C R Coastal ConseRvation DisCoveRy JouRnal · In case of emergency If you have lost contact with your group or need assistance for a medical condition, injury, or any other emergency,

Costa RiCa:

Coastal ConseRvationDisCoveRy JouRnal

In case of emergencyIf you have lost contact with your group or need assistance for a medical condition, injury, or any other emergency, please call a staff member immediately at the toll-free number listed below.

In Costa Rica call 2293-6134This number should be used for emergencies only. When you call, please be prepared to give your name, the number you are calling from, your location, your group name or teacher’s name, and the reason for the call. The person you speak with will give you further instructions.

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Acknowledgements

This Costa Rica: Coastal Conservation Discovery Journal features activities developed by the WorldStrides staff in surveying the best available environmental science curricula offered by educational, environmental, and scientific organizations throughout the nation and abroad. We wish to acknowledge the many individuals who assisted us with this effort.

Special thanks to the Course Leader staff in Costa Rica, for their guidance, encouragement, and use of program materials. We also owe special thanks to the team of guides at Tirimbina Forest in Costa Rica, for providing us with a wealth of materials.

PrefaceUnderstanding the Concept of Global Ecology .......................................................................2

Activity: Foodmiles Calculations ........................................................................................3

Environmental ScienceIntroduction: The Discipline of Environmental Science ..........................................................5The Earth’s Many Layers: How Environmental Scientists Look at the World ...........................6

Activity: Country X .................................................................................................................8Cycles ................................................................................................................................. 11

Environmental HistoryCosta Rica: An Environmental Scientist’s Perspective.......................................................... 15

BiosphereUnderstanding Costa Rica’s Inland Ecosystems ................................................................... 18

Activity: Thoughts on species extinction ........................................................................21Activity: Create your own creature ..................................................................................22

The Coastal Ecology of Costa Rica ....................................................................................... 23Activity: A Civic Environmentalist’s Vacation ................................................................25

Hydrosphere Costa Rica’s Rivers and Estuaries ......................................................................................... 26

Activity: Bad Fisherman or Just Bad Luck .......................................................................29Further on Down the River: Understanding the Estuarine Ecology of Dominical ................ 30

Activity: Understanding the costs of destroying our wetlands and our estuaries ... 31The Real World: Environmentally-conscious Landscaping at Santa Ana’s Valle del Sol and Guanacaste’s Four Seasons Resort ...................................................................................... 33

Activity: Getting out into the Field: Testing the Estuarine Environment .................35Costa Rica’s Underwater Coastal Ecology ............................................................................ 37

Activity: A Snorkeling Scavenger Hunt ...........................................................................38Beyond Cano Island: Sea Kayaking in Parque Nacional Marino Ballena .............................. 41The Science Behind a Good Surfing Spot: The Offshore Bathymetry and Hydrology ofManuel Antonio ................................................................................................................. 43

Activity: Putting it All Together .........................................................................................46

Pollution and ConservationCosta Rica’s Environmental Problems ................................................................................ 47San José: Understanding the Urban Organism and Population Dynamics .......................... 48

Activity: Pretend you are the leader of a third world country ....................................50 Leave-No-Trace Touring in Costa Rica ................................................................................. 51Can I Drink the Water?: Understanding Costa Rica’s Sewage Systems and Waterworks....... 53World Conservation Organizations: How to get involved in Civic Environmentalism .......... 54

Activity: Become an Active Conservationist ..................................................................56Activity: Craft an eco-JAM! .................................................................................................59

ConclusionLeaving on a Jet Plane ........................................................................................................ 60

Glossary ............................................................................................................................. 62Unit Conversion Chart ........................................................................................................ 64Expert Scientist Checklist ................................................................................................... 65

Table of Contents1

Costa Rica Discovery Journal

2

Grab a banana from your pantry. Come on, you know you have one, and if you don’t, you really should eat more fruit. Chomp down on that Dole or Chiquita banana…yum. What a delicious treat. Have you ever stopped to think about how that banana got to your local market? If you’re from the continental United States, it’s likely the bananas you eat don’t grow anywhere near where you live. In fact, it’s quite possible that the banana you just enjoyed came from Costa Rica. What did it take to get that banana to your doorstep?

These are the types of questions that scholars of environmental studies ask. They seek to understand our global ecology, to understand the ways in which environmental metamorphoses in one corner of the world affect biota in other corners of the globe. The air we breathe, the land we walk on, and the water that we drink – these are all finite resources, resources we share as a global community. Creating a sustainable global ecology requires transnational cooperation, and it starts with awareness that the decisions we make as consumers can have far reaching implications for the health of our planet.

Understanding the Concept of Global EcologyBefore you go….

Preface

This journal is about becoming aware, about asking simple questions and finding out more about the world in which we live, a world that is much bigger than just our backyard. You will not only learn a great deal about environmental science, but you will learn about a variety of ways you can become involved in saving our plant as a civic environmentalist. So let’s see how we can start making our world a more beautiful, cleaner place!


3Costa Rica Discovery Journal Preface

Before you go activity:Choose another product that you consume on a daily basis. It can be a fruit or another food product, something you wear or something you use in school. Do a little research and find out how that particular item ended up in your possession. Catalog the many steps it took to process and ship that item. Finally, express whether you have a new found appreciation about your consumptive habits and whether this exercise has made you think about changing your typical behavior.

Ingredient 2

Place of Extraction

Distance to Local Market

Ingredient 4

Place of Extraction


Ingredient 1

Place of Extraction


Ingredient 3

Place of Extraction


Product Name

Summary Assessment____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


4

“Foodmiles” Calculations:When we calculate the cost of a meal, we often do not take into consideration the ecological costs associated with the production of a particular commodity. One such measure we should explore when assessing the ecological costs of our consumptive behavior is the distance a product must travel in order to reach a group of consumers. Where food is consumed close to its point of production, the ecological costs associated with the consumption of that product will be minimal, e.g., an apple picked in a suburban garden and eaten at once. However, where food is brought from a distant part of the world, the amount of energy used may be very large, possibly greater than that needed to produce it.

It would be virtually impossible to calculate exactly the amount of energy used to transport a given item of food from the farm, fishery, or factory where it was produced to its point of consumption. The concept of foodmiles, however, may be used as an alternative unit of measurement to provide an illustration, but without extreme claims to accuracy. (The term foodkilometre is strictly more appropriate, but is rather clumsy.)

Foodmile value of an item of food = mass of food item (g) x distance transported (km).An orange of mass 150 g from Spain, consumed in London could be worth 150 x 1,200 or 180,000 units.

Here is a foodmiles calculation for a light breakfast consumed in Perth, Western Australia (WA).

Preface

Food Item Mass (g) Source Distance (km) Foodmile UnitsPineapple juice 200 Queensland 4,000 800,000Cereal 200 New South Wales 3,000 180,000Kiwifruit (portion) 50 New Zealand 5,000 250,000Slice of Toast 50 Western Australia 150 7,500Marmalade 5 Homemade 0 NegligibleCoffee 10 Papua New Guinea 4,000 40,000TOTAL 1,277,500

Food Item Mass (g) Source Distance (km) Foodmile Units

TOTAL

OK, now let’s take a look at your breakfast. Execute the calculations necessary to determine how many foodmiles are expended to make your breakfast.

This comes from the DP Environmental Systems Booklet 5: Ecology in Urban Environments, pg. 12.

What can you determine from your findings?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5Costa Rica Discovery Journal

Environmental science is a broad discipline that encompasses a diverse array of more specific fields of study. See the list below to get a sense of all the academic areas that make up environmental science.

Volcanologist? These specialized geologists study formation, activity, temperature, and explosions of volcanoes. They spend a great deal of their time outdoors and in the field, living on the edge (literally), drawing samples from the earth’s volcanic cauldrons.

Glaciologist? If you’re concerned about global warming and want to know more about the consequences of the greenhouse gas effect (more on this later), you might want to consider a career as a glaciologist. These geologists study the formation, movement, and makeup of current glaciers Working in the frigid ice boxes of the world, glaciologists have recently become quite popular, offering disturbing scientific evidence linking global climate change to glacial melting.

Environmental Science Demystified, New York, NY: The McGraw Hill Companies. Inc., 2005.

Introduction to Environmental ScienceThe Discipline of Environmental Science

Ever consider a career as a...

Environmental Science

Environmental Science Areas of interest

Bioengineering Designing or reconstructing sustainable ecosystems

Botany Characterization, growth, and distribution of plants

Conservation Biology Preserve, manage, or restore endangered areas or species

Ecology Study of relationships between living organisms and their environment

Environmental Geology Conservation of resources and future planning

Forestry Characterization, growth, distribution, and planting of trees

Geophysics Earth’s magnetism, gravity’ electrical properties, and radioactivity

Glaciology Formation, movement, and makeup of current glaciers

Hydrology Composition and flow of water over the earth

Oceanography Water makeup, currents, boundaries, topography, and marine life

Wildlife Biology Characterization and distribution of animal communities

Zoology Characterization, growth, and distribution of animals


6

The Earth is composed of four main spheres: lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Probably the most important sphere which separates Earth from other known planets is the atmosphere. The atmosphere is the key to the development of life. It is made up of a mixture of gases that combine to allow life to exist. In the lower atmosphere, nitrogen accounts for about 75% of the gases followed by oxygen at about 20%. The other gases are found in trace amounts. The hydrosphere is the ever-changing total water cycle that is part of the closed environment. It includes earth’s most notable feature from space – oceans. The Earth’s surface is mainly water, and oceans make up about 97% of the earth’s water. Not only does the hydrosphere consist of the visible water but also the water found in different states throughout the water cycle. A sub-category of the hydrosphere would be the cryosphere that includes all of earth’s frozen water. The crust and top part of the mantle are known as the lithosphere. This layer is the coolest of earth’s land layers and insulates the active mantle layers below. All living things are found in the biosphere, which includes all three spheres. The main elements that are the roots to all living things in the biosphere are

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The sphere interactions are not only numerous but also diverse.

Ecosystems are complex communities of plant and animal life linked together by energy and nutrient flows that interact with each other and their environment. Coral reefs, deserts, mangroves, and wetlands are all examples of ecosystems. Every member of a specific ecosystem has a specific purpose or ecological niche. The relationships between the ecological niches make up an ecosystem. When new species are introduced and competition for a niche takes place, the ecological balance is upset. A new balance must be created for the natural system to be successful. The same occurs when a species is eliminated. It is up to other species to adapt or die.

The Earth’s Many Layers: How Environmental Scientists Look at the World



As we saw in the first section of the journal, the earth is made up of a diverse array of ecosystems that are all interconnected. We might describe the world ecosystem as our global ecology – that is a global environment consisting of many different ecosystems that are all interconnected.

What Exactly is a Biosphere?An environmental biosphere consists of all the organisms and non-living materials found in a particular area. The organisms interact with one another as well as with the non-living components of the environment.

To understand the interconnectedness of organisms, it is necessary to study ecosystems, or biological communities interacting with one another and their environment. Ecosystems have many components that can be broken into two major categories, biotic and abiotic. The biotic or living parts of an ecosystem include species, populations, and biological communities. The abiotic influences are non-living, such as temperature, light, soil, and water.

Organisms within biospheres can be classified into two different categories: producers, or autotrophs, which make their own food, as green plants do; and consumers, or heterotrophs, which cannot make their own food and must eat producers or other consumers. Consumers can be further divided into herbivores, which eat plants; carnivores, which eat animals; omnivores, which eat both plants and animals; and detrivores, which feed off dead and decaying organisms.

The sequence of who eats whom in an ecosystem is called a food chain. All ecosystems have complex feeding networks, made up of many different food chains. This feeding network is called a food web.

Scientists assign every organism in a biosphere to a feeding level, or trophic level, depending on whether it is a producer or consumer and on which type of consumer it is. The producer is on the first trophic level; the primary consumer is on the second trophic level; the secondary consumer is on the third trophic level; the tertiary consumer is on the fourth trophic level; and the quaternary consumer, if present in a food chain, would occupy the fifth trophic level.

The Anthroposphere

Humans, like all other life forms, depend on the unique relationships between the biosphere, hydrosphere,



8

atmosphere, and lithosphere. We need air to breathe, water to drink, and land to grow the food we eat. But the balance between people and place is fragile. When humans interact with the natural environment, there are always consequences. Some of these are intended; some are not. Some consequences are positive and beneficial; some are negative and costly.

Think about the atmosphere and complete the following activity.For the inhabitants of Country X, the beautiful and tempting blue expanse of the Blue Sea, with its lazy curving beaches, is no longer pure. Into this sea flows the urban and chemical waste from the Baltic States and beyond.

Marine life has suffered as a direct result of Country X’s fishing policies. The natural balance has been destroyed by overfishing, and during the 1980s spawning fish levels in the entire Blue Sea fell by more than 50 percent. In the past 20 years, the concentration of nitrate from improperly treated waste water quadrupled during the winter months. This has increased organic material on the sea bottom, which has reduced oxygen levels and led to a decline in numbers of fish. Stocks of whitefish and smelt have dropped and cod reproduction has been seriously affected.

Naturalists say that some of the country’s mismanagement of coastal areas has actually protected the whole coast from development. For nearly two generations, most coastal land remained unused. For the first time in 50 years, people are rediscovering beautiful beaches. Country X’s control also saved large tracts of woodland and wildlife, sustaining habitats that have completely disappeared elsewhere in the world. Fortunately, Country X has several natural parks and special areas set aside for the study of plants, animals, and geological sites.

You’re the President of Country X. What strategies would you adopt in order to protect your country’s natural resources. Keep in mind that the Nitrate Fertilizing Company is one of your biggest political backers and the Beach Resort Cartel also has tremendous political pull. How do you affect change without alienating potential political allies?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


9Costa Rica Discovery Journal Environmental Science

Energy is a crucial question, and the search for it has been a major contributor to the pollution of Country X. Two nuclear reactors are now up and running, but plans for another two at the same site were halted following the demonstrations organized by an environmental group.

Country X has no natural fuel resources and consumes twice as much energy as it produces at the nuclear station and at a thermoelectric power plant. Officials do not plan to close down the electric plant, which produces more than half the electricity generated in Country X, but they are trying to increase the reactor’s safety. Little has been done to promote heat and light conservation at home. Windows are badly-fitted and buildings are poorly-insulated. Government attempts to control fuel use during energy shortages have not been successful. Country X’s forests are already threatened by a burgeoning black market for timber exports, and with the fuel crisis, they will increasingly be used for fuel to heat homes during the long, dark days of winter. Wood and peat currently supply about four percent of Country X’s energy needs.

The ecological changes described on the previous page all have human (or “anthropogenic”) rather than natural causes. Complete the chart below indicating the environmental problem related to the aspect of the environment listed. Note the probable human causes of each problem, as well as the effect this problem has on the ecology of the area. Finally, note the effect of this ecological change on humans and their culture.

ASSESSMENT

Aspect ofEnvironment Problem Human Cause(s) Effect(s) on

EcologyConsequences for

Humans

AIR

LAND

VEGETATIONAND WILDLIFE

WATER


10Environmental Science

Which are primarily the result of local causes? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Which are primarily the result of regional causes? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Which are primarily the result of international causes? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Of the human causes noted on your chart:Which are related to meeting basic needs of food and water? How? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Which are related to industrial development? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Which would be easiest for people to change? Why? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Which would be the most difficult? Why? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Of the effects on ecology noted on your chart:Which of these effects would be easiest to reverse? Why? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Which would be the most difficult to reverse? Why? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________Which do you believe is the most urgent problem? Why? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Discuss the solutions to this problem.What is the best way to solve this environmental dilemma? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


As you look out across the ocean, you might want to think about another type of system that shapes the coastal ecology of Costa Rica: the hydrologic cycle (coming from the latin “hydro” meaning water). We can use the diagram above to structure our conversation about how the hydrologic cycle works. We can think of water as being constantly in motion; it is either flowing in waterways above the earth’s crust, traveling to the atmosphere, or falling from the sky as snow, rain, sleet, and hail. Let’s outline each transitional stage of the hydrologic cycle and introduce some terms that will be useful when discussing hydrology as it pertains to a particular ecosystem.

Cycles: Hydrologic Cycle



Nitrogen CycleWater is not the only resource vital to life on earth; living organisms also require nitrogen. Nitrogen is one of the essential elements in amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Thus, it is critical that animals secure enough nitrogen in order to sustain appropriate amino acid levels. Believe it or not, the earth’s atmosphere is made up of roughly 78% nitrogen. Animals, however, are unable to absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere and must rely on the nitrogen cycle in order to secure appropriate quantities of the element.

It might be helpful to refer to the diagram above to get a handle on how the nitrogen cycle works. Oddly enough, bacteria are essential to the proper functioning of this cycle. Nitrogen fixating bacteria—or bacteria that can combine atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen—can convert nitrogen into a usable ammonia compound that can be taken up by plants. Other bacteria, known as nitrifying bacteria, converts ammonia into usable nitrate compounds that can also be taken up by plants.

Herbivorous animals acquire nitrogen by consuming vegetation, and carnivorous (meat-eating) and omnivorous (both meat- and plant-eating) animals, in turn, acquire nitrogen by eating herbivorous creatures. The cycle comes full circle when animals and plants die, returning nitrogen to the soil. The cycle is complete when denitrifying bacteria in the soil return nitrogen to the atmosphere.


Carbon CycleSimilar to the nitrogen cycle, the carbon cycle involves the transfer of carbon atoms between the biosphere, hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. Humans, like all living organisms, use carbon atoms for a variety of biochemical processes. It’s useful to reflect on how the carbon in your body might have been in the ocean days earlier or up in the atmosphere. In a very real sense, carbon atoms link you to the natural environment that surrounds you via the carbon cycle.

Now, let’s investigate this cycle further. The process is quite complex, so let’s narrow our focus a bit, looking specifically at how plants contribute to the cycle. Plants utilize carbon dioxide as a primer for photosynthesis and thus absorb considerable amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Plants store carbon in the form of sugars known as carbohydrates (when you hear someone talk about a low-carb diet, they are talking about a diet that is low in carbohydrates). These stores of energy can later be utilized to help a plant grow via the process of respiration in which carbohydrates are broken down and carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. When plants die, they deposit carbon into the soil, which can, after centuries and centuries turn into fossil fuels.



The burning of fossil fuels contributes to the cycling of carbon in our globe. Via combustion, humans are able to power vehicles, provide electricity to homes, and run factories. Unfortunately, humans’ increased combustion of fossil fuels has also led to huge increases in atmospheric carbon concentrations. As we will see later, carbon dioxide molecules in the atmosphere can act to deflect ultraviolet radiation that otherwise would escape through the earth’s atmosphere. This effect is known as the greenhouse gas effect (more on this later).Out in the ocean, carbon is also cycled between the hydrosphere and the atmosphere through a process known as diffusion. Aquatic vegetation contribute to the carbon cycle in the same way that terrestrial plants do (see above). Fish and other herbivorous sea creatures consume aquatic vegetation and thus acquire carbohydrates that are essential for metabolic processes. Like plants, aquatic animals and land creatures give off carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. When ocean flora and flora die and decompose, carbon is stored in the ocean floor.

Areas of the biosphere, hydrosphere, or atmosphere that take in more carbon then they release are known as carbon sinks (places where carbon is dumped). The problem with making our atmosphere a carbon sink (because of the combustion of fossil fuels) is quite disturbing. We will discuss this issue later. For now, let’s turn our attention back to Costa Rica.

Why does all this matter? Understanding the ins and outs of the hydrological cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen cycle once again reinforces the idea that that abiotic resources travel long distances, changing physical properties and affecting living organisms in diverse environments. We may very well think that cutting down a small sector of tropical rainforest will have only localized consequences, but the reality is that such actions affect a much larger ecosystem.

OK, now that we have sketched a broad outline of what environmental science is all about, let’s turn our focus specifically to the ecology of Costa Rica. It’s time to get our hands dirty and get out into the field.

15Costa Rica Discovery Journal Environmental History

Costa Rica: An Environmental Scientist’s PerspectiveEnvironmental History of Costa RicaHave you ever stopped to think about how environmental forces shape history? We cannot understand the history of a nation like Costa Rica without acknowledging the ways in which environmental factors—wind patterns, disease, agricultural metamorphoses, and ecotourism—influenced the trajectory of Costa Rica’s development.

So let’s start from the beginning and catalog the ways in which both man shaped the natural environment of Costa Rica and how nature shaped man.

To start, we must remember that Mother Nature held the key to the success of the early European colonial expeditions in the New World. It was not until mariners sailing in the Atlantic discovered the circular pattern of the Atlantic trade winds in the fifteenth century that trans-Atlantic voyages could even be contemplated. When sailors discovered that they could travel far to the west using the southern trade winds that blew westward, and that they could return easily on the northern trade winds that blew eastward, adventurous explorers began to plan for extended journeys into the unexplored western waters of the Atlantic.

When these first explorers arrived in the New World at the end of the fifteenth century, they were not alone. While it may be easy to think of Central America in the pre-Columbian era as a natural utopia untouched by man, the reality is that civilizations called the region home for thousands of years before European settlement. Nonetheless, the 16th century marked the beginning of dramatic transformations in the region’s ecology, when Europeans—with Columbus and the Spanish leading the way in 1492—began to scout out colonial territories like Costa Rica (1502). The Spanish were in search of gold, and when Columbus saw the native peoples bedecked in gold jewelry, he dubbed the newfound colony “Costa Rica” meaning “Rich Coast.”

Unfortunately for the Spanish, few explorers were able to locate vast stores of golden ore. Nonetheless, efforts to colonize the region continued. You may ask, how could a handful of explorers from Europe overwhelm the local tribes of Costa Rica? Certainly, advanced technology gave Europeans an upper hand, but particular environmental advantages also helped the Spanish gain an edge on the native peoples. The Spanish brought with them deadly diseases such as smallpox, diseases to which the native people were not immune. These diseases decimated native tribes, making it easier for Europeans to colonize the region. Thus, as Alfred Crosby illustrates in his work Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900, diseases like smallpox were perhaps the most effective weapons European colonizers benefited from in their conquest of the Americas.

For roughly three centuries, Costa Rica remained somewhat of a disappointment for colonists looking to strike it rich in the new world, but in 1808, a dramatic transformation of the colonial ecology made Costa Rica one of the more attractive colonial acquisitions of the Spanish Empire. In that year, colonists began to clear land in order to cultivate coffee. Costa Rica was the first Central American country to develop a

Gold Bird Pendant Worn by Costa Rican Natives When Columbus Arrived in the 16th Century (now on display at the Metropolitan (Met) Museum of Art in New York City


16Environmental History

coffee industry, and certainly the environmental conditions were a key factor in its development. The combination of a highlands region and a chain of volcanoes created terrain in which the coffee plant could thrive.

Costa Rica is composed of a number of volcanic chains, starting in the northwest part of the country and crossing to the southeastern region. As a result of the volcanic activity, the soil in these areas is rich in organic materials which benefit the growing coffee plant. The volcanic soil’s composition encourages the roots of the plant to distribute evenly, invigorating growth by promoting retention of moisture and facilitating proper oxygenation. In addition, the plant thrives in the shade of the country’s dense forests and favorable altitude. A moderate to high altitude is important to maturing coffee plants. Most Costa Rican coffee is grown 1,300 feet (396 meters) to 5,700 feet (1,737 meters) above sea level.

Not only did coffee crops change the economic fortunes of many colonists, it also brought dramatic changes to the natural environment of the colony. Interested in growing monocrop plantations (large farms devoted solely to coffee cultivation), early coffee growers cut down tropical forests, destroying native biota in an attempt to maximize profits from coffee cultivation.

Coffee helped many colonizers get rich quick and coffee growers rapidly came to dominate colonial politics in the early nineteenth century. In the 1820s, Costa Rica broke away from the motherland,

Costa Rican Coffee Plantation

17Costa Rica Discovery Journal Environmental History

becoming a state in the Federal Republic of Central America (FRCA). When the loose Central American federation began to break up in the late 1830s, Costa Rica broke away from the FRCA in 1838 (the country had declared independence from Spain in 1821).

The next big agricultural revolution to rock Costa Rica came in 1878, when farmers began to cultivate banana crops. By 1900, banana production had caught up with coffee as the chief export of the country, and by 1911, Costa Rica had become the world’s largest exporter of bananas. Banana cultivation on such a large scale had a devastating effect on Costa Rica’s magnificent ecology. As you drive along highways dotted with banana trees, consider what the landscape would have looked like had you traveled along these thoroughfares before large tracts of forest had been cut down to make way for farmland.

The environmental history of Costa Rica is not all bad. In many ways, twentieth-century Costa Rican history is quite inspiring. Known for its relatively progressive and democratic political culture (the nation does not even have an army!), the Costa Rican government has made efforts to preserve the country’s environment. In the past 20 years, the federal government has set about initiating environmental policies designed to encourage sustainable growth and promote the preservation of the nation’s amazing resources, and there is much to be protected. Though Costa Rica is small, making up only .1% of the world’s landmass, the country contains roughly 5% of the world’s biodiversity. The country has realized that it can make a pretty penny via conservation strategies, as eco-tourism has become the leading industry in the country. Yea, they love the fact that you’re visiting…you are part of a 1.9-billion-dollar-a-year Costa Rican tourism industry.

OK, so now you’re here; it’s time to don the fedora of an environmental scientist and head out to learn more about the amazing ecology of Costa Rica. First, let’s start with the atmosphere.

Flag of theFederal Republic of Central America


18Biosphere

Understanding Costa Rica’s Inland EcosystemsWhile you’re fishing for trout on the Savegre River, take a second to look downstream. Ask yourself, where does this winding watercourse lead? The answer? To the Pacific Ocean! That’s right, the stream you’re wading in meanders through the Savegre Valley down to the coast where it dumps into the Pacific Ocean just South of Manuel Antonio (a beautiful resort town you’ll visit later). While we won’t have a chance to float downstream and follow the river on its course to the ocean, we might want to think about the river as we discuss the different ecosystems that Costa Rica has to offer. You see, if we were to travel down the Savegre River towards the coast, we would journey through a variety of diverse habitats. We would start in a tropical forest marked by freshwater streams and dense jungle and eventually end up in an estuary (a waterway where a freshwater stream meets saltwater). So let’s do just that; let’s head downstream and explore the diverse ecosystems of Costa Rica.

Into the Cloud Forest: Hiking Through the Savegre RegionAs you hike just a few yards down the trail from the Trogon Lodge, you’ll find yourself deep in one of Costa Rica’s amazing cloud forests.

Cloud forests are stunning rainforest ecosystems (more on rainforests later). They get their name from the fact that they are inundated with low-altitude clouds. As you might imagine, the cloud forests of Costa Rica are very wet habitats and thus are quite lush (humidity can be 100% in these forests). They are home to a variety of mosses and other epiphytes—plants that attach themselves to other plants (think of vines, ivy, etc.). You’ll also notice that the temperature in these forests remain quite cool (you might want to think about wearing the appropriate attire for your trek), averaging around 60 degrees Fahrenheit at night and 75 degrees Fahrenheit duringthe day.

Let’s Go for a Hike: Exploring Costa Rica’s Coastal Tropical RainforestsTowards the coast, you’ll find a slightly different tropical rainforest in Corcovado National Park. Let’s take a moment to talk about what a tropical rainforest actually is. The name conjures up images of Tarzan, venomous serpents, and towering hardwoods. In truth, you will find the tropical rainforest ecosystem to be quite exotic. As you can see from the map below, there are very few tropical rainforests left in the world (tropical rainforests cover less than 2% of the Earth’s surface), yet they contain roughly half of the world’s flora and fauna. It’s not everyday that you get to walk through a rainforest, so savor the moment and take in the amazing beauty that surrounds you.

Costa Rican Cloud Forest

19Costa Rica Discovery Journal Biosphere

It takes millions of years for a tropical rainforest to reach maturity. Perhaps what’s most amazing about the tropical rainforests is the remarkable biodiversity they support. Across the globe, rainforests provide healthy habitats for roughly half of the world’s animal species. Wow!

Map of Peninsula de Osa

When we think about what the costs are associated with cutting down the rainforests, we must keep in mind that many of the world’s medicines come from the rainforest. Somewhere in the ballpark of 120 pharmaceutical products come from rainforests. Amazing! Doctors and scientists believe that the cures to thousands of ailments remain to be discovered within tropical rainforests. If we destroy these precious environments, we may very well be eliminating life-saving medicines that could save lives.

The Costa Rican government has done a great deal to protect the nation’s forest, recognizing the importance of eco-tourism. In 1995, the government pushed through a bold initiative to protect 21% percent of the nation’s land and has since established a series of national parks and wildlife preserves.

Still, considerable damage has already been done. Costa Rica has the highest rate of deforestation of any country in Central America, largely because of land-clearing operations associated with coffee and banana cultivation. There’s hope for the future, however, especially as the government becomes more involved in protecting the nation’s natural environment.


20Biosphere

The Garden of Eden: Exploring the Biodiversity of Costa RicaEndangered Species and Natural SelectionToday, you’re headed out in search of the Resplendent Quetzal, one of Costa Rica’s endangered avians. These birds, part of the quetzal family, used to be quite common throughout Central America, but destruction of their native habitat (cloud forests) by cultivators looking to clear land for farming, has resulted in their decline. A bird recognized for its amazing beauty, Guatemalan’s made the avian their national bird, even though they no longer thrive in that country (in fact, the currency in Guatemala is the quetzal). In pre-Columbian times, quetzals were revered by the Aztecs and the Mayans; it was illegal to hunt these birds and the Mayan tribal leaders often affixed quetzal feathers to their headdresses in order to highlight their status within their community.

The Costa Rican government has done a lot to ensure that the Resplendent Quetzal is protected. Establishing national parks that provide sanctuaries for these exotic birds, the government hopes to ensure that quetzals will continue to have healthy habitats in which to live.

Quetzals are, of course, not the only animal facing extinction on the planet, and world organizations are fighting hard to ensure that sanctuaries are provided for endangered species. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), a conservation organization, has looked at factors such as richness of species, ecological importance and uniqueness to determine conservation priorities. These factors determined over 200 regions that are priorities for conservation. The Global 200 is an idea that if ecosystems can be protected than the organisms that make up this ecosystem will also be protected. Once the regions that need protection are defined through great science, how do we than proceed and protect these areas? Conservation biology is the science used to investigate impacts of humans on biodiversity and to develop practical solutions to the loss of biodiversity. Conservation biologists will focus not only on the biological factors but also the social, economic, cultural, and economic factors to determine the best strategies for protection.


OK, so you’ve spent a whole day searching for the quetzal and you’re wondering what the big deal is. Wow, a beautifully colored bird. Well, let’s take a moment to reflect on the issue of endangered species and ask what are the consequences of extinction. Considering what we now know about ecosystems and the idea that in our global ecology, all organisms are tied to one another, why is it so important that a bird like the Resplendent Quetzal not become extinct? When you think about a particular species becoming extinct, how does it make you feel? Catalog your thoughts.

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22Biosphere

Draw Creature

Create your own creature:In the space below, draw up your own Costa Rican creature. The idea is to come up with a creature that exhibits certain evo-lutionary peculiarities—traits that are particularly advantageous for a given creature in a given habitat. Later, explain how natural selection has helped to ensure the survival of your creature.


Terminology used to describe beaches.

Beach and Inshore Features

High tide

Step

RidgeRunnel

Trough

Low tide

Longshore bar

Shelf Inshore

You

Foreshore

Swash zone

Backshore

Dunes

BermBeach face

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The Coastal Ecology of Cost Rica IntroductionOne of the places you’ll visit on your tour of coastal Costa Rica is Cano Island, an island off the coast of Osa Peninsula, part of the canton (province…cantons are like states, if you’re looking for an American equivalent) of Puntarenas. It is a 200 hectare biological preserve protected by the national government and is a world-renowned SCUBA diving spot.

Formed roughly 50 million years ago when tectonic plates shifted below the ocean floor, Cano Island remains one of Costa Rica’s coastal jewels. It is a bird sanctuary, a breeding ground for numerous species of avians and home to other terrestrial creatures. The SCUBA diving offshore is fantastic, featuring volcanic walls and coral reefs measuring 15 feet in length. Home to sea turtles, manatees, and (yikes!) numerous white-tip sharks, you’ll be sure to see some amazing aquatic wildlife on your tour of the island.

A beach is an accumulation (a pile) of unconsolidated (loose) sediment that is located at the intersection of the land and the sea. Beaches are continuously changing and are affected by many processes such as winds, tides, and waves. To form a beach, a supply of sediment and a place for the sediment to accumulate are needed. See above for an illustration of the terms used to describe beach areas.

VegetationDifferent types of vegetation grow along the beach. Where vegetation grows depends on how well it can survive in the harsh environment of the beach. Stability of the surface, amount of fresh water, amount of salt spray, competition among vegetation types, etc., will affect if and what types of vegetation can grow. Vegetation along the back of the beach is important in stabilizing dunes. Small patches of vegetation are shown in your field guide.


24Biosphere

Coastal Plant IdentificationPlant AdaptationAs you walk along the beach on Cano Island, take a look at the plants that inhabit the beach environment. These plants look very different from the plants that live in your front yard, in a forest, and along a river bank. The plants must adapt to specific physical and geological characteristics of the beach environment. Because beach conditions are often extreme, the adaptations that allow plants to survive here are very unique. Some of the physical and geological conditions that plants must adapt to are:

Salt spray – wind carries salt from the ocean over the beach, which may kill exposed tips of plants; beach plants have adapted by (1) developing waxy, leathery leaves that resist salt damage, and (2) developing hairy leaves, which also resists the salt spray.

High waves and overwash – extremely high waves caused by storms may uproot and wash away plants; beach plants have adapted by developing extensive rhizome (horizontal root) systems that prevent them from washing away.

Intense sunlight and wind – sunlight from above, the sunlight reflected from the sand, and constant winds can cause plants to dehydrate; some adaptations include (1) inrolling their leaves during the day, which decreases the surface area struck by sunlight, (2) developing waxy leaves that retain moisture, and (3) developing succulent stems that store water.

High winds – winds also have the effect of burying plants, exposing their roots to the air, and breaking and flattening standing plants; beach plants have adapted by (1) developing extensive rhizome systems that continue to grow, even if the plant is buried, (2) developing leaves that are flattened against the ground and trap sand, and (3) developing flexible stems and leaves that can withstand high winds.

Coarse sand – sand drains quickly, leaving little supply of freshwater for the plants; some adaptations include (1) developing waxy leaves that retain water, (2) developing succulent stems that retain water, and (3) developing hairy leaves that retain water.


A Civic Environmentalist’s Vacation:Despite what one may think, beaches are not barren deserts devoid of living organisms. As we have seen in the section on beach vegetation, a variety of plants have adapted to the beach ecology and call the dry, sandy landscapes home. Many animals—crabs, avians, and other sea creatures—also inhabit Costa Rican beaches.

Beaches are also popular vacation spots for humans, and have thus, unfortunately, become polluted environments as people have left behind empty cans and other trash.

Even if you’re on vacation, you should always think of yourself as a civic environmentalist looking for ways to help protect the natural environments you visit. This afternoon, comb the beach with a friend and spend some time picking up trash that you find. Describe what you find on the beach and how those things might be dangerous to coastal organisms.

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26Hydrosphere

Costa Rica’s Rivers and Estuaries The Science of Fishing!The Savegre River is an excellent trout stream. What makes a good trout stream, you ask? While there are many factors that make a stream a viable habitat for freshwater fish, the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of the water is perhaps the most important. Freshwater with excellent oxygen concentrations provide particularly salubrious environments for freshwater trout and other aquatic life forms. Temperature is also important. Fish are inactive when the water temperature rises above a certain level (or when it is too cold). These facts should not be surprising. Fish are, in some ways, just like you. When they’re hot and lacking oxygen, they seek a cool place to rest and “catch their breath.”

Today, you’ll have the opportunity to use the tools of an environmental scientist to determine whether water conditions on the Savegre River were in your favor—to determine, in other words, whether you can blame your bad fishing on environmental factors that were out of your hands. So let’s begin by discussing some of the basics of hydrological testing.

Water Quality AnalysisRivers are an important source of water for human settlement. They are used for different purposes like irrigation, drinking water, and recreation. However, more and more rivers and streams are being polluted by humans on a daily basis.

Different analyses have to be performed in order to get a total picture of the condition of a river. The physical and habitat surveys give an idea of the primary conditions of the river. Chemical surveys tell us about water quality at a particular moment; however, they won’t detect pollution events that happened a few days before. However, we can rely on the aquatic macroinvertebrates as biological indicators of the events in the recent past.

Macroinvertebrate community structure is important to determine the history of the river. A river with high diversity indicates a healthy ecosystem, whereas a high abundance of certain species of macroinvertebrates can be due to pollution resistance.

27Costa Rica Discovery Journal Hydrosphere

5. Turbidity6. Nitrates (NO2) (NO3)7. Phosphate (PO4) 8. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Conducting a Hydrology Study in a Freshwater Ecosystem Hydrology tests are usually done with basic field testing kits. These tests measure concentrations in the water. During your program, you will perform tests to determine the following basic indicators of water quality:

1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)2. pH3. Hydrogen Sulfides (H2S)4. Temperature (air and water)

Test Description Range of values

Dissolved Oxygen(DO) All living things depend on oxygen to survive. In a water environment, molecules of oxygen gas dissolve in the water. This is called dissolved oxygen (DO). In air, 20 out of every 100 molecules are oxygen. In water, only one to five molecules out of every million molecules are oxygen. This is why dissolved oxygen is measured in parts per million (ppm). Water temperature and altitude influence how much oxygen water can hold. In general, warmer water cannot hold as much oxygen as colder water. Similarly, at higher altitudes water cannot hold as much oxygen as water at lower altitudes.

Cold water holds more than warm water.Lower hardness (salinity) enables higher dissolved oxygen levels.

Fish die in lower than 4 ppm.

pH pH is an indicator of the acid content of water. The pH scale ranges from 1 (acid) to 14 (alkaline or basic) with 7 as neutral. The scale is logarithmic, so a change of one pH unit means a tenfold change in acid or alkaline concentration. For instance, a change from 7 to 6 represents a solution 10 times more acidic; a change from 7 to 5 is 100 times more acidic, and so on. The pH of a water body has a strong influence on what can live in it. Immature forms of salamanders, frogs, and other aquatic life are particularly sensitive to low pH.

Between 5.6 and 8.5 for aquatic organisms.

6.5-8.5 (EPA recommendation)

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Hydrogen sulfide can be present in ground water containing sulfur under anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions. It is also the product of a bacterial reaction in the presence of sulfate. Hydrogen sulfide gives water a “rotten egg” taste and odor and is often more noticeable in hot water than cold water.

The acceptable level of hydrogen sulfide is 0.05 mg/l or less.

Water Temperature (ºC) Water temperature is the temperature of a body of water and can vary greatly according to altitude, time of day, season, depth of water, and many other variables. Water temperature is important because it plays a key role in chemical, biological, and physical interactions within a body of water. The temperature of the water determines what aquatic plants and animals may be present since all species have natural limits of tolerance to upper and lower temperatures.

Turbidity Turbidity is the measurement of water clarity. How clear the water is at the site will depend on the amount of soil particles suspended in the water and on the amount of algae growth at the site. Turbidity may change with the seasons and with changes in plant growth rates, in response to precipitation runoff, or for other reasons. The clarity of the water determines how much light can penetrate. Since plants require light, transparency becomes an important measurement in determining the productivity of the water.

Current Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations require turbidity in drinking water not to exceed 5 NTU.

The ability of salmonids to find and capture food is impaired at turbidities in the range of 25-70 NTU.

EPA studies indicate that fish growth is reduced and gill tissue is damaged after five to ten days of exposure to water with a turbidity of 25 NTU.

During a flood event, turbidities can jump to 100 NTU or more than 1,000 NTU.

Nitrates(NO2 and NO3)

Nitrogen is one of the three major nutrients needed by plants. Most plants cannot use nitrogen in its molecular form (N2). In aquatic ecosystems, blue-green algae are able to convert N2 into ammonia and nitrate (NO3), which can then be used by plants. Animals eat these plants to obtain nitrogen that they need to form proteins. When plants and animals die, bacteria break down protein molecules as part of the decomposition process. Different bacteria produce different nitrogen compounds, such as nitrates (NO2 and NO3), and ammonia. The cycle begins again. Typically, nitrogen levels in natural waters are low (below 1.0 ppm nitrate nitrogen). Nitrate levels are measured in milligrams per liter nitrate nitrogen.

NO3

0.050-0.100 ppm for animals<.10 ppm (EPA recommendation)

NO2

0-10 ppm (range)<1 ppm (ideal)

Phosphate (PO4) The nutrient phosphorous comes from natural sources such as phosphate-containing rocks and from anthropogenic (human) sources such as fertilizers, pesticides, detergents, and industrial compounds.

Levels over 0.03 ppm contribute to higher plant growth.

The acceptable range is 0.05 - 0.1 ppm.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) Carbon dioxide is a colorless, tasteless, odorless, noncombustible gas that is soluble in water.

1,000-5,000 ppm

Outdoor air concentration ranges from 300-400 ppm.


28Hydrosphere

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)(mg/l)

pH

Hydrogen Sulfides (H2S)(mg/l)

H2O Temperature(°C)

Turbidity(NTU)

Nitrate (NO3)(mg/l)

Phosphate (PO4)(mg/l)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)(mg/l)

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Water Quality: Data CollectionUse the table below to record your collected data

Date: _________________________


Bad Fisherman or Just Bad LuckNow that you’ve learned some of the technical skills behind water analysis testing, let’s find out whether environmental conditions were working against you today.

Professional fishermen assert that DO concentrations must be above 6.5 mg/L for trout to be active. They also maintain that the optimal water temperature for trout fishing is between 58-62 degrees Fahrenheit. Optimal pH for most organ-isms is between 6.2 to 8 and CO2 concentrations can range from 300-400 ppm. Of course, determining the turbidity of a stream is particularly important because the more turbid the water is, the less easily fish will be attracted to particular lures (streams usually range from 1 NTU to 50 NTU; drinking water must be between .5 NTU and 1.0 NTU). While some of the other measures below may have less of an effect on the activeness of freshwater trout, keep in mind that most fresh-water streams have a nitrate level between .1 to 4 mg/L, with streams registering levels above 1 mg/L considered polluted. As for phosphates, levels above .1 mg/L are considered to be high. Test the water and determine whether conditions were optimal for fishing today.

ASSESSMENT

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30Hydrosphere

Time to get muddy!Good environmental scientists get down and dirty. They jump into their work…literally. So let’s do just that. Let’s jump into the muddy marshland and describe what the decomposing slosh feels like. Don’t be afraid.. You know, some people pay top dollar to have their face covered in similar stuff when they get a facial! Describe how the muck makes your skin feel. What does it smell like? Describe the experience below.

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Further on Down the River:Understanding the Estuarine Ecology of DominicalAs you settle in to the Osa Peninsula, let’s not forget that many of the inland rivers and streams we visited earlier (including the Savegre) ultimately make their way to the coast. Where these rivers flow into the ocean is called an estuary. An estuary is the given name for an ecosystem where freshwater streams and saltwater bodies merge. They are nutrient-rich zones where an incredibly diverse array of animals and

plants make their home. Estuaries go by many names. They can be lagoons, bays, inlets, or sounds.

Estuaries serve as sanctuaries for a plethora of living organisms. Many animals, especially birds, use estuaries as breeding grounds, nurseries in which to bring up their young. One reason for this is that estuaries are incredibly nutrient-rich. Environmental scientists have discovered that estuaries generate four to ten times as much organic material compared to a corn field…wow, that’s a lot of biota!

Upstream of estuaries we find another type of ecosystem: wetlands. Wetlands are essentially ecosystems inundated with water (think swamps, bogs, marshes) that support fauna that can grow year-round in saturated conditions. You might have heard wetlands referred to as marshland. Unique vegetation grows in wetlands, including mangroves. These bushy plants provide protective habitat for numerous creatures and generates large amounts of sulfur which helps make the wetlands particularly efficient sites of organic decomposition.

Mouth of an Estuary


It is impossible to overstate the ecological importance of estuaries and wetlands. They serve very practi-cal functions. Besides providing essential habitat for an enormous array of animals, the dense marshlands surrounding estuarine waterways are capable of absorbing large amounts of water. Thus, wetlands serve to abate floods, absorbing excess water and preventing upland areas from being inundated with water. Wetlands also serve to filter freshwater streams of detritus, debris, and even sewage and other pollutants, thus ensuring the purity of water that enters marine waterways.

Understanding the costs of destroying our wetlands and our estuaries:The theme we keep reiterating in this journal is that all living organisms are connected to one another. We may think that we live in closed systems and that we are unaffected by environmental degradation taking place downstream of us, but the reality is that the destruction of wetlands and estuaries can have far-reaching effects on people and other living organisms that do not live in the marshlands. This exercise is designed to get us to think about what those costs are.

Tiger Wood’s rival, Don-Care “Bout-Da” Environment, is hoping to drain one of Costa Rica’s estuaries in order to construct a new golf course. He claims that there is no good reason why he should not be able to do this, but he is facing consider-able pressure from a variety of people who believe that the environmental repercussions associated with the project will negatively impact their lives. Below, take on the personality of the following people opposed to Mr. Environment’s project. Outline the reasons why these people would be opposed to the project. Be sure to be specific and identify the very real problems these individuals would face.

A Homeowner approximately 10 miles upland of the estuary/wetlands:

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32Hydrosphere

A Birdwatcher in San Gerardo de Dota:

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A Beach-resort Owner:

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The Real World:Environmentally-conscious Landscaping at Santa Ana’s Valle del Sol and Guanacaste’s Four Seasons ResortIn January of 2008, Mark Dinan and Jay Miller, superintendents of Santa Ana’s Valle del Sol golf course and Guanacaste’s Four Seasons Resort golf course respectively, were given Golf Digest Environmental Leaders Awards for their commitment to creating environmentally friendly golf courses in Costa Rica. Some of the measures Dinan put in place included recycling effluence (waste water) and limiting polluted waste-water runoff. He also established strict buffer zones around all the streams and waterways that dot the course.

In addition to implementing recycling programs, Miller introduced some interesting eco-friendly practices at Guanacaste’s Four Seasons Resort. For example, all tees sold by the clubhouse are made of corn and thus biodegrade easily if left in the tee box. Miller has also experimented with saltwater/freshwater irrigation mixes in an attempt to reduce consumption of freshwater resources. All sprinkler systems and bathroom facilities at the Four Seasons’ gold course run on solar power.

Sometimes we think of environmentalists as tree-hugging wackos, extremists who rant and rave, get very little done, and have no life. But as Mark Dinan and Jay Miller demonstrate, you can choose to be an environmentalist while pursuing your life dreams, running a business, and doing what you love. As you think about your life goals, consider the ways in which you can be an active civic environmentalist.

Soil Studies within Freshwater and Estuarine EcosystemsSoils are made up of many materials, including organic matter, pieces of rock, and mineral deposits. The most common components of soil are sand and clay. The mixture of these materials, the size and shape of soil particles, and the amount of air space through which water can move determine how porous the soil is. Water will seep into certain soils faster than others. Permeability is the rate at which water percolates through the soil. The slower the percolation rate, the less permeable the ground. Permeability is the key factor in the formation of ecosystems. These conditions result in physical, chemical, and biological reactions that affect the ecosystem’s plants and animals.

Mark Dinan

Jay Miller


34Hydrosphere

ConditionTopsoil color

Dark (dark gray, brown, black)

Moderately dark (brown, yellow brown)

Light (pale brown, yellow)

Amount of organic material High Medium Low

Erosion factor Low Medium High

Aeration High Medium Low

Available Nitrogen High Medium Low

Fertility High Medium Low

Topsoil (A Horizon)

Subsurface soil color Condition

Dull gray (if in low rainfall soils, 0-2 inches of rain) Water-logged soils, poor aeration

Yellow, red-brown, black (if in forest soils) Well-drained soils

Mottled gray (if in humid soils) Somewhat poorly to poorly-drained soils

Topsoil (B Horizon)

Particle size Feel Air Space Water availability

Clay (.002mm) Sticky Few, tiny Slow movement of water; may result in low availability

Silt (.002 - .05 mm) Smooth Many, small Good

Sand 9.05 - 2.0 mm) Gritty Many, large Low

Common Soil Textures

Texture Water -holding capacity Looseness of soil

Sandy Poor Good

Loamy Good to excellent Good

Clayey High(water held too tightly for plant use) Poor

Topsoil (B Horizon)


Getting out into the Field: Testing the Estuarine EnvironmentLet’s get our hands dirty, literally, and find out whether the estuarine biosphere and hydrosphere you visited today offers a healthy habitat for living creatures. Complete the following field examination..

Moving water:Stream River Other: __________________________ Width: ________ ft. (approximate)

Standing water:Pond Lake Reservoir Bay Ditch Other: ______________________

Is the bottom visible?Yes No Describe the bottom: _________________________________________________

Describe what the bank of the river looks like:Boulders or stones around and in the water Pools (streams only) Fallen logs or branches in the water Riffle areas (streams only) Sand bars or gravel bars Man-made structuresOther: _____________________________________________________ Erosion evidence:Bare soil unprotected by plants Cuts, ditches, or steep banks where soil is being washed awayExposed plant roots Trees, shrubs, or grasses preserved

Human influences:Dams Litter Swimming Boating Drainage pipes Trails/bridges Other:___________________________________________________________________________

Describe the habitats in shallow areas near the water’s edge:Vegetation Boulders Gravel Rocks LogsOther: _______________________________________________________________________________

Additional aquatic organisms observed:Fish Birds AmphibiansOther:_______________________________________________________________________________

Air Temperature: __________________________

Was there precipitation in the last 24 hours? Yes No

Description of weather conditions:Sunny Overcast Partly cloudy Rainy

Wind direction: _________________________

Relative humidity: ______________________

Soil Study:Soil color: Light brown Yellow/orange Green/gray Light gray Dark graySoil texture: Mostly clay Mostly sand Mixtures of clay and sandSoil moisture: Soggy Moist Dry

Water site description:


36Hydrosphere

After conducting your field test, what can you say about the health of the estuarine ecosystem you studied today?

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Costa Rica’s Underwater Coastal EcologyThe Coral Reefs off Cano IslandAs ecological sanctuaries, coral reefs are hard to beat. In terms of biodiversity, they really are underwater “rainforests.” All kinds of aquatic life call these places home. If you get a chance to visit one of the coral reefs off the shores of Cano Island, you’ll be met with a dizzying array of vibrant colors and amazing sea life.

What is a coral reef?In its truest sense, a coral reef is a living organism. Reefs take hundreds of years to form, and it is thus very important that we take great care to preserve and protect these environments (we’ll talk more about conservationist strategies later).

Coral polyps are responsible for the rocky structure of the coral reef. You see, a coral reef is largely the skeleton of coral polyps, a calcium carbonate shell that grounds the living polyps. Check out the diagram of a coral polyp. They are fascinating little creatures and critical contributors to coral reef construction. They feed by injecting poison into prey (usually plankton— small, barely visible organisms that float in the ocean) that flow into its tentacles. Some coral polyps have particularly strong nematocysts (stinging cells) that can irritate a diver’s skin. One type of coral that is

particularly potent is known as fire coral (for obvious reasons). Many divers wear lycra suits (thin, full-body suits, kind of like wet suits) in order to protect their body from fire coral.

As coral polyps grow, they secrete a limestone (calcium carbonate) shell that becomes part of a larger coral network. If they become frightened—which can occur when divers disturb the coral environment—they will retract into their shell and remain dormant until conditions improve.

What can you do to protect these gems of the sea?Like most habitats, unfortunately, coral reefs across the globe suffer from anthropogenic damage. Water pollution can affect the chemical composition of the marine environment, preventing the growth of sensitive coral organisms. In addition, in recent years, these sanctuaries of aquatic life have become inundated with underwater tourists (SCUBA divers), who often do not respect the coral environment, disturbing certain habitats and taking souvenirs that are integral pieces of the underwater ecosystem.

t e n tacle nem a t o c y st ou t er

epide r mis

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mes o glea

digesti v e filame n t

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s t omach

gast r o de r mis

c o enosa r c

the c a

basal pl a t e

Diagram of a Coral Polyp


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A Snorkeling Scavenger Hunt:The biodiversity of marine ecology of Cano Island is quite impressive. Partner up with a buddy, keep a sharp eye out, and try to spot the following aquatic creatures on your snorkeling expedition. Each marine creature has a specific point value associated with it (indicated in parentheses). The team with the highest point total will be declared the winner. DIVE IN!

FAUNA DESCRIPTIONHumpback Whale (10) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

Dolphin (5) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

The concept of leave-no-trace tourism should apply even underwater. Coral reefs are actually living organisms, so when humans decide to take “artifacts” from these habitats, they are often uprooting a living organism from its native environment. Some coral species are sensitive to oils on human’s skin, and thus suffer damage when touched by divers. When you swim around the beautiful coral sanctuary, then, let your eyes wander, but leave the marine life be. Your conservationist efforts will help ensure that Cano Island’s coastline remains an ecological wonder for years to come. Coral Polyp


FAUNA DESCRIPTIONManta Ray (5) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

Horseeye Jacks (3) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

King Angelfish (4) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

Barracuda (7) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

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FAUNA DESCRIPTIONPuffer Fish (3) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

Goat Fish (3) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

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Other (2) (provide a sketch) ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

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Beyond Cano Island: Sea Kayaking in Parque Nacional Marino BallenaThe park you will be exploring today was founded in 1990 as a sanctuary for marine life and includes 110 terrestrial hectares and over one million marine square miles. The coastal sanctuary also includes Central America’s largest coral reef on the Pacific Coast (13 km in length). As we have seen, these coral reefs provide vibrant habitats for a variety of marine animals, so your aquatic adventure should be full of

beautiful fish and amazing sea creatures. Keep your eyes open for a rare glimpse of a humpback whale, as the park serves as a breeding ground for the species.

Another aquatic animal that we have not discussed in detail that spends a great deal of time on the shores of this park during its breeding season (September and October) is the sea turtle. The park is home to two specific types of sea turtles: the Olive Ridley and the hawksbill. The World Conservation Union has listed the hawksbill turtle as a critically endangered species. Olive Ridley sea turtle populations are healthier than

hawksbill sea turtles, but nonetheless, breeding colonies on the Pacific Coast of Mexico are classified as endangered, and all other colonies are labeled threatened.

Hawksbill and Olive Ridley breeding habits are fascinating. Pregnant sea turtles trek onto shore when it is dark (usually in September and October), burying their eggs in the sand. They then head back into the ocean. It usually takes 45 to 75 days for the eggs to hatch. If you are lucky enough to be on the beach when newborn sea turtles emerge from their nests, you’ll have the opportunity to witness the migration of dozens of baby sea turtles struggling to make it down the beach and to sea. Research centers associated with the park organize nighttime watches for visiting marine biologists and wildlife enthusiasts interested in observing this amazing phenomenon.

As we discuss the various types of anthropogenic environmental disturbances humans have inflicted on Costa Rica’s natural environment, we must pay close attention to the more subtle ways in which man disrupts the natural habitat of marine creatures. One problem that is

Hawksbill Sea Turtle

Olive Ridley Coming Ashore to Lay Eggs

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42

often overlooked is light pollution. Sea turtles only come to shore when it is dark, mainly in order to avoid certain predators that might attack them or dig up their eggs and eat them. As resort hotels and beachfront villas become more and more common on the coast, the amount of light emanating from the beach increases, deterring some sea turtles from coming to shore. For this reason, conservationists have worked to place restrictions on coastal development projects, hoping to ensure that sea turtles’ breeding grounds are protected.

Diminishing breeding habitat is not the only hardship threatening the viability of sea turtle populations on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica. Sea turtles face many predators at sea, but they also are threatened by certain human activities, namely net fishing (sea turtles often are inadvertently caught in fishing nets). Many sea turtles also die from eating plastic bags, mistaking human trash for jellyfish.

Sea turtles are perhaps the oldest living species on earth today, yet they are on the verge of extinction (scientists suggest that sea turtles roamed the seas over 110 million years ago). It’s up to us to ensure that these wonderful creatures survive. The Ballena Marine Lab sponsors a series of research expeditions in the park, including field studies of dolphins and whales. The current hope is that the park will be extended southward to Corcovado National Park.

Hydrosphere


The Science Behind a Good Surfing Spot: The Offshore Bathymetry and Hydrology of Manuel AntonioToday we are going to explore the bathymetry and hydrology of Manuel Antonio in order to understand why certain areas are popular for surfing and other areas are not.

On the beach at Cano Island, we were able to “see” the geology and the terrestrial features of the beach. It’s a little harder to look at the same kinds of features underwater but not at all impossible. In the following exercises, we will be looking at the shape of the beach at Manuel Antonio by surveying it from a boat. This is an underwater continuation of the beach profile that you will measure onshore.

Beaches and nearshore areas are affected by many forces: currents, winds, tides, storms, waves and other factors. These forces affect what kinds of shorelines form (beaches or mangrove areas, for example) and how they change through time. In this exercise, we will also be looking at offshore currents and winds by measuring them with several instruments on the boat.

Brief History of Manuel AntonioBefore we begin our fieldwork on the beach at Manuel Antonio, let’s take a moment to go over some things you should know about the area. Manuel Antonio National Park is the smallest national preserve in Costa Rica (totaling only 4,014 acres). Nonetheless, it is an ecological gem, featuring magnificent beaches as well as primary and secondary forests. The park features a plethora of different terrestrial and aquatic creatures, so keep your eyes open for wildlife. Because the park has become such a popular retreat for visitors, the national government has restricted access to the park, establishing a daily quota that is strictly enforced (once again, we see the national government taking a proactive stance in ensuring that Costa Rica’s ecosystems are protected). The park features four beaches which you won’t want to miss: Espadilla Sur, Manuel Antonio, Escondido, and Playita (which means “little beach” in Spanish).

Waves and TidesOcean waves are most commonly the result of wind but could also be caused by earthquakes and underwater landslides. The shape of a typical wave is generally described as sine-shaped. The basic parts of a wave (graph on next page) are the top of the wave, the crest, and the bottom of the wave, the trough. Wave length is the distance between two successive crests (or two successive troughs). The wave length depends on the wave period, which is the time it takes for an entire wave to pass a fixed point, and is generally measured in seconds. Wave height is the vertical distance between the crest and trough. The amplitude of a wave is half the wave height.

We will now measure the wave heights at the water’s edge. This can be done by standing in the water and, as a wave passes you, keep track of where the trough and crest of the wave come in contact with your body.


44Hydrosphere

Then measure the heights on your body with the meter stick. Make three to five measurements and record them on the Wave Height Table below.

trough

amplitude

wave height

wavelengthcrest crest

Still water level

TidesTides are created by the attractive forces of the sun and moon on the earth and by the earth’s constant motion. Marine coasts experience a rise and fall of the sea level due to tides. A rising tide is referred to as the flow and the falling tide is referred to as the ebb.

The common tidal pattern occurs twice a day (semi-diurnally), with a rise and fall occurring approximately every 12 ½ hours. About 6 ¼ hours after the high water, a low water stage will occur. Once-a-day (diurnal) tides have a rise and fall occurring approximately every 24 hours. Tidal range is the difference between high and low water levels.

Every two weeks, a spring tide occurs where the tidal range is greater than usual. The week after a spring tide is when the tidal range is less than usual, the neap tide.

When you are at the beach you can observe the tidal wave. Observe where the water level is when you arrive at the beach, then before you leave see where the water level has moved.

Terminology associated with waves.


The Science of SurfingLet’s put what we’ve learned about coastal hydrology to good use and find out what a bathymetric field study can tell us about the quality of a particular surfing spot!

The key to understanding surfing waves lies in bathymetry. As you now know from reading the previous section, waves are created by wind blowing across the surface of the ocean. Wind energy is transferred into kinetic energy when waves form. Further off shore, perhaps standing on a pier, you might observe a wave coming towards you and think that what you are seeing is a massive wall of water rushing towards shore. In reality, the water itself is not moving very far, and it is more appropriate to think of a wave as energy traveling towards you, energy generated by winds far out at sea.

When a wave finally makes it near the beach, the bathymetry of the ocean floor will determine whether a wave will be surfable or not. When a swell—large wave formation—approaches the shore, water on the bottom of the ocean slows down (because of friction), causing water near the surface to increase in height (again, physicists refer to the height of a wave as the amplitude; they also

refer to the distance between each wave as the period of a wave—see the diagram on the previous page). Thus, if the ocean floor rises steeply towards the beach, a wave will be quite large and likely be fun to surf. The rate at which the depth changes as a wave approaches the shore has a great deal to do with the size and magnitude of a given wave. The greater the change in depth, the bigger the wave will be.

There are three major types of wave breaks: a beach break, point break, and reef break. A beach break occurs when a wave breaks over a beachy bottom. These types of breaks are generally the safest (although perhaps not the most dramatic) for beginner surfers because there is little risk of hitting jagged rocks or coral outcrops. Point breaks are much more dangerous. A point break occurs when the crest of a wave passes over a rocky point or land mass, rapidly gaining amplitude and crashing with considerable force. A reef break, as the name implies, occurs when a wave begins to break once it hits a shallow reef. With both reef breaks and point breaks, surfers must be careful not to fall, because if they do, they may be dragged across coral structures and sharp rocks.

http://www.surfing-waves.com/peeling_waves.htm; http://www.csiro.au/scope/episodes/e14.htm


46Hydrosphere

Putting it All Together:Now that you have used a bottom profiler to get a sense of the underwater topography offshore, let’s figure out a few things. Surfers maintain that waves begin to break when the depth of the water beneath a wave is 1.3 times the height of the wave. Measure the waves coming onshore and determine where you think, based on your bottom profile, the waves will break offshore.

Keep in mind that wind patterns play a large role in determining whether waves will be surfable. A strong offshore wind (wind blowing towards sea), for example, can make waves crumble, whereas an onshore wind (wind coming from the sea) can help sustain waves as they move towards shore.

Putting together your wind speed data and bottom profile analysis, talk about why the beach you visited is or is not a hotspot for surfers. Considering wind patterns, was today a particularly good day for surfing?

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47Costa Rica Discovery Journal Pollution and Conservation

Costa Rica’s Environmental Problems Whether you’re an environmental scientist or just a tourist, you should do a little research on pollution in the country you are going to visit. Is the air in the city OK to breath? How about the city water? Can I drink it? Let’s take a look at pollution in Costa Rica, both to gain a better understanding of environmental science and to ensure that we have a safe and healthy traveling experience abroad.

Ecological FootprintIn order to get started, we need to introduce the concept of an ecological footprint. Do you ever think about what happens when you throw away a plastic bottle? What happens to the trash you throw away each week? Where does wastewater from your house flow? This section is about answering these questions and understanding one’s impact on the environment.


48Pollution and Conservation

San José:Understanding the Urban Organism and Population DynamicsWhen you arrive in San José, you might be surprised by the hustle and bustle of the city. San José is the capital of Costa Rica at 3,800 feet above sea level (wow, that’s high!), and is the largest city in the country with a metro population of roughly 1.6 million people (roughly a third of the entire Costa Rican population), up from just 70,000 people in the 1940s—an incredible increase. Many Ticos (the name given to native Costa Ricans) migrated from the countryside into San José in the latter-half of the 20th century looking for better jobs. Recently, the massive influx of people into the city has created considerable problems for the metropolis. To understand how population increases affects human’s viability in a cosmopolitan setting, we must discuss some of the basics of population dynamics.

You’ve just arrived in the urban core of Costa Rica, San José. One thing you should always do when you arrive in a new place is take a walk outside and take in the atmosphere of a new city. As you walk around San José your first day in Costa Rica, use your five senses to describe the urban environment of San José. Do you find it dirty? Smelly? Loud? Does it seem crowded? How does it compare to your hometown? Use the space below to write down some initial thoughts about San José.

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Population DynamicsAccording to the Population Institute, an international nonprofit organization dedicated to world population studies, it was not until 1830 that the world population reached 1 billion people, but in less than two centuries, the world population has increased by more than 6 times the 1830 figure, and in 2008, the world population was approximately 6.6 billion people. Can our earth sustain this kind of dramatic population growth? What kinds of natural resources are most jeopardized by rapid population growth? These are the types of questions that environmental scholars interested in population dynamics ask.

Perhaps the greatest scholar to deal with issues pertaining to population and sustainability was Thomas Malthus who wrote Essay on Population in 1798. Malthus provided the following demographic model in order to calculate population change:

CHANGE IN POPULATION BIRTHS DEATHS ------------------------------------- = ------------------------------- - ------------------------ POPULATION POPULATION POPULATION (Rate of Change of Population) (Crude Birth Rate (CBR)) (Crude Death Rate (CDR))

Let’s offer an example of how we might use this equation. If there are 60 births per 1000 people in a city in a given year and 30 deaths per 1000 people in a given year, the population will increase by 30 per thousand, or 3%. According to Malthus’ calculations, the natural rate of population change is 2%. Malthus believed that population would increase at a rate that exceeded the rate at which food could be produced, and that two types of checks controlled population growth. The first of these he termed positive checks, that is famine, natural disasters, war, and catastrophic events which would limit human’s ability to sustain population growth. The second he termed preventive checks, or decisions about birth control, etc., which societies could adopt in order to control growth.

One of the problems with Malthusian thinking is that it does not take into account innovative advancements in technology. So how do environmental scientists discuss the ecological costs of population growth and technological change? One useful equation that can be used to determine the impacts of population growth on the global environment is: Impact of any human group on the environment = Number of people x Average person’s consumption of resources x Environmental disruptiveness of the technologies that provide the goods that people consume.

As you can see above, when population is high, even a small amount of technological disruptiveness can greatly increase the impacts on the environment. For example, two cities both with populations of 300,000 people have vastly different impacts on the environment if urbanites primary mode of transportation in one city is automobiles, while in the other residents typically ride bikes. Nonetheless, increased technology is not always a bad thing. Innovative engineering may allow for a way to create cheap and efficient energy, reducing the use of fossil fuels and limiting pollution.

OK, enough equations for the moment! Let’s see how we might apply the concepts discussed above to real life situations.



While Costa Rica may not suffer from overpopulation (the current population is app. 4.1 million), other polities have strug-gled to deal with population issues. Mexico City, alone, for example, was home to over 8.7 million people in 2005, with the greater metropolitan area featuring a population of over 19 million people. China faces serious population issues with a population that reached 1.3 billion in 2008. The Chinese government has attempted to abate population growth by impos-ing certain restrictions on how many kids a family can have (this might be called a preventive check in Malthusian terms).

Pretend you are the leader of a third world country facing overpopulation concerns. What would you do in order to ensure sustainability? What are the cultural considerations that would drive your decision? What are the political implications of intervening?

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Leave-No-Trace Touring in Costa RicaAny form of tourism will have impacts on the visited region. Increased tourists to an area may result in more pollution and disturbance to the protected region. However, if done correctly, tourism can provide huge economic benefits to the local communities. With economic benefits and pride, local communities are more likely to change their ways and start to conserve regions and live sustainably for the benefit of all. During our expedition what are some things we can do to limit our impact on this region and partake in green tourism?

vWhen buying souvenirs, consider not accepting the plastic bag in which the item is placed.

vReuse your personal water bottle to reduce the amount of bottles consumed from buying water.

vRecycle.vOrder fish from restaurants that use ocean-friendly techniques

to obtain their menu items.vDo not buy souvenirs that support illegal fishing or collecting

of species (such as shells).vDo not pick flowers.vDo not feed the wildlife.vThrow trash in appropriate receptacles.

You may see things throughout the trip that are not eco-friendly. What are they and what are alternative solutions? Fill in the following chart throughout the trip.



Experiences that wereNOT green ... and their alternate solutions. Experiences that were green.


Can I Drink the Water?:Understanding Costa Rica’s Sewerage Systems and WaterworksAccording to a report put out in 2005, roughly 99% of all Costa Ricans living in urban areas are connected to public water systems, but only 70% have access to potable (suitable for drinking) water. Nonetheless, Costa Rican officials encourage tourists to drink from the tap, arguing that the water is just fine for

drinking. Let’s find out more about how Ticos get their water and decide for ourselves whether we should drink the water or not.

For years, the major metropolitan centers in the heart of Costa Rica (Cartago, Alajuela, Herrida, and San José) tapped surrounding springs and aquifers to slake the thirst of city residents. The water supply for this area, known as the Gran Area Metropolitana, still comes from some of these groundwater sources, but new reservoirs have helped to increase the area’s water supply.

The most troubling problem concerning drinking water in Costa Rican towns is not

so much where the water is coming from but that the water can become easily contaminated, as few cities have developed effective sewerage systems. Amazingly, roughly 96% of all wastewater in the country is funneled into watercourses without being treated. According to one scholar writing in 1993, approximately 60% of Costa Rican urbanites were not connected to adequate sanitation facilities at the end of the last century.

One way to determine the purity of the city’s drinking water would be to use the skills we’ve learned for testing water quality and apply them in an urban setting. Let’s grab a sample of tap water from the hotel room and carry out some water qual-ity tests. We’ll follow the same steps we outlined earlier. Remember, these tests can’t tell us everything (we will not test for viruses, for example), so we still have to be careful, but we can gain some valuable information from our field tests.

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World Conservation Organizations:How to get involved in Civic EnvironmentalismThroughout this journal we’ve talked broadly about conservation and the ways we can adjust our life hab-its to help keep our earth clean and beautiful. Now let’s talk about some of the major world organizations – many of which are active in Costa Rica – that have remained at the forefront of civic environmentalism. As you peruse the organizations below, consider which one might best fit your interests and talents and consider getting involved.

The Red ListThe International Union for Con-servation of Nature (IUCN) puts out a red list of threatened species every year, providing statistical data about animals that are suffer-ing from loss of habitat, over-hunt-ing, or other major problems. The IUCN assesses the conservation status of species throughout the world. You may be familiar with the IUCN Red List. It is a system designed to determine the relative risk of a species extinction. The categories recognized by the IUCN are Critically Endangered, Endan-gered and Vulnerable. Currently, the IUCN has listed the Costa Rican Atelopus Varius,

Status Definition Examples

EXTINCTLast remaining individual of the

species has diedDinosaurs, dodo bird, passenger pigeon, Barbary lion, Bali tiger

EXTINCT IN THE WILDOnly survives in captivity,

reintroduced populations, or outside its native habitat

Przewalski’s horse, Sahara oryx, black-footed ferret, Mexican gray wolf

CRITICALLYENDANGERED

Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild

Red wolf, golden lemur, black rhinoceros, angle shark, California

condor

ENDANGEREDFaces a very high risk of extinction in

the wildGiant panda, orangutan, Grevy’s

zebra, gorilla, blue whale, brown kiwi

VULNERABLEFaces a high risk of extinction in the

wild

African lion, wolverine, hippopotamus, polar bear, American

crocodile

NEAR THREATENEDDoes not face a high risk of extinction,

but is likely to be threatened in the near future

Black-tailed prairie dog, cougar, striped hyena, giant anteater, jaguar

LEAST CONCERNSpecies is thriving, widespread, and

abundantGray seal, naked mole-rat, American

beaver, giraffe, bald eagle

IUCN Red List

Humpback Whale

Atelopus Varius

a harlequin toad, on their criti-cally endangered list. The Union believes that the major issue is loss of habitat caused by drought (harlequin toad’s are amphibious, like most toads, and thus require a wet habitat). It is estimated that the Atelopus Varius population has declined by roughly 80% over the last three generations.


Another of Costa Rica’s endangered species is the humpback whale. Perhaps one of the most well-loved sea creatures of the Pacific Ocean, the humpback whale is a gigantic mammal, often weighing in at over 30 tons (at full maturity, they can reach a length of 40 feet). Like all whales, humpbacks belong to the Cetacean family: marine mammals that have hair, breath air, and nurse their young. To break it down even

more, humpback whales are also members of the baleen family, which means they are whales that run food through huge filters in their jaw (as opposed to toothed whales that have teeth and, thus, chew their prey). A humpback can eat 9,000 pounds of food in a day! They roam from Hawaii (where they breed) to Alaska, cruising up and down the Pacific Coast of Central and North America. Between the 19th and 20th centuries, commercial whalers decimated humpback popula-tions, killing off by the mid-1900s roughly 90% of the worldwide population, all in an avaricious pursuit to secure boatloads of the whale’s valuable blubber (used to create flammable oil). Con-servation efforts, however, have helped to revitalize the species, and humpback numbers are currently estimated to be around 20,000 across the globe.Today, humpback whales are on the rise because of the concerted efforts of conservationists who worked hard to end the destruc-tive whaling industry that tar-geted humpback whales. In 1966, the International Whaling Com-mission placed a moratorium (stop order) on the whaling of humpbacks. Today the biggest concerns are actually less focused on whalers

and more on preserving the oceanic habitats of these marvelous creatures. Organizations like the Whale Conservation Institute and the American Cetacean Society continue to work hard to preserve the oceanic habitat of humpback whales.Despite conservationists’ effort, however, recently Japan lifted its ban on hunting humpback whales, this despite the fact that the IUCN still lists the species as vulnerable on its endangered list. Many international bodies condemned these actions as despicable and dangerous. Whale meat in Japan sells for top-dollar in local markets, sometimes bringing in over $100 a pound.

Whaling Boat, 2007



BECOME AN ACTIVE CONSERVATIONIST:How do you convince people that the Atelopus Varius needs to be saved? It’s not always easy to make people realize the importance of a small animal that seems to have very little impact on most people’s everyday lives. Your job today is to become an active civic environmentalist and create a poster that teaches the public of your conservation effort. You will need to execute a campaign to get the word out that includes:

vNatural history information about one of Costa Rica’s endangered species (where it lives, what it eats, when it is active, etc.)

vWhy is the species in trouble

vWhat are people doing to help this species

vWhat this species looks like (draw it)

vWhere your species lives (range map)

Note: The posters should be designed to help attract attention and share information in a creative, easy-to-read way.

GET STARTED SAVING A SPECIES!

Conservation Organizations:The World Wildlife Fund (WWF)Founded in 1961, the WWF is the largest privately-funded international environmental organization in the world today. Its declared mission is to “stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by: conserving the world’s biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable resources is sustainable, [and] promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.” Wow, no small feat, but why start small when there is so much to be done! A nonprofit organization supported by over 5 million activists worldwide, the WWF has considerable resources that smaller non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and nonprofit organizations cannot marshal. The organization is truly international with affiliates in over 30 countries.In its over 45-year-old history, the WWF has been responsible for a number of major conservation hallmarks. In 1990, the organization helped bring about the cessation of the international ivory trade – a global industry that had decimated elephant populations throughout Africa and elsewhere. In that same year, they also secured a moratorium (stop of activity) on commercial whaling.

Greenpeace In 1971, a group of environmental activists set out on a journey from Vancouver to protest U.S. testing of nuclear weapons in Alaska. This cohort formed Greenpeace. From that date to today, Greenpeace has grown into one of the most important environmental groups in the world. Like the WWF, Greenpeace relies on the generous support of people like you, receiving no money from the federal government (they also do not solicit donations from corporations).Greenpeace is particularly interested in reaching out to the next generation of environmental activists, and as such has created a Greenpeace Student Network – a youth-based branch of the organization designed to get young people involved in environmental protection programs. Most recently, the network has executed a series of effective campus campaigns to boycott paper products produced by Kimberley-Clark, a corporation known for its clear-cutting operations (clear-cutting is when a timber company cuts down vast acreage of land, rather than selectively cutting down trees in ways that ensures the sustainability of the harvesting fields).


The Sierra ClubIn his The Yosemite (1921), John Muir, perhaps America’s most renowned conservationist, exclaimed, “Everybody needs beauty as well as bread, places to play in and pray in, where nature may heal and give strength to body and soul alike.” Muir’s words speak to the mission of the Sierra Club. Founded in 1892 by John Muir and a cohort of western environmentalists opposed to a plan to reduce the size of Yosemite National Park in California, the Sierra Club was the first conservationist organization established in the United States for the express purposes of preserving the country’s wondrous natural spaces. Originally an organization focused on the American West, it quickly spread across the nation. Today, in an effort to bring more people into the organization, the Sierra Club sponsors local outings across the country. You can visit the Sierra Club website (http://www.sierraclub.org/) when you get back to the states and link up with a trip near your home community.

The Earthwatch InstituteFounded in the same year as Greenpeace, Earthwatch has a slightly different message than the other world organizations we have discussed. Their primary focus is to link volunteer researchers with naturalists and conservationists working in the field. The Institute has two programs operating in Costa Rica currently, one focused on studying sustainable coffee cultivation just south of the Monteverde cloud forest. The other program focuses on leatherback turtles’ breeding grounds on the western coast of Costa Rica.

The Rich and Famous:Popular Icons in Civic EnvironmentalismThe Dave Matthews Band has become a fixture of the American pop music scene in the past two decades, transforming from an obscure band from Charlottesville, Virginia, to a national megaband. But their rise to fame seems to have little effect on their humanitarian convictions. Dave Matthews and his band have made significant efforts to support conservation projects. They have participated in eco-friendly festivals, including the 2007 “Green Concert” in Atlanta’s Piedmont Park, which took place in 2007. Over 50,000 fans attended the event. Proceeds from the event went to help expand Atlanta’s largest

inner-city park. Through their foundation Bama Works, the band helped launch a Ben & Jerry’s ice cream called One Sweet Whirled, setting aside a portion of the profits to go towards global warming research and education.

Speaking of Ben & Jerry’s, the Vermont-based ice cream company has become a leader among corporations looking for creative ways to help protect the environment. Every year the company publishes a very

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candid report on the company’s impact on the environment. Some of the facts they mention are flattering, but they also include things they need to improve. For example, in 2006, they regretted to inform their customers that they had to switch from an eco-pint packaging that featured unbleached paperboard because of increasing production costs. However, in their 2006 report, they happily announced that they had far exceeded their carbon dioxide emission goals for the period 2002-2006, reducing normalized emissions by over 30%! Ben & Jerry’s is truly a model of how a company can pursue profits while looking out for the environment.

Leonardo DiCaprioLeonardo DiCaprio has become a major civic environmentalist in Hollywood, helping to promote awareness about global warming and linking up with other prominent activists and politicians like Al Gore to educate the public about global climate change issues. A strong believer in the motto that you should practice what you preach, DiCaprio has even had a special compost toilet installed in his home and is working closely with the Four Seasons to construct an eco-friendly, “green” hotel on property he owns in Belize. He has also produced the film, The 11th Hour, which speaks of the growing problems associated with global warming.

André Benjamin (André 3000)While the hip-hop industry is perhaps best known for harsh lyrics and bling-bling studded rappers, many hip-hop artists have become activists in the crusade to save the planet. André Benjamin of the Atlanta-based duo Outkast is one such crusader. Known for his flamboyant dress and bizarre lyrical style, Benjamin is also a dedicated vegan (does not eat meat or products produced by animals, such as milk). He also writes songs that speak directly to humans’ devastating effects on the environment.


Craft an eco-JAM! Touring Costa Rica can be a truly breathtaking experience. When Dave Matthews crafted his smash hit “Don’t Drink the Water” he was camping up near Lake Superior and was moved to write a song about Americans’ lack of respect for sacred lands. Now you have a chance to craft a tune that speaks to your experience in Costa Rica. Put down some lyrics that you think will help increase awareness about environmental issues in Costa Rica that concerns you.

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Conclusion:Leaving on a Jet PlaneYou’ve learned a great deal about the ecology of Costa Rica; now it’s time to return home. But as you sit and wait for your plane to arrive at the airport in San José, let’s take a moment to widen the aperture of our investigative lens, and return once again to a global perspective. While it may be comforting to think that what you’ve done in Costa Rica only had localized repercussions, the fact of the matter is that what happens in Costa Rica affects the health of our global ecology. To best illustrate this, look out on the tarmac for a second.You’ll remember that we talked about the fact that Costa Rica’s ecotourism industry brings in roughly 1.9 billion dollars in revenue each year, but let’s consider what this means in terms of the annual number of visitors to the country. The U.S. Department of State estimates that roughly 700,000 Americans travel to Costa Rica each year. Wow, that’s a lot of tourists! Now, for the most part – except for some adventurous sailors and roadtrip warriors – the majority of these folks fly on commercial jets to get to Costa Rica.OK, so what are the ecological costs associated with all these flights? Let’s start by talking about the fuel expended. According to a corporate fact sheet on Boeing aircraft, a 747-400 traveling 3, 500 miles will carry 126,000 pounds (!) of fuel and consume its supply at a rate of roughly 5 gallons per mile.Now let’s do some calculations. A Boeing 747-400 can seat roughly 300 passengers at full capacity. So, let’s assume that the flight is half full (seating 150 people). For a flight from Washington, D.C. to San José, Costa Rica – which totals a distance of approximately 2,040 miles – fuel consumption per passenger for the flight is roughly 68 gallons (2,040 miles x 5 gallons/mile / 150 passengers = 68 gallons/passenger).That’s a lot of fuel per person when you consider the ecological costs of burning that fuel. Most commercial jets use Jet A fuel, which is made up of hydrocarbons (remember our discussion about how carbon is cycled through our environment!) and which gives off greenhouses gases when burned. It has been estimated that inflight commercial jet emissions make-up roughly 2% of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions.But greenhouse gas emissions are not the only negative repercussions of commercial flights. We must consider other factors, like noise pollution. While it may seem a bit silly to consider noise pollution an environmental problem, the fact of the matter is that noise pollution can reshape the wildlife composition of particular habitats. Animals, for example, that used to call the woodlands around the San José airport home may have migrated once the booming and swooshing of commercial flights became unbearable.And what about those strange patterns in the sky left by planes? If you’ve every looked up at a commercial airliner on a clear day, you know about this phenomenon. It looks like the plane has left a white puffy cloud in the sky. Well, in fact, it has. Commercial jet engines give off water vapors that, at certain altitudes, turn immediately to ice crystals (thus the cloud-like streams). These cloud-like formations are technically called contrails. Some experts believe that these seemingly innocuous contrails actually contribute to global warming. Interestingly enough, the strongest evidence for this came on September 11th, 2001

Conclusion

61Costa Rica Discovery Journal Conclusion

when all the airlines were grounded for three days because of the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, D.C. and temperature tests were conducted to reveal that over the three-day period when planes could not fly, the average temperature range increased (presumably because the earth’s ability to cool and warm was not hindered by contrail layers).Wow. So there are real ecological costs to flying, costs that, before now, you would probably admit you never knew. What about the broader public? Do you think they are aware of the statistics we outlined in this journal? As we argued at the beginning of this journal, there is a real need for people to become aware of the environmental costs associated with daily life activities. But to know the truth is not enough. We have to act on what we know. We don’t have to grow our hair

out and eat granola everyday to make a difference; as we have seen, we can make a difference by making small decisions that affect the health of our

global community.

So what should you do? Not get on the plane? That probably

would not be a good idea (your friends back home

probably would not like you very much if you did that). No, head home, but do so with a new appreciation for the real costs that must be met in order for you to do what you do. No longer

should you think about the cost of living in terms

of dollars and cents; now you know there are other

things to consider. Realize that the power to change the

future is in your hands. As an eco-conscious civic environmentalist, return

home as an ambassador for a new cause. The earth will thank you!


62

Acid Any substance that has a pH level below 7, or that has more free hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxyl (OH-) ions.

Acidity A measure of the number of free hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution that can chemically react with other substances.

Adaptation The modification, over time, of the structure, function, or behavior of an organism, which enables it to be better suited to its environment.

Atmosphere The layer of gases surrounding Earth; composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen.

Backwaters Areas of water to the side of a main stream channel usually formed by flooding.

Bacteria Microscopic unicellular organisms, typically spherical, rod-like, or spiral and threadlike in shape, and often clumped into colonies. Some bacteria cause disease, while others perform an essential role in nature in the recycling of materials; for example, by decomposing organic matter into a form available for reuse by plants.

Basic (alkaline) Basic solutions contain high concentrations of hydroxyl ions (OH-).

Benthic Pertaining to the bottom (bed) of a body of water.

Biochemical oxygendemand (BOD)

A measure of the quantity of dissolved oxygen, in milligrams per liter, necessary for the decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms, such as bacteria.

Biodiversity A measure of the distinct characteristics, qualities, or elements of plant and animal life in a defined area; a measure of biological differences.

Biomass The amount of living matter (as in a unit area or volume of habitat).

Carbon cycle The combined processes by which carbon, as a component of various compounds, cycles between its major reservoirs: the atmosphere, oceans, living organisms, and solid Earth. The processes include photosynthesis, decomposition, respiration, sedimentation, lithification, burial, uplift, erosion, and volcanism.

Community The whole of the plant and animal population inhabiting a given area.

Condensation The process by which a vapor becomes a liquid; the opposite of evaporation.

Decomposition The breakdown or decay of organic matter through the digestive processes of microorganisms, macroinvertebrates, and scavengers.

Detection limit The lowest point at which a particular piece of sampling equipment can accurately assess chemical concentrations.

Dichotomous key A tool for identifying objects, such as macroinvertebrates. The key presents a series of “yes or no” questions to the observer; each question brings the observer closer to the identification.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) Oxygen dissolved in water and available for living organisms to use for respiration.

Ecosystem A community of living organisms and their interrelated physical and chemical environment; also, a land area within a climate.

Emergent trees Trees that extend beyond the canopy.

Eutrophic A condition in which the water in a lake, pond, or reservoir is enriched with plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous, resulting in large amounts of plant and algal production. As the plants and algae die and sink to the bottom, organic sediment is created which removes oxygen from the water as it decays.

Evapotranspiration The loss of water from the soil through both evaporation and transpiration from plants.

Habitat The environment occupied by individuals of a particular species, population, or community.

Hotspot A fixed point on the Earth’s surface defined by long-lived volcanism.

Hydrophilic Water-loving.

Indicator A gauge of water pollution: not a legal criteria but rather a sign that there may be aproblem. When an indicator level is exceeded, further studies are done.

Glossary


Lava Molten rock that erupts onto the Earth’s surface through a volcanic vent or fissure.

Litter Dead plant material on the ground.

Macroinvertebrate Organisms that lack a backbone and can be seen with the naked eye.

Metabolism The physical and chemical processes in an organism that produce energy and result in the production, maintenance, or destruction of materials in the body.

Metamorphosis A change in form from one stage to the next in the life history of an organism, as from the caterpillar to the pupa and from the pupa to the adult butterfly.

Neutral A substance, such as distilled water, with a pH of 7.

Nitrogen fixation Changing nitrogen gas into ammonia. Some plants and algae engage in nitrogen fixation.

Organic Of, related to, or derived from living organisms. Organic substances contain carbon.

Ozone layer A layer in the stratosphere that contains about ninety percent of Earth’s ozone. The ozone layer occurs approximately twenty-five kilometers (sixteen miles) above the surface of Earth.

Photosynthesis The chemical reaction in plants that utilizes light energy from the sun to convert water and carbon dioxide into simple sugars. This reaction is facilitated by chlorophyll.

Plate One of several large, mobile pieces of the Earth’s lithosphere adjoining other plates along zones of seismic activity.

Plate tectonics The theory and study of plate formation, movement, interaction, and destruction; the attempt to explain seismicity, volcanism, mountain-building, and paleomagnetic evidence in terms of plate motions.

Point source pollution Refers to pollution resulting from discharges into receiving waters from any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance such as a pipe, ditch, or sewer.

Radiocarbon dating A dating method used to quantitatively measure the age of organic matter (such as bone, shell, or wood). The method can be applied to materials formed within the last 50,000 years or so.

Richter scale An exponential scale ranging from 1 to 9 that measures the amount of energy released during an earthquake.

Riffle A shallow area in a stream where water flows swiftly over gravel and rock.

Ring of Fire The name of the extensive area of volcanic and seismic activity that roughly coincides with the borders of the Pacific Ocean.

Riparian zone The vegetative area on each bank of a body of water that receives flood waters (i.e., Riparian forest).

Sediment Solid material that originates mostly from disintegrated rocks and is transported by, suspended in, or deposited from water; it includes chemical and biochemical precipitates and decomposed organic material such as humus. The quantity, characteristics, and occurrence of sediment in streams are influenced by the quantity and intensity of precipitation.

Seismology The study of earthquakes and the mechanical properties of the Earth.

Taxonomic key A quick reference guide used to identify organisms. They are available in varying degrees of complexity and detail.

Volcano A vent or fissure in the Earth’s surface through which molten lava, ash, and gases are ejected. It is also the name for the structure, usually conical, formed by the materials ejected from the vent or fissure.

Water cycle The paths water takes through its various states – vapor, liquid, and solid – as it moves throughout Earth’s systems (oceans, atmosphere, ground water, streams, etc.). Also known as the hydrologic cycle.

Water quality The chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water with respect to its suitability for a particular use.

Watershed The land area from which surface runoff drains into a stream channel, lake, reservoir, or other body of water; also called a drainage basin.

Glossary


64

If you know Multiply by To get

To get Divide by If you know

Lengthinches (in) 2.5 centimeters (cm)feet (ft) 30.0 centimeters (cm)yards (yd) 0.9 meters (m)miles (mi) 1.6 kilometers (km)

Areasquare inches (in²) 6.5 square centimeterssquare feet (ft²) 0.093 square meters (m²)square yards (yd²) 0.84 square meters (m²)square mile (mi²) 640.0 acres (acre)acre (acre) 43,560 square feet (ft²)acre (acre) 4,047 square meters (m²)acre (acre) 0.405 hectares (ha)

Volumefluid ounces (fl oz) 30.0 milliliters (ml)cups (c) 0.24 liters (l)pints (pt) 0.47 liters (l)quarts (qt) 0.95 liters (l)gallon (gal) 0.134 cubic feet (ft³)gallon (gal) 3.79 liters (l)cubic feet (ft³) 0.03 cubic meters (m³)cubic feet (ft³) 28.32 liters (l)

Flowcubic feet per second (cfs) 0.03 cubic meters per sec (m³/s)cubic feet per second (cfs) 448.8 gallons per minute (gpm)cubic feet per second (cfs) 646,320 gallons per day (gpd)

Temperaturedegrees Celsius (C°) (9/5 x °C) + 32 degrees Fahrenheit (°F)degrees Fahrenheit (°F) 5/9 x (°F – 32) degrees Celsius (°C)

The following conversion chart may be helpful as you work through the activities in your Discovery Journal.

Unit Conversion Chart

65Costa Rica Discovery Journal Expert Scientist Checklist

MammalsEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name

Mantled howler monkey Mono congo alouatta palliata

Spider monkey Mono araña ateles geoffroyi

White-faced capuchin monkey Mono cara blanca cebus capucinus

White-nosed coati Pizote nasua narica

Three-toed sloth Perezoso de tres dedos bradypus variegatus

Two-toed sloth Perezoso de dos dedos choloepus hoffmanni

Variegated squirrel Ardilla, chiza sciurus variegatoides

White-tailed deer Venado cola blanca odocoileus virginianus

Collared anteater Tamandua, oso hormiguero tamandua mexicana

Agouti Guatusa dasyprocta punctata

Nine-banded armadillo Armadillo, cusuco dasypus novemcinctus

Common opossum Zorro pelón didelphis marsupialis

Long-nosed bat Murciélago de nariz larga rhynchonycteris naso

ReptilesEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name

Green iguana Iguana verde iguana iguana

Jesus Christ lizard Lagartija jesucristo basiliscus sp.

Central American whip-tailed lizard Chisbala ameiva festiva

Ctentosaur Garrobo ctentosaura similis

Spectacled caiman Caimán caiman crocodilus

Orange-eared slider Tortuga resbaladora trachemys scripta venusta

Boa constrictor Boa; béquer boa constrictor

Fer-de-lance viper Terciopelo bothrops asper

Coral snake Coralillo, corál micrurus nigrocinetus

Eyelash viper Bocaracä, oropel bothriechis schlegelii

AmphibiansEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name

Blue jeans poison-dart frog Ranita roja venenosa dendrobates pumilio

Black and green poison-dart frog Ranita verde venenosa dendrobates auratus

Cane toad Sapo gigante; sapo marino bufo marinus

Red-eyed tree frog Rana calzonuda agalychnis callidryas

InsectsEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name

Bullet ant Hormiga bala paraponera clavata

Leafcutter ant Zompopas atta cephalotes

Army ant Hormiga arriera eciton burchelli

Hercules beetle Cornizuelo dynastes hercules

Golden orb spider Araña de oro nephila clavipes


66 Expert Scientist ChecklistBirds

English name Common Spanish name Scientific name

Montezuma oropendola Oropendola psarocolius montezuma

Great-tailed grackle Zanate quiscalus mexicanus

Groove-billed ani Tijo, zopilotillo crotophaga sulcirostris

Turkey vulture Zopilote cabeza roja cathartes aura

Black vulture Zopilote negro coragyps atratus

Cattle egret Garza ganadera bubulcus ibis

Snowy egret Garza de las nieves egretta thula

Great egret Garza real casmerodius albus

Great blue heron Garzón azul ardea herodias

Little blue heron Garceta azul egretta caerulea

Green heron Garceta verde butorides virescens

Tiger heron Garza tigre tigrisoma sp.

Neotropic cormorant Cormorán phalacrocorax brasilianus

Anhinga Aninga, pato aguja anhinga anhinga

Sunbittern Pájaro sol eurypyga helias

Tropical kingbird Tirano tropical tyrannus melancholicus

Great kiskadee Pecho amarillo pitangus sulphuratus

Social flycatcher Mosquero cejiblanco myiozetetes similis

House wren Soterrey cucarachero troglodytes aedon

Squirrel cuckoo Cuco ardilla piaya cayana

Chesnut-mandibled toucan Quioro, tucán ramphastos swainsonii

Keel-billed toucan Curré, tucán ramphastos sulfuratus

Emerald toucanet Tucancillo verde aulacorhynchus prasinus

Black-faced grosbeak Picogrueso carinegro caryothraustes poliogaster

Clay-colored robin Yigüirro turdus grayi

Crested guan Pava crestada penelope purpurascens

Ringed kingfisher Martín pescador collarejo ceryle torquata

Amazon kingfisher Martín pescador amazónico chloroceryle amazona

Green kingfisher Martín pescador verde chloroceryle americana

Rufous motmot Bobo, momoto baryphthengus martii

Turquoise-browed motmot Momoto cejiceleste eumomota superciliosa

White-tipped dove Paloma coliblanca leptotila verreauxi

Ruddy ground-dove Tortolita rojiza columbina talpacoti

Red-billed pigeon Paloma morada columba flavirostris

Neotropical swallow-tailed kite Gavilán tijereta elanoides forficatus

Osprey Águila pescadora pandion haliaetus

White-throated magpie-jay Urraca calocitta formosa

Northern jacana Gallito de agua, jacana jacana spinosa

Spotted sandpiper Alzacolita actitis macularia

Rufous-tailed hummingbird Colibrí rabirufo amazilia tzacatl

Violet sabrewing Colibrí ala de sable campylopterus hemileucurus

Blue-gray tanager Viudita thraupis episcopus

Passerini´s tanager Sargento ramphocelus passerinii

67Costa Rica Discovery Journal Notes

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