could
possibly win a trip to the village that is benefitting from the clean water source that their
contribution helped implement and be able to meet the people that are profiting from their
generosity. The more people that are aware of the water crisis, the greater number of people will
become emotionally tied to the cause of alleviating water scarcity, which will lead to greater
number of volunteers and financial support.
Education Plan
Volunteer Education. The lack of education is one of the main reasons that clean water projects
fail. Initially, there should be an education course for volunteers. Immersion into a different
culture without any preparation would be at the very least shocking, if not disastrous. Many
things that are acceptable in American culture may be offensive in other cultures. Variations
between the volunteer’s native culture and the culture of the local inhabitants where the
volunteer will be stationed is vital for the necessary functioning of the clean water project.
Resident Education. Education also needs to be incorporated into the implementation aspect. The
area’s inhabitants that will be responsible for the clean water source, possibly a committee of
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 28
local leaders, should be involved in the implementation of the source. They should be shown
step-by-step how to assemble, disassemble, and then reassemble the mechanism. There should be
an education course for these individuals after the source has been finished. This course should
instruct the committee how to identify a potential issue and address it properly.
Implementation of the Solutions
The utilization of social media to raise awareness for the importance of clean water will
reach a large amount of individuals. The number of people that will become aware of the water
crisis will grow with every person that shares a link. The more people that see the story, the more
supporters clean water projects will have. The more supporters that the issue has, the more
volunteers and funds the initiatives will possess. Social media can be an invaluable tool to spread
awareness for clean water initiatives. If a popular fast food restaurant, or multiple restaurants,
decided to allow their customers the choice to drink water and be charitable, the funds raised for
clean water projects would be vastly greater than they are presently. Many American citizens
would benefit from the healthier beverage choice, as well as the benefit for rural inhabitants
desperately in need of clean water. At this point, awareness and financial support has been raised.
Volunteers that chose to participate in the implementation of the clean water source
would spend the week prior to their departure learning about the specific culture that they would
soon be experiencing. They would be taught what and what not to do and say. Volunteers would
participate in staged situations that could potentially arise. They would be taught how to handle
the situations, which will better equip them to handle whatever issues they may encounter during
their mission. Upon arrival, the volunteers will meet with the native leadership committee that
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 29
will be in charge of the water source after the implementation team has departed. They will
spend a few days becoming acquainted with the committee members, addressing their concerns,
and educating them about the different aspects of the clean water source, including
implementation, maintenance, fundraising, troubleshooting, and locating necessary replacement
parts.
The native committee will be present during the entire implementation process. They will
be shown what each piece is and does. It will be explained to them what to expect if a certain
piece needs to be replaced, where to find a replacement piece, and how to install the piece once
they have possession of it. They will be included and involved in every aspect of the project from
start to finish. They need to be knowledgeable about every facet involved in the maintenance of
the clean water source. The volunteers will also spend time with the other villagers, educating
them on the importance and necessity of consuming clean water as opposed to contaminated
water.
Evaluation and Follow-Up
A few of the volunteer team members will return to the area one year after the water
source has been implemented. They will analyze the cleanliness of the water source to determine
if the source has been compromised in anyway. They will also assess the general attitude of the
surrounding inhabitants and help address any issues that the leadership committee has
encountered. This will assist future projects in identifying issues and help to prevent problems
before they occur. The ultimate goal is to provide a clean water source, assist in its’ maintenance
for a short period, but with the hope that the leadership committee will eventually be able to
sustain the source on their own. Optimistically, the leadership committee and the surrounding
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 30
residents will be able to sustain the water source on their own after the volunteer team departs
from their second visit.
This second visit is important to ensure that the clean water system is working properly
and that the residents are not receiving contaminated water. It is also imperative to make certain
that the source can be sustained locally. In order to execute as many clean water projects as are
currently necessary, each project will only be able to be supported externally for a short period of
time, preferably for no longer than one year after implementation. The expectation of the
volunteer’s second visit would be that the source is still functioning properly, it is producing
clean water, and the leadership committee has developed a successful plan of funding the
source’s maintenance.
This is the perfect opportunity to develop a fundraising contest for donators. The second
visit does involve some technical issues, but the project has already been completed. The contest
winner would be able to meet the people that are benefiting from the clean water supply. They
could possibly hear stories from the residents about how the project has affected their lives and
what their lives were like before. This experience may even convince the contest winner to
become an occasional volunteer for future clean water initiatives. In addition, the winner of the
contest could become a marketing tool for further fundraising and awareness efforts.
Conclusions
Following the assumption that awareness is raised through social media and the fast food
fundraising proposal is accepted and effective, a greater number of clean water projects will be
able to be implemented and the number of enthusiastic volunteers will rise. Both of these
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 31
accomplishments are vital to mitigating the scarcity of clean water in Africa. Nothing can be
accomplished without financial backing and a workforce, which is why awareness and
fundraising is so imperative. The more clean water sources that are implemented, the greater
number of people will experience the health and societal benefits that accompany the presence of
clean water. Providing clean water is the first step to alleviating the world’s poverty level. Since
water is necessary for life, it should be considered a basic human right. People who are blessed
with an abundance should find it their duty to assist in providing a basic human right to those in
need.
With the implementation of a successful clean water source and educating the leadership
committee on its sustainability requirements, the residents that surround the source should
experience a decline in ill health. The presence of clean water provides a higher level of hygiene
and lowers the risk of disease. This will lead to a greater amount of available time to be spent on
productive activities, as opposed to days spent in the hospital or sick at home. If more time is
available for productive activities, there should also be a rise in economic and social
development. With an incline in economic progress, a decrease in the poverty level should
follow. Providing clean water is the first step in lessoning the burden of poverty. Without sanitary
water to drink, bathe with, or cook with, poverty will remain prevalent in African society.
CLEAN WATER IN AFRICA � 32
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