Oryxhttp://journals.cambridge.org/ORXAdditionalservicesforOryx:Emailalerts:ClickhereSubscriptions:ClickhereCommercialreprints:ClickhereTermsofuse:ClickhereAvoidingconictsandprotectingcoralreefs:customarymanagementbenetsmarinehabitatsandshbiomassStuartJ.Campbell,JoshuaE.Cinner,RizyaL.Ardiwijaya,ShintaPardede,TasrifKartawijaya,AhmadMukmunin,YudiHerdiana,AndrewS.Hoey,MorganS.PratchettandAndrewH.BairdOryx/Volume46/Issue04/October2012,pp486494DOI:10.1017/S0030605312000348,Publishedonline:Linktothisarticle:http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0030605312000348Howtocitethisarticle:StuartJ.Campbell,JoshuaE.Cinner,RizyaL.Ardiwijaya,ShintaPardede,TasrifKartawijaya,AhmadMukmunin,YudiHerdiana,AndrewS.Hoey,MorganS.PratchettandAndrewH.Baird(2012).Avoidingconictsandprotectingcoralreefs:customarymanagementbenetsmarinehabitatsandshbiomass.Oryx,46,pp486494doi:10.1017/S0030605312000348RequestPermissions:ClickhereDownloadedfromhttp://journals.cambridge.org/ORX,IPaddress:110.137.57.165on05Oct2012http://journals.cambridge.org
Downloaded: 05 Oct 2012 IP address: 110.137.57.165Avoiding
conflicts and protecting coral reefs:customary management benefits
marine habitatsand fish biomassS T U A R TJ . CA M P B E L L , J O
S H U AE . CI N N E R , RI Z Y AL . AR D I W I J A Y A , S H I N T
AP A R D E D ETA S R I F KA R T A W I J A Y A , AH M A DMU K M U N
I N , YU D I HE R D I A N A , AN D R E WS . HO E YMO R G A NS . P R
A T C H E T Tand AN D R E WH. BA I R DAbstract One of the major
goals of coral reef conservationis to determine the most eective
means of managingmarine resources inregions where economic
conditionsoften limit the options available. For example,
no-takeshing areas can be impractical in regions where people
relyheavily on reefsh for food. In this study we test whethercoral
reef health diered among areas with
varyingmanagementpracticesandsocio-economicconditionsonPulau Weh in
the Indonesian province of Aceh. Our resultsshow that gear
restrictions, in particular prohibiting the useof nets, were
successful in minimizing habitat degradationand maintainingsh
biomass despite ongoing access to theshery. Reefsh biomass and
hard-coral cover were two- toeight-fold higher at sites where shing
nets were prohibited.The guiding principle of the local customary
managementsystem, Panglima Laot, is to reduce conict amongcommunity
members over access to marine resources.Consequently,
conservationbenets inAcehhavearisenfrom a customary system that
lacks a specic environmentalethic or the means for strong
resource-based management.Panglima Laot includes many of the
features of successfulinstitutions, such as clearly dened
membership rights andthe opportunity for resource users to be
involved in making,enforcing andchanging the rules. Suchmechanisms
toreduce conict are the key to the success of marine
resourcemanagement, particularly in settings that lack resources
forenforcement.Keywords Aceh, coral reefs, sheries, gear
restrictions,Indonesia, marine protected areas, Panglima
LaotIntroductionAcross the Indo-Pacic marine resources are
oftenmanaged by common property arrangements
thatlimitaccessthroughclosuresof
shinggroundsandgearrestrictions(Thornburn, 2001;
Harkes&Novaczek, 2002;Cinner &Aswani, 2007). Benets of
these customarypractices include increases insheries yields
(McClanahanet al., 1997), biomass of target species (Cinner et al.,
2005a,b)and abundance (Aswani &Sabetian, 2010).
Importantecosystemprocesses, such as herbivory (Aswani et al.,
2007),andmetricsofecosystemhealth, suchascoral cover, areoften
higher in areas under customary management (Bairdet al., 2005).
Integrating these customary systems withcontemporary management
practices (e.g. spatially denedmarine protected areas) is an area
of active research(Johannes, 2002; Aswani et al., 2007), with these
alternateformsofmarineresourcemanagementincreasinglybeingadvocated
(Graham et al.,
2008).Customarymanagementsystemsarefrequentlymotiv-ated by
utilitarian social and economic goals rather than anyconservation
ethic (Polunin,1984; Pannell,1996; Cinner &Aswani, 2007).
Theabilityof customarysystemstomeetcommunity needs such as
providing sh for harvest,reducing conict among resource users and
improvingyields can lead to higher levels of compliance, and
ultimatelybetter ecological outcomes. than externally imposed
biodi-versity conservation(McClanahanetal., 2006a;
Cinner&Aswani, 2007). Oneof thecritical
challengesformarineconservationindevelopingcountries,
wherefoodsecurityoften takes priority over conservation goals, is
how to makeconservation more compatible with community needs(Drew,
2005; Cinner et al., 2007). Governance systems thatrespect
customaryknowledge, rulesanddecision-makingprocesses are more
likely to be supported by localcommunities(Aswani, 2005; Homan,
2006; Tiraa, 2006)and are common in many Pacic societies (Cinner
&McClanahan, 2006; Aswani et al.,2007; Cinner &
Aswani,2007).Compared with marine customary management incentral
and eastern Pacic societies there are relatively fewexamples of
community involvement with marine resourcemanagement or marine
customary lawin Indonesia (Cinner& Aswani, 2007; Cinner et al.,
2012). CommunitySTUART J. CAMPBELL, RIZYA L. ARDIWIJAYA*, SHINTA
PARDEDE, TASRIFKARTAWIJAYA, AHMAD MUKMUNIN and YUDI HERDIANA The
WildlifeConservation Society, Indonesia Marine Program, Bogor,
IndonesiaJOSHUAE. CINNER, ANDREWS. HOEY, MORGANS.
PRATCHETTandANDREWH. BAIRD (Corresponding author) Australian
Research Council Centre ofExcellence for Coral Reef Studies, School
of Marine andTropical MarineBiology, James Cook University,
Townsville, Quensland 4811, Australia.
[email protected]*Also at: The Nature Conservancy,
Indonesia Marine Program, Sanur-Denpasar, IndonesiaAlsoat:
RedSeaResearchCenter, KingAbdullahUniversityofScienceandTechnology,
Thuwal, Saudi ArabiaReceived 28 October 2011. Revision requested 7
February 2012.Accepted 27 February 2012. 2012 Fauna & Flora
International, Oryx, 46(4), 486494
doi:10.1017/S0030605312000348http://journals.cambridge.org
Downloaded: 05 Oct 2012 IP address: 110.137.57.165governance
structures in Indonesia have often beenmodied, erodedor
overruledbyprovincial or nationallegal institutions (Novaczeket
al., 2001; Patlis, 2003) orrestricted or prejudiced by centralized
conservation policiesand laws with respect to marine resource
access(Thornburn, 2000; Lowe, 2003), incentivesfordestructiveshing
practices (Thornburn, 2001; Varkey et al., 2010) ordisincentives
for community participation in management(Novascek et al., 2001;
Lowe, 2003). However, as part of thedecentralization of governance
in many countries, includingIndonesia (Thornburn, 2001; Patlis,
2003), customarypractices are becoming enshrined in the legislation
ofdistrict and local authorities (Janssen, 2005; Gelcich et
al.,2008).Documenting the successes or failures of
customarypractices improves understanding of the governance
frame-works within which marine environments and theirresources
aremost eectivelymanaged(McCleodet al.,2009). Here, we present a
case study from Aceh, Indonesia,whichexamines
thesocio-economicandecological con-ditionsof sixcoastal
communitiesinwhichacustomarymanagement systemoperates. Our
objectives were toexamine if aspects of coral reef condition,
specicallyhard-coral cover, shbiomassandshassemblagestruc-ture,
diered between reefs that were inuenced by varyingmanagement
practice, in particular the types of shing gearsrestricted.
Tosupport our analysis we also investigatedwhether ecological
variation was related to socio-economicvariables, including village
population size, the number ofshing households, the mean number of
occupations,distancetomarkets,
distancetovillagesandthenumberofshing gear types prohibited.Study
area and the Panglima Laot system ofcustomary managementThis study
was conducted on Pulau Weh, a high continentalislandlocatedc.
20kmothenortherntipof Sumatra(Fig. 1). Pulau Weh has diverse coral
communities that
growprimarilyonbedrockandinunconsolidatedsediments.The coastline is
divided into several lhoks (a harbour,and the unit of management in
the marine realm). Withinsix of these lhoks we examined 14 sites
(15 sites intotal; Fig. 1), each with its own set of restrictions
onshinggears(Table1). Oneofthelhoks, Iboih,
wasdividedintotwoseparateareasforanalysisbecausesomesiteswithinthis
lhok are managed as a special tourist reserve,Kawasan Wisata,
whereas the others are managed bya Panglima Laot. Sites with both
high (69) and low(25) numbers of restrictions on types ofshing gear
werelocated in lhoks on the north, east and west coasts of
PulauWeh.In Aceh shing communities employ a customarymanagement
system known locally as Panglima Laot. Thesystemwas
rstintroducedinthe17thcenturybySultanMalaca StraitW e hI s l a n
dLhok IboihPanglima LaotLhok PayaLegendSurvey siteLhok
boundaryBenggala Strait SumatraWeh IslandMALAYSIALhong Angin 1Lhong
Angin 3Lhong Angin 2BeurawangAnoi ItamBentengBa KopraUjung
SeukeUjung KareungSumur TigaPulau KlahKlah IslandSeulaku
IslandRubiah IslandRubiah ChannelRubiah Sea
GardenBateeMeurononUjungSeurawanLhok IboihKawasan
WisataLhokKeunekaiLhokAnoi ItamLhokle MeuleeLhokKota1 1 2 km
0952200E 951630E55300N54730NFIG. 1Pulau Weh showing theboundaries
of each of the six lhoks(Table 1) and the 15 survey sites
locatedwithin these lhoks. The rectangle on theinset indicates the
location of the mainmap o the northern tip of Sumatra.Protecting
coral reefs 487 2012 Fauna & Flora International, Oryx, 46(4),
486494http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 05 Oct 2012 IP
address: 110.137.57.165Iskandar Muda (Nurdin et al., 2004). Fishers
in each lhokelect an individual, usually an elder sherman, the
PanglimaLaot (literallyCommander of the Sea) whomeets
withsherseveryFridaytoadjudicatedisputes. ThePanglimaLaot has the
authority to adjudicate provincial
lawsconcerningshingrightsexceptincaseswhere provincialor national
criminal lawis violated. ThePanglimaLaotdecides who is entitled to
the catch at sea and whichshinggears can be used. He enforces
prohibitions onshing onreligious days, initiates searches for lost
shers, decidescompensation in the event of boat collisions and
arbitratesgeneral disputes over access to thesheries (Janssen,
2005).The Panglima Laot can also enforce measures to protect
themarine environment fromland-based threats such as poorlyplaced
development and agriculture. Should asher violatethe code of
conduct for a given lhok, the Panglima Laot hasthe authority to
ground a boat for 1 week at a time, and if thesher continues to
disobey the rules the Panglima Laot canbanish boats fromthe lhok.
Other sanctions includemonetary nes, and preventing shers
fromattendingcommunity events. Sanctions or punishments are
adminis-tered through community meetings and ceremonies toreach
consensus among parties (Nurdin et al., 2004). Fishersmust pay a
fee to enter the Panglima Laot system, which isused to cover the
cost of rescues (C. Wilson, pers. comm.,2009). Importantly, the
role of the Panglima Laot is not tomanage shery resources per se
but rather to promote socialharmonybyminimizingconict among shers
(Nurdinet al., 2004). This lack of a conservation ethic is summed
upby an Acehnese proverb mentioned by Nurdin et al. (2004)to
describe the philosophy behind Panglima Laot Uleu bakmatee, ranteng
bek patah. This saying is translatedbyCollier et al. (2010) as
killing a snake without breaking treebranches or, in other words,
to solve one problem withoutcreating a new one. The role of the
Panglima Laot system inmarine resource management has most recently
beenrecognized in 2008, in Provincial Laws No. 9 and 10,which give
the Panglima Laot authority to arbitratecustomary laws in relation
to the sea.MethodsCoral cover and fish biomassIn March 2006 coral
cover andsh biomass were estimatedalong two replicate50 m transects
at two depths (34 and68m) at eachof the 15 sites (Fig. 1). Coral
cover wasrecorded at 100 points along each transect, spaced at 0.5
mintervals. Anyhardcoral (i.e. scleractinianorhydrozoancoral)
underlying each survey point was recorded to genus.Thesh
assemblages were surveyed along the same 50 mtransects used for
estimating hard-coral cover. Onediver recorded all visually
apparent reef sh (i.e.,excluding cryptobenthic families Blenniidae,
Gobiidae andTripterygiidae) .10 cmtotal length in a 5 mwide belt,
and asecond diver recorded allsh ,10 cm total length in a
2-mwidebelt that extendedfromthereef substratumtothesurfaceof
thewater. Individual shes wereidentiedtospecies and placed into one
of nine size classes (05,510,1015, 1520, 2025, 2530, 3035,
3540and.40cm).Density estimates were converted to biomass using
knownlengthweightrelationships; W5aLb, whereWisweight(kg), L is
total length (cm) and a, b are the indices for a givenspecies
(Froese & Pauly, 2008). To examine variation inshassemblage
structure, individual species were allocated to
sixtrophicgroups(corallivores, herbivores, invertivores,
om-nivores, piscivores andplanktivores) followingFroese &Pauly
(2008).Fishing gears of Pulau WehEight mainshing gears are used on
Pulau Weh: reef nets,gill nets, mosquito nets, muroami, hookah,
spearguns,handlines and trolling. Reef nets are modied seine nets,
notmore than60 m in length, with a height of810 m and amesh size of
6 cm. They are deployed after dusk from twocanoesincalmwaters.
Gillnets targetreef sh, includingtrigger (family Balistidae),
snapper (family Lutjanidae) andemperor sh(family Lethrinidae),
andconsist of singlenylon nets that are either small (length 300400
m; height25m)orlarge(length8001,000m;
heightupto15m).Meshsizesare411 cmandnetsareset passivelyat
thesurfaceoratmidwater. Mosquitonetsaremonolamentnetsof
200300mlength, withameshsizeof ,3mm,which mostly target anchovies
and other small pelagicshes. Muroami is a technique that primarily
targetsfusiliers(family Caesionidae) but is non-selective and
cancatch many reefsh species. The technique involves the useof
diversandsurface-suppliedair(hookah)tochase shalong the reef into a
large drive net or purse net (mesh size25 cm) set on reef slopes at
depths of 730 m. The crew of amuroami operation on Pulau Weh
usually consists of 810people. Reef nets and muroami are relatively
non-selective,catching sh from many dierent families. HookahTABLE 1
Populationsize, number of sher households, meannumber of
occupations andreef area insix lhokson Pulau Weh(Fig.
1).LhokPopulationsizeNo. ofsherhouseholdsMean no.
ofoccupationsReefarea(ha)AnoiItam693 56 3.1 120.55Iboih 766 52 2.5
158.65IeMeulee3,574 60 2.5 177.9Paya 731 71 2.8 111.3Kota 2,623 170
2.6 112.31Keunekai 532 21 3.2 32.51488 S. J. Campbell et al. 2012
Fauna & Flora International, Oryx, 46(4),
486494http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 05 Oct 2012 IP
address: 110.137.57.165gear consists of an air compressor with
several air hoses of50100 m length. Hooker divers use their hands
to collectsea cucumber, lobster and troches, and occasionally
spearstotarget grouper Cephalopholis, Epinephelis andVariolaspp.
(familySerranidae)andgill netstotarget aquariumshes. Spearguns are
made from wood, with spears 1.22.0m in length, and are used byshers
on snorkel to target awide varietyof reef shspecies,
includingsnapper andgrouper. Hook and line shing is employed from
many boattypesincludingcanoesandmotorizedboats,
andtrollingconsistsof asingle sherwithahookandlinedeployedfrom the
rear of a motorized boat.Socio-economic variablesIn December 2006
143 household surveys were conducted byAM and YH in the six lhoks.
All respondents were asked tolist and rank the occupations of
members of the household,from which the mean number of occupations
per lhok wascalculated. Concurrent with these surveys demographic
datawere sourcedfromthe Panglima Laot andgovernmentrecords.
Dataavailableforeachlhokincludedthepopu-lationsize,
numberofhouseholds, numberofhouseholdsinvolvedinshing, and mean
number of occupations perhousehold (Table 1). At the site level
data were available onthe distance (m) fromsurveysite tothe nearest
village(aproxyvariablefor thelikelihoodof restrictions
beingenforced), thedistancetothenearest shmarketandthenumber and
types ofshing gears prohibited (Table 2).Statistical
analysisVariation in hard-coral cover and totalsh biomass
amonglhoks and sites were tested with two nested ANOVAs.Assumptions
of the ANOVA were examined using residualanalysis.
Subsequentlytotal shbiomass was log10(x +
1)transformedtoimprovenormalityandhomoscedasticity;Fishers LSDtests
were used to identify which meanscontributed to any signicant
dierences among sitesor lhoks.Variation in the functional
composition of the shassemblages among lhokswas analysed usinga
one-factormultivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The
analysiswas basedonthebiomass of eachof thesixfunctionalgroups, and
was log10(x + 1) transformed to improvemultivariatenormality.
Acanonical
discriminantanalysiswasthenusedtoexaminehowthelhoksdieredinshassemblage
composition. Ninety-ve percent con-dence ellipses were
plottedaroundthe groupcentroids(Seber,
1984).Therelationshipsamongthesocio-economicvariablesand hard-coral
cover and totalsh biomass were examinedusing bivariate correlations
and stepwise multipleregressions. The correlations provided an
indication ofthe relationships between hard-coral cover and totalsh
biomass and each of the socio-economic variablesindependently, and
the multipleregressions examined thecombined eects of all
socio-economic variables anddetermined the relative importance of
each variable indetermining coral cover and totalsh biomass. All
analyseswere performedusing STATISTICAv. 7.0 (Statsoft Inc,Tulsa,
USA).ResultsThecoverofhardcoralsvariedsignicantlyamonglhoks(F6,854.22,
P 50.033) and sites within lhoks (F8,4252.53,P 50.02), ranging from
a mean of 10.8 SE 4.2% at Paya to59.6 SE 5.2%at Ie Meulee (Fig.
2a). Overall, coral cover washighest at Ie Meulee and Anoi Itam
(54.559.6%),intermediate at IboihKawasan Wisata (41.9%) and
lowestatIboihPanglimaLaot, Keunekai andPaya(10.830.8%;Fig.
2a).Total biomass of reef shvariedsignicantlyamonglhoks(F6,853.67,
P 50.047)butdisplayednosignicantvariationamong sites (F8,4551.56, P
50.165). Reef shbiomass wassignicantlygreaterat IeMeuleeandAnoiItam
(1,090.41,729.4 kg ha1) than at Kota, IboihPanglimaLaot, Keunekai
and Paya (241.5444.6 kg ha1; Fig. 2b). Thecomposition of the reef
sh assemblages also variedsignicantly among lhoks on Pulau Weh
(MANOVA,F5,8552.45, P ,0.001). The canonical discriminant
analysisrevealed two distinct groups of lhoks along the
rstcanonical variate, which explained 47.4%of the totalvariation
(Fig. 3). Anoi Itam, Ie Meulee and
IboihKawasanWisatawerecharacterizedbyagreaterbiomassof
corallivores, omnivores, herbivores, and to a lesser
extentpiscivores and planktivores, than IboihPanglima
Laot,Keunekai, Kota and Paya (Fig. 3).The cover of live hard corals
was positively related to thenumber of shing gears prohibited and
lhok population size,and negatively related to distance to village
and distance tomarket (Table 3). The multiple regression analysis
suggestedthat the number of shing gear types prohibited,
populationsizeandthemeannumberof
occupationswerethebestcombinationof predictors of hard-coral cover,
withtheoverall model explaining 53% of the variation in coral
coveramongsites (Table 3). Similarly, total reef
shbiomasswaspositivelyrelatedtocoral cover, thenumberof geartypes
prohibited, and negatively related to distance tonearest village
and market (Table 4). The multipleregressionindicatedthat coral
coverandthenumber ofshing gears prohibited were the best
combination ofpredictors of reefsh biomass, explaining 32.9 and
6.2% ofthe variation in sh biomass among sites, respectively(Table
4).Protecting coral reefs 489 2012 Fauna & Flora International,
Oryx, 46(4), 486494http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 05 Oct
2012 IP address: 110.137.57.165TABLE 2 Distances from ecological
sites to markets and village and theshing gears prohibited (*) in
each of the 15 sites on Pulau Weh.Site (by lhok)Distance tomarket
(m)Distance tovillage (m) Trolling Handline Hookah SpearNetsBomb
CyanideTotal no.of gearsprohibited Gill net Reef net Mosquito net
MuroamiAnoi HitamAnoi Hitam 12,292 1,392 * * * * * * * 7Benteng
8,704 1,033 * * * * * * * * * 9Ujung Seuke 4,556 3,278 * * * * * *
* 7IboihKawasan WisataBatee Meuronon 7,338 907 * * * * * * *
7Rubiah Channel 7,286 1,271 * * * * * * * * 8Rubiah Sea Garden
6,679 1,110 * * * * * * * 7Ujung Seurawan 9,291 3,445 * * * * * * *
7IboihPanglima LaotBa Kopra 40,086 11,487 * * * * * * * 7Lhong
Angin 1 24,455 10,167 * * * * 4Lhong Angin 2 22,809 8,823 * * * *
4Ie MeuleeSumur Tiga 3,907 1,127 * * * * * * 6Ujung Kareung 4,728
2,890 * * * * * 5KeunekaiBeurawang 5,820 2,710 * *
2Kota/PasiranPulau Klah 2,363 1,570 * * 2PayaLhong Angin 3 17,534
7,036 * *
2490S.J.Campbelletal.2012Fauna&FloraInternational,Oryx,46(4),486494http://journals.cambridge.org
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110.137.57.165DiscussionCustomarymarineresourcemanagementpracticesintheIndo-Pacic
are often focused on social goals such asminimizing conict among
coastal communities, ratherthanwesternidealsof conservationor
sheriesmanage-ment (Polunin, 1984; Pannell, 1996; Aswani et al.,
2007).Although the primary aimof the Panglima Laot is tominimize
conict amongshers ourndings indicate thatcontrols on shing gears
indirectly yield conservationbenets, including healthier coral
reefs that support agreater biomassof reef sh and important trophic
groupssuchas herbivores that are essential for
promotingreefresilience.The correlation of coral cover with the
number of gearsprohibited is most likely a result of the banning of
shinggears, in particular the various types of nets that cause
directmechanical damage to corals and indirect damage bytrampling
from high numbers ofshers in the water to setthe nets and/or
scaresh into the nets. The reasons for thegear restrictions are
not, however, because of potentialdamage to the reef but rather
because some shing gears aremore likely to create conict
amongshers. Reef nets andmuroami, in particular, compete with
handlines and spearsfor manyspecies (e.g. surgeonshAcanthurus
andNasospp., grouper, parrotsh: Chlorurus and Scarus spp.,
trevallyCaranx and Elagatis spp., and pelagic species such as
Caesioand Scomberomorus spp.) and return relatively high rates
ofcatch. The perception among most shers is that netsdepletelocal
shstocks, withtheprot mostlygoingtowealthy boat owners (Wildlife
Conservation Society,unpubl. data). Controls enforced by the
Panglima Laot ontheuseof netsthereforelimit
theperceivedinequitybyreducing competition amongshers of dierent
economicstatus.Many dierent socio-economic factors inuence
theability of customary institutions to limit overexploitation
ofshery resources. Generally, customary
managementsystemsoperatebest
whenthehumanpopulationislowanddistanceto markets
isgreat(Cinner&Aswani, 2007;Aswani & Sabetian, 2010)
Ourndings suggest an oppositetrendonPulauWeh, where the proximityof
a shinglocation to a village and the number of people in the
lhokprobably
assiststhePanglimaLaottoenforcecompliancewithshingrules,
becauseshingactivitiesare inviewoflocal communities andthere are
more people towatchover the resource (Crawford et al., 2004;
McClanahan et al.,2006b).2.02.42.83.2 (a) Coral% coral cover
SE0204060(b) FishIe MeuleeAnoi ItamIboih (KW)KotaIboih
(PL)KeunekaiPayaLog fish biomass SE (kg.ha-1)aabbcacccababccccFIG.
2 Variation in (a) mean coral cover and (b) mean totalshbiomass
among the seven management areas (in six lhoks) onPulau Weh (Fig.
1; KW, Kawasan Wisata; PL, Panglima Laot).Letters above each bar
indicate homogeneous groups identiedby Fishers LSD post hoc
analyses.Canonical variate 1 (47.4%)Canonical variate 2 (27.5%)Anoi
ItamIe MeuleeIboihKawasan WisataIboihPanglima
LaotKeunekaiKotaPayaherbivoreomnivorepsplinvertivorecorallivoreFIG.
3Canonical discriminant analysis showing the relationshipamong
reefsh assemblages across seven management areas (insix lhoks) on
Pulau Weh (Fig. 1). Ellipses represent 95%condence limits around
the centroids for each lhok. Vectors arestructural coecients of
response variables, indicating therelative contributions of each of
thesh functional groups to theobserved dierences in assemblage
composition (pl, planktivore;ps, piscivore). Dashed ellipses
indicate lhoks where nets areallowed; solid ellipses are lhoks
where nets are prohibited.Protecting coral reefs 491 2012 Fauna
& Flora International, Oryx, 46(4),
486494http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 05 Oct 2012 IP
address: 110.137.57.165Thestrongrelationshipbetweenreef
shbiomassandcoral cover is not surprising because many reefsh rely
oncorals for shelter and food (Jones et al., 2004; Graham et
al.,2007). Numerous studies have reported declines in
reefshdiversityandabundancefollowingdeclinesincoralcoverand
structural complexity (Jones et al., 2004; Pratchett et al.,2008;
Messmer et al., 2011). This result suggests that one
ofthemosteectivemeansof protectingshbiomassistoprotect the habitat.
However, the positive correlationbetween shbiomass and the number
of shing gearsprohibited also suggests that gear restrictions are
having adirect eect by reducingshing pressure. Reefsh biomasscan be
ten-fold greater in marine protected areas within 10years of
closure when compared to adjacent heavilyshedareas
(McClanahan&Graham, 2005; Russ et al., 2005).Similarly, ina
reef shery inTanzania the banning ofdynamite, cyanide and
small-mesh seine nets that aredeployedinasimilarmannertomuroami
netsonPulauWehalsoresultedinanincreasedabundanceofreef
shandthebiomassofsomeshfamilies(Tyleretal.,
2011).Althoughbanningdestructiveshinggearsappearstobeimproving sh
biomass on Pulau Weh and elsewhere (Tyleret al., 2011) eort may
need to be further limited to facilitategreater improvements insh
biomass. The Panglima Laoton the east coast of Pulau Weh have
recently achieved thisthroughtheestablishment of strict
no-takeareas withintheir marine waters. The proximity of a site to
a village canshape reefsh biomass because of market-driven
demands(Brewer et al., 2009) and increasedshing pressure
(Cinner& McClanahan, 2006). In contrast, ourndings suggest
theproximity of ashing location to a village probably assiststhe
Panglima Laot to enforce compliance withshing rules,as described
above.Reef sh populations also vary in response to environ-mental
factors such as wave exposure, currents and
primaryproductivity(Halfordet al., 2004; Pratchett et al.,
2008).Although we did not specically control for theseenvironmental
factors, thevariationinreef shbiomasswas much greater (up to
eight-fold) than we would predicton the basis of environmental
dierences alone.Furthermore,
adjacentlhoks(whichhavesimilarenviron-ments) with dierent levels of
gear restriction (i.e. Ie MeuleevsKota;
IboihKawasanWisatavsIboihPanglimaLaot,and Anoi Itam vs Keunekai)
followed the general trend
ofgreatershbiomasswherethenumberofgearsrestrictedwas high.Poor
enforcement of controls ondestructive shing,including blast and
cyanideshing, may also be responsiblefor some of the dierences in
coral cover andsh biomass.According to local shers, although
blastshing ceased inthe 1990s, sporadic cyanideshing continues in
some lhokssuchas PayaandKeunekai andmaybecontributingtoconsistently
low coral cover and reef sh biomass at
thesesites.Therelativeabundanceofthedierenttrophicgroupswas also
linked to gear restrictions. The three lhoks wherethe most types of
gears were prohibited (i.e. Anoi Itam, IeMeulee and IboihKawasan
Wisata) were characterized bya greater biomass of corallivores,
omnivores, herbivores, andtoalesserextent
piscivoresandplanktivores, thanlhokswhere the number or gears
prohibited was low (i.e., IboihPanglimaLaot, Keunekai, KotaandPaya;
Fig. 3). SimilarTABLE 3 Relationship between live coral cover and
six socio-economic variables across 15 sites on Pulau Weh, with
Pearsons correlationcoecient and the results of a stepwise multiple
regression analysis.Bivariate correlation Multiple regressionr P
Multiple R2 S.E. of t(56)PNumber of gears prohibited 0.555 ,0.001
0.308 0.662 0.094 7.072 ,0.001Population 0.306 0.017 0.487 0.516
0.100 5.163 ,0.001Mean occupations 0.032 0.806 0.533 0.229 0.098
2.345 0.023Fishing households 0.035 0.792TABLE 4 Relationship
between totalsh biomass and six socio-economic variables and live
hard-coral cover across 15 sites on Pulau Weh,with Pearsons
correlation coecient and the results of a stepwise multiple
regression analysis. Totalsh biomass was log-transformed.Bivariate
correlation Multiple regressionr P Multiple R2 S.E. of t(57)PCoral
cover 0.574 ,0.001 0.329 0.347 0.131 5.338 ,0.001Number of gears
prohibited 0.525 ,0.001 0.391 0.257 0.131 2.401 0.020Population
0.087 0.511Mean occupations 0.065 0.622Fishing households 0.248
0.056Distance to village 0.431 0.001Distance to market 0.313
0.015492 S. J. Campbell et al. 2012 Fauna & Flora
International, Oryx, 46(4), 486494http://journals.cambridge.org
Downloaded: 05 Oct 2012 IP address: 110.137.57.165responses
following spatial closures onshing of herbivor-ous parrot sh has
been reported in the Indo-Pacic(Aswani & Sabetian, 2010).The
customary system of Panglima Laot has a number ofthe design
principles identied by Ostrom (2009), and morerecently examined by
Gutierrez et al. (2011), to be associatedwith successful sheries
management institutions, includingclearly dened membership rights,
rules that limit resourceuse, the right of resource users to make,
enforce and changethe rules, graduated sanctions and a mechanism
for conictresolution (Cinner et al., 2012). These principles are
the keytotheabilityof theinstitutiontoreduceconict
amongcommunities, provide sustainable access to marine re-sources
and limit the destruction of marine habitats.However, the
institution has not been uniformly successful.In particular, reef
condition in the adjacent island group ofPulau Aceh was poor in
2005, possibly because ofdestructive shingandpoor coastal
management (Bairdet al., 2005; Campbell et al., 2007). The precise
causes of thisbreakdownof thePanglimaLaotsystemarethefocusofcurrent
researcheorts intheregion. Investingasingleindividual with
authority to make all decisions poses somerisk of abuse.Motivatedby
the aimof producing social harmony,restrictions on gear use by the
Panglima Laot in Aceh havedirectconservationbenetssuchashighcoral
coverandenhanced shbiomass. Additional surveys over
awidergeographical scale and over a longer period are required
toreveal whether these ndings also apply at larger spatial
andtemporal scales.AcknowledgementsFunding for this project was
providedby The KerznerFoundation and The National Fisheries and
WildlifeFoundation. We acknowledge the Pulau Weh
shingcommunitiesforallowingustouseinformationontheirsocio-economicstatus.
WealsothankDodentMahyiddinfrom Rubiah Tirta Divers and Nur Fadli
and Dr Edi Rudifrom Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh, for
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34,228236.Biographical sketchesSTUART CAMPBEL L s research
interests include conservation biology.J OS HUA CI NNER s research
explores howsocial, economic, andcultural factors inuence the ways
in which people use, perceive andgovern natural resources, with a
particular emphasis on using appliedsocial science to inform coral
reef management. RI ZYAARDI WI J AYAdesigns and applies monitoring
programmes to provide the ecologicalinformation necessary for the
eective management of marineprotected areas. SHI NTAPARDEDE s
research interests include coralreefsh ecology. TAS RI FKARTAWI J
AYA s research interests includethe management of coral reef
sheries. AHMAD MUKMUNI N works toencourage dialogue between
government and communities to promotecoral reef conservation. He
has been managing the WildlifeConservation Society research
programme in Aceh for 5 years. YUDIHERDI ANAs researchinterests
include the ornamental shtrade.ANDRE WHOE Y
sresearchinterestsincludethefunctional impor-tanceofherbivorous
shesoncoral reefs. MORGANPRATCHETTsresearch interests include the
role of disturbance on coral reefs and theeect of climate change on
sheries. ANDRE WBAI RDs researchinterests include the evolution of
life histories in corals. He has beenengaging with the reefs of
Aceh since 1984.494 S. J. Campbell et al. 2012 Fauna & Flora
International, Oryx, 46(4), 486494
