RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Personal Wellbeing: Refers to an individual’s happiness and satisfaction with life. It consists of an individual’s fulfilment in terms of satisfying their potential and ensuring their lives are meaningful.

Needs can be classified as:

Needs can also be:PHYSICAL: Related to our body e.g. Sleep, food, water, exercise etcSOCIAL: Being with other people, having friends etc Belonging is an important social need.EMOTIONAL: Feeling security, love & support.CULTURAL: Understanding who you are, where you come from.SPIRITUAL: Believing in something in order to live a fulfilling life.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Lower order needs are those satisfied internally, as higher order needs are those satisfied internally.

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Factors that can impact on wellbeing:- Physical; Physical health, fitness, appearance- Socioemotional; Feelings, emotions, relationships, support systems- Spiritual; Religion, beliefs, values and standards- Economic; Income, economic resources, global economy, socioeconomic status- Political; Laws, policies, political beliefs, political climate

Needs: Are those things that are necessary for survival and overall wellbeing. E.g. shelter, food, waterWants: Are things that we might like to have but that aren’t necessary for existence. They are often called acquired needs. E.g. A phone

- Primary: Most important needs. Refers to the need of food, liquid and oxygen.- Secondary: Refers to wants that are placed on needs. E.g. ‘I am thirsty, I need lemonade’. The

primary need for liquid is necessary, lemonade isn’t the necessary liquid needed to fulfil the need.Secondary needs make life easier- e.g. love, safety, etc.

Physiological needs: The primary needs of food, liquid and oxygen for maintenance of the human body. According to Maslow, these biological needs are essential and need to be fulfilled before less crucial needs are satisfied.Safety needs: The needs that ensure an individual is secure in their surroundings. Includes security and protection.Needs for belonging: The needs that ensure an individual obtains love, affection and a sense of acceptance. Includes affection, belonging, acceptance and friendship.Needs for esteem: The needs that relate to self-worth and self-respect. These needs stem from a human desire to feel confident and valuable within themselves and their surroundings. Includes self-respect and status.Needs for self-actualisation: The needs that can be identified when essential needs have been fulfilled. They stem from what a person is lacking and focuses on the capabilities of an individual

Satisfying needs and wants:

- Gender: Males and females fulfil needs in different ways. E.g. males may find it more difficult to satisfy their emotional needs than females.

- Education: Individuals can obtain knowledge that enables them to be financially independent, making it easier to fulfil specific needs and wants

- Economic status: Individuals may be limited (through their financial status) to fulfil their basic needs and wants.

- Culture: An individuals values and beliefs will affect their development of needs and wants.- Geographic Location: Someone living in an isolated area, or living with a disability, may have

limited access and opportunity to fulfil their needs and wants.

Resources: Those things we use to achieve our goals. They are things we can use to meet needs and want in order to enhance our wellbeing.Classification of resources:

Economic and non-economic resources:

Human and non-human resources:

Formal and informal resources:

Economic resources are those that can be measured monetarily. They include natural and man-made resources that have monetary value attached to them. E.g. land, gold, vehiclesNon-economic resources are those that cannotbe accurately measured by money and have little relationship to finance. E.g. friends or family

Human resources refer to the skills and abilities that individuals possess. E.g. knowledge, energy, skills, etc.Non-human resources are those that are not ‘life’. E.g. table, chairs, books, etc.

Formal resources are resources that are provided to enhance wellbeing. E.g. a specialist in their field such as a psychologist. Informal resources refer to the resources available within an individual’s microsystem. E.g. advice from friends.

Nature of resources:

Resources are not found in nature, they are created; Natural resources become so through human interaction and creation.Finite resources are those that can be limited. Finite resources are not renewable. E.g. coal, water, etc. Infinite resources are those that are renewable. Infinite and renewable resources are those that can be reused, rejuvenated, regrown or replaced. E.g. oxygen, energy (sun, solar power).

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Interchangeability and sustainability of resourcesInterchangeability SustainabilityRefers to the exchange of resources for goods and/or services. Strategies for interchangeability:- Local: A local farmer providing vegetables to

another farmer in exchange for chicken eggs- National: QLD gives NSW a tonne of bananas for a

tonne of mangoes.- International: Australia gives live animal stock to

Indonesia for money.

Refers to the effective and efficient use of resources to ensure they are available for future use. Strategies:- Local: Recycling of rubbish- National: Melting down recycled cans to form

ingots- International: Reducing the use of coal energy

and using solar wind, nuclear energy and hydroelectricity.

Values Standards:Values are those things that are important to us. They are the principles an individual and group considers important. People follow specific values because they believe them to be desirable and beneficial to their own standard and quality of life. They are variable. E.g. loyalty to friends or honesty in relationships.

Standards are the measurement of how well we achieve our goals. They are socially constructed reference points that individuals and groups judge, and are judged by. People are measured by the standard they live and don’t live up to. Standards include laws and policies that must be followed such as the Anti-Discrimination Act. E.g. declaration of materials via customs when leaving and returning Australia.

GoalsGoals are those things we want to achieve. Short-term goals are those expected to be accomplished in a small period of time, particularly days and weeks. E.g. completing your homework each night. Long-term goals are those that are expected to be accomplished in a longer amount of time. E.g. gaining a HSC. Long-term goals rely on short-term and intermediate goals. They require careful planning and monitoring. Intermediate goals fall in between short and long-term goals. E.g. improving your assessment ranks from one task to the next.

Individual and group goalsIndividual GroupIndividual goals are personal goals, they recquire focus and dedication, as the motivation must come from within. E.g. getting over 80% in an English exam.

Group goals are those set out and achieved by a group of individuals who have the desire for a similar outcome. They usually consist of a number of individual goals. E.g. to complete a group project on values and standards (group goal), individuals may have their own tasks (individual goals). These goals may also be a source of conflict.

CommunicationVerbal: Non-verbal:

Involves the use of written and spoken words. Can be split into oral and written communication. Oral is voice-based communication (phone, face to face) and is based on vocal elements such as pitch, volume speed and clarity. Written is text base communication (email, messaging) and depends on various textual elements such as writing style, vocabulary, grammar and language.

Involves the use of body language (gestures, postures, facial expressions)

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Aggressive communication: Assertive communication: Passive communication:When one fails to recognise the views of feelings of others. It is one sided. It is based on manipulation.

The ideal form of interaction. Assertive communication is based on natural expression. Focuses on clear and straightforward communication.

Based on avoiding confrontation. Focuses on minimal communication with the purpose of staying away from arguments and disagreements.

Characteristics of effective communication Characteristics of ineffective communicationWhen speaking:- Maintain eye contact- Use suitable body language- Appropriate use of silence- Use comfortable silence- Ensure understanding- Summarise major point/sWhen listening:- Encouragement- Asking fitting questions

When speaking:- Avoiding eye contact- Inappropriate/unrelated body language- No silence or pauses- Not summarising major point/sWhen listening:- Lack of encouragement- Asking irrelevant questions

Barriers to communicationAge: Young people and elderly may have difficulty communication due to age.Disability: May have difficulty expressing themselves through language and/or may not be able to access/use communication technology.Socioeconomic status: Individuals with a low socioeconomic status may also have limited access to communication technologies.Language: Language should be appropriate to the audience (complexity of words and phrases. If inappropriate language is used, audience may not understand the message being conveyed.Assumptions: It won’t be affective to assume that the audience knows the same information as you or has the same level of understanding about certain topics.Noisy transmission: There may be noise that disrupts the messages being communicated. Through oral communication, there may be physical noise that inhibits listening, or even with phone lines and internet connections which drop out and/or distort (alien) messages.Distrusted source/errors: There may be errors or incorrect information being communicated depending on the source.

Managing barriers to communication: essential Cs of effective communication and active listening

ESSENTIAL CS:Completeness Information should contain enough facts and figures to express accurate

meaning.Conciseness Information should be succinct and to the point, to avoid overloading the

receiver.Clear Information should be simple to understand.Concrete Information should be grounded in facts and not based on assumptions.Courteous It is important to be considerate of the topic and the receiver/s.Correctness Information should be confirmed and verified.

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Five key elements of active listening:Pay attention Recognise the message, even if you disagree.Show you are listening

Use non-verbal communication to convey your understanding. E.g. nod, smile.

Provide feedback Personally reflect on the messages being conveyed to ensure your understanding. If feasible, ask suitable questions to illuminate specific points.

Defer judgement Don’t interrupt the speaker whether it is to ask questions, to comment or to argue against them.

Respond appropriately

Show consideration of the speaker’s messages and be respectful in your response.

Levels of communication:Intrapersonal communication Interpersonal communication Public/mass communicationRelates to the internal communication that a person possesses. The individual is the sender and receiver E.g. day-dreaming, talking to yourself and writing to yourself.

Relates to external communication between individuals. The sender and receiver of information are separate people. E.g. talking face to face speaking on the phone and sending emails.

Relates to the messages that re produced and transmitted to large groups of individuals. This form of communication is usually transmitted through the mass media, including mediums such as TV, radio and newspapers.

The four principals of intrapersonal communication:1. It is inescapable 3. It is complicated2. It is irreversible 4. It is contextual

Communication is influenced by the following:

Disclosure Relates to the revealing of information. E.g. how much information the sender is disclosing to the receiver.

Trust Relates to the reliance a sender places on a receiver, in terms of character.Bonding Relates to the relationship between the sender and receiver, i.e. the

emotional affiliation that exists

Building and maintaining relationships through communicationCommunication skills that helps build caring and positive relationships:

Skill Description How it improves communication

Active listening

Involves non-verbal communication skills such as maintain eye contact, showing interest in what is being said and displaying positive body language.

Allows you to get your message across.Improves communication and enhances relationship because both parties feel like they’re being heard

Arguing constructively

Keeping it fair and arguing your point. Is when you argue a belief without letting emotions getting out of hand.

Less disputes (physical and verbal abuse)Allows both parties to control emotions and consider both sides of argument without blame

Conflict resolution

Can be performed by remaining alert and calm, controlling your emotions and behaviours and being aware of and respectful for differences.

A good communicator can anticipate prevent conflict where possibleWhen conflict is handled appropriately it provides the opportunity for growth and enhanced communication

Being empathetic Being empathetic means that a person is able to respect the rights, feelings, beliefs and opinions of another person.

Empathy is reflected in communication through verbal and non-verbal meansAllows people to become more caring

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Interviews as a research methodStructured interviews Unstructured interviewsAs the name suggests, have a framework that is determined before you begin. Questions have been set out in advanced and not vary from one respondent to another.Features:- Formal feel- Structured and ordered questions- Location and time are planned- Prior research has been performed- Responses can be restricted

Are extremely flexible, often with room for further discussion. However, it can be difficult to compare information from one source to another.Features:- Informal feel- Questions are less structured and can be

impulsively created in response to previous answers

- The interview has more flexibility in shaping and changing the interview

- Can be time consuming or travel off-topic due to lack of structure

Advantages and disadvantages of interviewsAdvantages Disadvantages- In depth info can be attained- Direct answers from the source- Reliable source- Can collect both quantitative and qualitative

data- Flexible to suit direction of interview

- Can be time consuming, compared to other methods of research

- Can become stressful for both parties- May become subjective or bias- Difficult to compare result/responses- Recquires a thorough recording method- Needs a suitable location as it is face to

face

Constructing, conducting and recording responsesConstructing Conducting RecordingEffective planning and preparation for an interview is essential.Consider what it is that you hope to achieve. Plan the interview; it should have a logical flow.Developing interview questions:- Ensure your questions aren’t

ambiguous- Ensure they have a purpose- Avoid assumptions- Be concise- Only include relevant questions

Consider who will be interviewed. Then introduce yourself to the interviewee and explain the purpose of the interview.Effective ways to conduct an interview:- Ask one question at a time- Be as objective as possible- Be wary of non-verbal

communication- Control the interview

Ways:- Written: Take notes as the

interviewee responds.- Audio: Use a tape recorder to

record verbal responses that you can develop into a transcript.

- Video: Use a video camera to record verbal and non-verbal responses.

Decision making as a process

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Stages/steps:Analysing the problem Recognise the problem and analyse what it involves.

The most significant step is defining the reasons why a decision is required.

Investigating the alternatives and assessing their consequences

Identify the ways the problem can be solved. Assess the consequences of each of the proposed solutions.

Choosing and implementing an alternative

Select the most appropriate solution and implement it. Carefully assess the positive and negative outcomes of each alternative

Evaluating the outcome Assess if the problem has been solved, identify the positive and negative aspects of the outcome. Assess whether any new problems were created.

Simple and complex problemsSimple ComplexAre those that can be easily solved without the need for extensive decision making. Such problems are uncomplicated, have few alternatives and minimal consequences.E.g. what to eat for lunch or dinner

Are those that recquire critical thinking and evaluating. Complex problems recquire careful thinking and analysis and investigation into a decision. They can be addressed by using the stages/steps of decision-making.E.g. Buying a car or house

Decision making stylesImpulsive Based on spontaneous decision making, decisions are with minimal

thought or analysis.Intuitive Based on instinctive decision making, decisions are made based on the

character of a person, i.e. their gut feeling about a situationHesitant Based on cautious decision-making, decision makers are unsure when

selecting an alternateConfident Based on positive and certain decision making, decision-makers are

convinced of their decision and solve their problem self-assuredly.Rational Based on sensible and reasonable decision-making, decision-makers

confront their problem realistically and choose logical solutions.

Factors influencing decision-making

Access to resourcesDepends on the resources available to the decision-maker. Alternative will differ depending on the available resources.

Complexity of the problem The more complex a problem the more analysis and investigation is required before coming to a solution.

Past experiences and personal values

The values and attitudes of a person will affect their decision-making and their decision-making style. Past experiences can also affect decision making as individuals can compare precious alternatives and their outcomes.E.g. a family may want to revisit a past destination.

Attitudes to change An individual’s attitude to change can affect decision-making. Someone open to change may be more willing to investigate a range of alternatives compared to someone hesitant of change.

Responsibility for decisions

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Individual Responsibility Group Responsibility Community ResponsibilityWhen a person makes their own decisionsE.g. What to wear to school

When a group makes decisions together.E.g. School teachers having a strike on Thursday

When a community makes their own decisions. E.g. through community groups

Management processes (in achieving goals)Management involves:

Planning Involves deciding what outcome is to be achieved and setting specific goals to achieve that outcome. (E.g. the goal/question)

Organising Involves putting into place those things that are recquired for the plan to be implemented. (E.g. how to analyse the data)

Implementing Involves actions. This is the doing stage. (E.g. carry out research methods- interviews, etc.)

Evaluating Throughout the plan, constant evaluation takes place. This involves assessing the implementation and whether or not the goal was achieved. (E.g. Did I answer the research question?)

Another management model involves:

Plan Research the topic, form an action plan and form stepsDo Putting the plan into action. (Access resources, prepare material, etc.)Check Evaluates that the action plan is working. (E.g. analyse the effectiveness of the

utilised resources)Act When we are satisfied with the action plan we can “act” to achieve goals. (E.g.

Ensure recommendations are applied if necessary.)

Total Quality Management (TQM)

- Is both a system and a philosophy. It seeks continuous improvement in the quality of all processes and outputs of an organisation. It is focused on the culture, attitude and organisation of tasks to achieve effective outcomes.

- Adheres to the following pattern: Total- Participants (i.e. an entire company) Quality- Determination of value, without faults and flaws Management- Systems of management (such as planning organising, controlling and assessing)- Characteristics of the TQM model include (QPDOOI):

- Quality is the main focus- Participant are dedicated to success- Decisions are based on facts- Ongoing evaluation is performed- Ongoing recommendations are made- Improvement is the main objective

Applying management skills in different contextsPeers Open and honest communication. Respect and value of others beliefs and

opinions. E.g. getting your friends from point A to point B next Friday nightFamily Equal distribution of decision making influence, value of family members

beliefs and opinions. E.g. to design a housework roster that considers individual needs and wants

School The collaboration of teachers, students, parents and management working together for common goals. E.g. to ensure assessment tasks and home work are completed on time

Work Clearly defined leadership and decision-making roles. E.g. to ensure I reach my workplace targets

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Community Value of community members, acceptance of diversity, the operation of democratic systems. E.g. to put in place a community cultural centre

GROUPS AND INDIVIDUALSFACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO AN INDIVIDUAL’S DEVELOPMENT

Factor Meaning Positive impact Negative impactSelf-esteem Can be described as how an individual

feels about him/herself in terms of self value.

High self-esteemIncreased sense of personal worth or value

Low self-esteemDevalues self and doubts abilities

Self-confidence Refers to how likely we are to deal ready to take on challenges.

Know what you are good at and what you can doMore likely to take on new challenges

May lack the confidence to try new thingsMay become withdrawn

Peer acceptance Relates to the willingness to be included and the inclusion and acceptance of others in activities and life experiences. Focuses on the quality of acceptance, not the quantity of inclusion.

Provides a sense of belonging and securityProvides an environment that encourages challenge

Without peer acceptance the individual may feel lost. Some individuals may take on high risk behaviours in order to be accepted.

Satisfaction of needs Contributes to an individual’s development. Relates to the fulfilment of needs, as covered in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

Adequate food, good nutrition provides building blocks for optimum physical development

If food and nutrition needs are not satisfied, there is a failure to thrive

Heredity Are those aspects that are passed on from one generation to another via the genes.

May develop attributes that increase peer acceptance, self esteem and self confidence. E.g. may be a good athlete.

May feel a need to live up to expectationsMay develop attributes that do not promote self-esteem or self-confidence such as Dad’s big nose

Sociocultural influences Relates to the influences on individual development associated with society and culture. Social- where we live, what we do and how we interact with others. Cultural- those customs, traditions or aspects of everyday life that we associate with.

Transfer of culture from one generation to another, developing a sense of identity, belonging and pride

Some social and cultural practices may no longer be seen as relevant

Group belonging Refers to the happiness and security an individual feels by being a part of a group.

Provides stimulation, provides security and gives status and identity

If the individual is removed from the group, they will have to function on their own

Environment Refers to the external pressures that influence individual development. E.g. a child growing up in a home that doesn’t provide reading material, because the family doesn’t value books or reading.

Some environments stimulate and foster individual development

Some environments can stunt or deprive individuals of what they need to develop

Group formations

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Reasons for group formationPsychologist Bruce Tuckman described group development through a series of development stages:

STAGE 1- FORMING: STAGE 2- STORMINGWhen individuals join together Members share their opinionsand form a group. Relationships and ideas. Conflict arises andare developed and responsibilities is managed.and tasks are defined.

STAGE 3- NORMINGStandard practises and expectations are developed.

Why groups formLocality/geography Individuals may join groups based on their proximity to group members

and group activities, e.g. local youth groups.Gender Individuals may join groups where members are of the same gender as

specific to the activity of the group, e.g. women’s dance groups.Shared interest/common goal

Individuals may join groups with shared interest or common goals, e.g. sports teams or environmental awareness groups.

Security Individuals may join groups that provide safety for those who require it, e.g. Neighbourhood Watch. They may also join groups to support their own safety and security.

Sexuality Individuals may join groups who share the same sexual preference, e.g. Gay and Lesbian Rights Groups.

Specific need Individuals may join groups based on a particular need, i.e. someone who needs to increase their fitness levels may join an exercise group.

Social interaction Individuals may join groups that help develop social skills and promote relationships, e.g. YMCA or church groups.

Culture Individuals may join groups based on their culture and heritage, i.e. Maori groups.

Types of groupsPrimary and secondary Temporary and permanent Formal and informalPrimary groups are where members have strong, lasting relationships with one another. E.g. family.Secondary groups are those where interaction is less personal and individual involvement in the group is variable. Rather than categorised that emotion, secondary groups are often goal oriented. E.g. family acquaintances.

Temporary groups are those that are formed for a specific or limited amount of time. E.g. they form and dissolve as goals are achieved.Permanent groups are those that are formed for an extended period of time. E.g. family.

Formal groups are those that are created to perform certain tasks and assign specific roles to members. E.g. school board.Informal groups are those that occur naturally in response to various situations (social contact or shared interests). E.g. choosing a soccer team in the playground

Characteristics of group membersRoles: Those actions or activities we are recquired to do as part of our position in a particular group or organisation.

Task-oriented roles Socio emotional DestructiveAre roles based on achieving the task. Task-oriented members are generally knowledgeable, have common sense, be organised and motivate others. E.g. experts, brainstormers, chairperson, evaluator, etc.

Are based on open and honest communication to ensure efficiency and group cohesion. These members are generally good communicators and are good at solving problems. E.g. peacemakers, encouragers,

Those members that are based on destroying group cohesion. They cause negative effects by using behaviours such as avoidance, interrupting, laughing, coughing, making faces, etc. E.g. distractor, victim,

STAGE 4- PERFORMINGGroup members will work together towards their goals. Dynamics may change, conflict (S2).

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mediators, etc. blocker, dominator, etc.

Norms, conformity and cohesiveness within and among groupsNorm A standard behaviour that is recquired, desired or expected.

(Acceptable behaviour that is judged)AKA: Standard, benchmark and criteria

Conform To act in accordance with prevailing standards, attitudes or practices of a society or a group. (To be/act as others do)

AKA: Comply, harmonise and integrate

Cohesive The force of bringing group members closer together. (Working well together)

AKA: Strong, relentless, and sturdy.

LEADERSHIP

Assumed

Individual takes on the role without any discussion. E.g. Coach decides on team captains.Advantages: Person selected may have perfect leadership skills, quick and easyDisadvantages: Unfair/bias, not democratic, other people may not have an equal selection

Negotiated

When their role is discussed upon. E.g. In elections, public voters elect politicians as leaders.Advantages: Discussed and agreed upon, democratic, everybody’s happyDisadvantages: Not all members will agree, needs organisation

Leadership stylesTask-oriented People-orientedAre those who are focused on the task, and are motivated on finishing the job quickly.

Are those who are focused on building effective relationships within a group. They think about the satisfaction of others.

Autocratic Collaborative Laissez-faire- Task-oriented- Dictate- They are authoritarian- They make decisions for

the group- E.g. sports coach

instructing individuals to practise individual skills

- Task + people oriented- Shared style- Work together with others- Values teamwork and

effort- Equal- E.g. sports coach

brainstorming ideas for skill training

- People- oriented- Relaxed and laid back- Group controls the decisions being made- Limited role in developing group identity and

notions of belonging- Limited influence on group members- E.g. sports coach allowing highly skilled team

members to develop tactics to use in their game

Transformational CulturalThose who are highly inspiring and motivational. They provide individual consideration, intellectual stimulation and possess charisma.

Those who represent the values and standards of specific cultures in their leadership approach. Valued for their ability about ‘change’ in their community.

Influences on leadership styles

Nature of the group The characteristics of groups differ greatly depending on the required tasks and goals of the group. For this reason, the nature of the group largely influences the type of leadership style that is most effective. For example, a group of friends working with disadvantaged children will benefit from collaborative leadership as they will be able to effectively communicate with one other, bounce ideas off one another, yet ultimately look to a leader for advice and support.

Type of task The type of task also influences the type of leadership that is

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most effective. For example, tasks that are well prepared and planned would benefit from an autocratic leader who can lead members to complete the tasks according to the plans already in place. Less prepared tasks would benefit from a collaborative leader as strategies can be developed through open communication and group effort.

Nature of the decisions Depending upon the time frame for decisions, different leadership styles are more appropriate. For quick and on-the-spot decisions, autocratic leadership is most effective as the leader can make a decision without group involvement on behalf of absent group members. If a decision is less urgent, collaborative leadership can be used to consult members and co

Gender expectations Males and females perceive leaders in different ways, and in turn leaders may need to adapt to the expectations placed upon them. For example, a female group member may identify with a female leader and perceive them as strong, influential and capable, where as they may perceive a male leader as dominant and overriding. Conversely, a male group member may perceive a female leader as introverted and passive where as they may perceive a male leader as persuasive and outgoing.A female leader with the gender expectations of being introverted and passive will need to concentrate on being open, unreserved and proactive in their leadership style. Conversely, a male leader with the gender expectations of being dominant and overriding will need to focus on being less commanding and superseding in order to be an effective leader.me to a group agreement.

Experience of the leader Leaders with previous experience are more likely to effectively lead a group than those with limited to no leadership familiarity. They are also more likely toidentify the type of group and task and utilise the most appropriate leadership style than someone with inadequate or small amounts of experience.

Culture Every group, whether culturally based or not, has a culture specific to itself. Values and standards are developed within a group influenced by group member’s personalities, traits, cultural backgrounds, traditions and beliefs. A group’s culture is affected by the operations and functioning of the group through its existence. A leader must adopt an effective style that will respect and uphold the cultural traits of the group.

Effectiveness and flexibility of leadership

Leadership and management roles

The distinctions between leadership and management

The effectiveness of leadership styles depends on the above-mentioned influences. To be as effective as possible, the internal and external factors affecting leadership must be identified and understood. An effective leader will be flexible in their leadership styles. They will adapt and amalgamate various characteristics of the different leadership styles to use a style most effective to each individual group they lead.

Leadership and management are interrelated concepts. Whilst leadership refers to the ability to guide, direct and influence people, and management relates to handlingand controlling specific tasks, it is uncommon to have leadership without management, and there are various characteristics that overlap between the two concepts.

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Specific to Leadership

Specific to Management Specific to LeadershipManagers administerManagers maintainManagers controlManagers imitateManagers have a short-term viewManagers ask how and whenManagers accept the status quo

Leaders innovateLeaders developLeaders inspireLeaders originateLeaders have a long-term viewLeaders ask what and whyLeaders challenge the status quo

Communication networksWheel Has one person as its focus. All group members send information to this one person.

Autocratic leadership.

Chain Represents a two-way communication network whereby communication flows between each end. Group communication is blocked; middle members can talk to two different sides, however the top and bottom members of the network cannot directly communicate. E.g. small magazine company.

Circle Represents a two-way communication amongst those ‘next’ to each other. Complete group communication is still blocked.

Channel Represents unlimited and equal communication between group members. Ensures group members have equivalent power in all decision making situations.

Organisational grapevine

Refers to the type of informal communication networks functioning within groups. AKA unorganised communication, free communication.

Power within groupsThe term power is used to describe an individual or groups ability to do something.

5 main power basesCoercive Pressures and intimidates. Punish when instructions aren’t followed or tasks

aren’t completed. Are generally disliked. E.g. salary cut.Referent Try and build effective relationships and connects with the group. They want to

be liked and earn respect by members.Expert The power an individual has due to their knowledge and capabilities. Influences

the group by passing on knowledge.Rewards Applies their power by rewarding and gratifying members. E.g. pay increase or a

promotion.

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Legitimate Power that comes with being in the position. E.g. school captain has powers associated with being in an esteemed position.

Group decision-making processesConsensus Refers to the process of coming to an agreement or compromise

within a group. This type of decision-making process ensures a decision is supported by an entire group, i.e. if there are opposing individuals; a decision is changed or altered to represent the group as a whole.

Dictatorship Refers to one individual who makes a decision affecting an entire group. These individual’s can be nominated by their group as the decision- maker, may do so based on their knowledge and expertise or may take it upon themselves to make a decision.

Voting Refers to a group of individuals who cast a vote or make an individual choice regarding a decision. The decision is then made based on the majority of people in favour of a specific course of action.

Observation as a research methodParticipant Participation observation: researcher takes part in group and observes from within

Advantage: more knowledge and better disclosure from membersDisadvantage: being bias, not acting normally, influencing group decision and it is time consuming

Non-participant

Non-participant observation: involves researcher observing the group without participatingAdvantage: researcher is more objective, and it is easier to recordDisadvantages: group members actions influenced by knowing they are watched, the researcher may not interact well enough, requires time and patience. Observing can reveal a lot about group dynamics or sociometry.

Sociometric study and models A Sociogram is a useful tool for recording interactions between individuals within a group. E.g.

peer group, workplace, and family.

Managing conflictExamining conflict:Conflict is a normal part I life it will occur within an individual and between individuals in groups.

Causes of conflict

Incompatible goals This is a short or long term goal indecision e.g. save money for a new car.Individual differences/personality:

A loud individual may cause a shy person to feel threatened.

Limited resources: A young single income family may experience conflict when deciding on resource allocation.

Ineffective communication:

A partner who suits and watches television in preference to communicating may feel isolated and experience conflict.

Varying values: Teenagers who value friends may experience conflict when grounded.

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Multiple-role expectations:

A working mother may experience conflict in juggling many roles and responsibilities at both work and home.

Mapping conflict to determine the real issue and remove distractions:If individuals are able to reflect on situations or gain the assistance of others to explore the reason of conflict, they may be able to avoid future conflict.

Forces of conflict:

Constructive: Disruptive: Destructive Allows parties to have their say

equally May lead to a positive resolution Produces something useful Conflict is seen as an opportunity for

better things to come. Can allow greater success of task,

greater group cohesion, which can develop improved self-esteem and sense of belonging.

Interrupts people’s concentration and focus on a task or goal.

Can temporarily have a negative effect on relationships and groups ability to work together.

Can lead to increased levels of frustration among group members, which decreases their level of tolerance, and consequently leads to a lack of cohesion.

Causes individuals to stop working together.

Communication becomes limited; there is loss of respect and decision not made collaboratively.

A conflict is destructive if it negatively affects those involved.

If not resolved it can cause anger, fear and resentment.

Decreases self-esteem, self-confidence and affects the group’s ability to function.

Resolution and management of conflict:

Negotiation: Process of discussion between two or more individuals who seek to find a solution to a common problem.

E.g. when a parent and child negotiate pocket money in payment for chores around the house.

Mediation: Method of conflict resolution carried by an unbiased individual who works with disputing parties to help them improve their communication and analysis of the conflict situation.

Agreement Refers to settlement of conflict or the arrangement or deal the involved parties have agreed upon to manage or minimise the conflict.

Resolution: Refers to the process of resolving a dispute or a conflict by providing the needs of disputing parties.

Conflict resolution outcomes

Win-win: Results in all members winning or having their needs satisfied. Outcome is result of using compromise and collaboration as a strategy.

Win-lose: Means one/some members win, while others lose. Some member’s needs are met at the expense of others. Competition and accommodation strategies result in a win-lose outcome; competitors win, accommodators lose.

Lose-lose: All members lose, or do not have their needs met. Avoidance can lead to this outcome;

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competition and accommodation can also result in a lose-lose situation. Although, one/some members get what they want, if the group becomes fragmented and further problems arise, then nobody really wins.

Approaches of conflict resolution: Assertive: Stands up for their own rights and consider rights of others Express their needs, ideas and feelings and respect those of others Able to cope with problems and anxiety Have self-confidence and control.

Cooperative: Keep in mind the common goal of the group Maintain good relationships with each other Recognises that there is more than one good way of doing something.

Passive: Ignore their own rights Supress feelings of anger and resentment Fee helpless and lack self-confidence.

Aggressive: Ignore their rights and feelings of others and do not listen to others Are determined to get their own way Manipulate, dominate or humiliate others using threats, nagging and bullying. Have difficulty expressing positive feelings.

Case study as a research method : A case study is a detailed investigation of an issue. Data is collected from various sources e.g. newspaper, questionnaire, observation, interviews

and reports. About one topic Results are subjective Provided greater evidence of a point.

Advantages Disadvantages

- Collect information from various sources.

- Provides greater evidence- Generalises about one topic

- Limited amount of time- time consuming- results are subjective

Different research methods include: Interviews, reports, case studies, surveys

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