C H A P I 3 H —» VI

371

INDUSTRIES

Agriculture# no doubt# provided livelihood to the

majority ©f the population o f Kashmir and was also the

main source of income to the State but the role of the

industries in the economic life of the period can not be

under estimated. The Industries formed the only source of

livelihood to a large part of the population ^nd a

subsidiary source of Income to almost the whole population

of Kashmir and that o f the State . The towns were mostly

concentrated in producing finished goods for distribution

in the country ©r for export. The v illages , no doubt, for

the most part were confined to provide food and some raw

materials to the urban areas txat they were not devoid

of manufacturing activ ities . There was a large population

In the villages which exclusively lived on skilled arts to

furnish them to the peasant for cultlvating and household

purposes, while as the peasants who in Kashmir due to the

climatic conditions, are for a larger part of the year#

detached from the land, spent a considerable time In running1

the different cottage industries. There was scarcely any

house where there was no loam and spinning wheel to manufacture

the woollen cloth 'P attu ', which formed the common dress of

2the peasant men and women both in summer and winter.

1 . The cultivating season of Kashmir terdly extends from March to October.

2 . See Supra, p . D 6)

372

The period under review witnessed an extraordinary

development in the Industrial field of Kashmir, As long

as the arts and crafts of Kashmir will survive, the

memory of the period will remain fresher than ever. Almost

all the presant arts and crafts of Kashmir, which have

earned for her world wide reputation# owe their existence

to this period. During the period Kashmir was more

advanced in the industrial life than many other biggest

countries, Mirza Gaidar Dughlat who toured extensively

in Persia , central Asia and Indian subcontinant was

surprised by the highly industrial development of Kashmir,

which he expressed in these words, “ In Kashmir one meets

with all those arts and crafts which are in most c ities

uncommon......... In the whole of Mavara-un-Nahr except in

Samarkand and Bukhara, they are nov/here to be met with,3

while in Kashmir they are even abundant." S *ne years after

Mirza Haidar, Ab&l Fazl was also puzzled by the industrial

activity of Kashmir. He remarked "There are artificers of

various kinds, who might be deservedly employed in the4

greatest c it ie s ,"

Kashmir owed this high reputation as a greatest

manufacturing country with its high excellance and artistic

genious to a great extent t ) the whole-hearted patronage

of the Sultans particularly Sultan ^ainu'l-Abidin. This

3, * .R . (E&D), p . 434

4, A ,A , II (Jarrett), p . 350

378

Is substantiated by the unanimous statements of all the5

contemporary and later chroniclers. During the reign

of Sultan Zainu'l-Abidin, not only the old arts and

crafts of Kashmir like woollen and Silken Textiles were

revived and improved upon but a numer of new ones like

carpet industry, paper industry# book binding were introduced

6and cultivated under the nourshing care of the Sultan*

It became possible by taking a number of remarkable steps by

the Sultan. Firstly he Invited the artisans from different

7parts of the world and offered generous patronage to them.

a s a result a number of master artisans were attracted

to Kashmir from different greatest centres of arts and

cr~ ft >. Shrivara while corroborating this by his eye witness

account remarks "who did not seek to please the monarch,

and what artists possessed of great designs in art, did not

come from distant countries, like bees to the monorch who

8Lwas almost like the Kalpa tree.

Secondlyfche Sultan sent_ some- irvtelligant per sons ,

on the state expenses to-the different c n t e t e s - - wnad

5 . Shrivara, pp . 151-52 (ii) T .R . (£ & D ), p ,434<iii) S .A . f . 15b (iv) B .S . f f . 22b-23a(v) H.M , p. 47

6 . See the following pages of this chapter.

7 . S . a . f . 15b

8 . Shrivara, p . 151

374

Secondly the Sultan sent some Intelligent

persons, on the state expenses to the different countries,

renowned for the arts and crafts, to learn those arts

which were not existing In Kashmir. The Sultan not only

bore the Individual expenses of these trainees but

also those of their faralllol.

Another and the most commendable step taken by

the Sultan to enrich the Industrial field of Kashmir

was that who-soever used to come to Kashmir was Inquired

If he knew any art . I f he happened to know any, one or

two wise countrymen were sent to him for learning that

art . This proved one of the most important steps taken

by the Sultan for the improvement of the old and the

Intraduction of new arts In Kashmir since the period of the

Sultans saw the Influx ?f a large number of people from

Persia and central Asia who were drawn to Kashmir by various10

religious and economic motives.

For a proper appraisal of the Industrial development

a n ’ the technical pe fectlon, an account of the different

Irr^ortant Industries of the period calls our notice.

Textiles!- The manufacture of textiles was not only

the biggest but the most flourishing Industry o f Kashmir,

9 . B .S . ff 22b-23a (II ) H .M . p. 47

10 . Ib id .

375

which by manufacturing some unique pieces of textiles

achieved a place of distinction among other countries

like Persia, Central Asia and India . Its output not

only ful-filled the internal consumption of the valley

but was used also as an article of exchange with other

neighbouring countries. Thus contributed to a brisk

foreign trade of tho valley. The manufacture of the textile*

included the woollen cloth, s ilk and carpets.

There were two types of the Woollen cloth

manufactured in the country, The rough woollen cloth was

known as *Pattu*, while as the soft one was known as

'shaw l*. Infact the nature of their raw material and the

technique** of weaving so much differed from each other that

these two kinds of woollen cloth gave rise to two kinds

o f Industries, One came to be known as Pattu Industry and

the other as shawl Industry*

Pattu Industrvi- The Pattu Industry was an age

old Industry of Kashmir, Long before our period we find in

the Rajatarangini of Kalhana a few references about the

woollen cloaks used by the people to protect them from the

low temperature of the valley particularly at the time of

winte^. However, it seems that woollen cloths were not

as common as the leather clothes, KiUen Ts(ang while referring

to the dress of the people does not say any thing about

the woollen cloaks. He writes that the climate of Kashmir

1%, -r. 3*8

376

was cold and stern and so *tbe people wear leather

e 12doublets and cloths of white linen1* Kalhana also

frequently refers to the bestowing of skins of black

antelopes as presents by the kings and nobles as13

their favourites and men of honour. This also shows

that the manufacture of the woollen cloth was not common,

consequently the leather became popul r and was esteemed

by the people. This Is further substantiated by an another

reference of Kalhana where ha allots the woollen cloth14

for the rich urban people only. Conversely we find the

'Pattu Industry very flourishing Industry of Kashmir

during the period under review. This was probably due

to tho fact that loom was not introduced in Kashmir prior

to the Sultans and the woollen cloth*# wa£« manufactured

by some other device which involved much human labour

'Xand in this way rendered fe&em very expensive and thus fit

only for the rich . This Is also corroborated by a state­

ment of Shrivara who says that during the reign of Sultan

Zalnu'l-Abldln a number o f artisans came to Kashmir from

different parts of the world who Introduced the loom In

12 . Beal, p . 148

13. Rajt I p . 342, I I , 186

14. Ib id . I , p . 154

377

isthe country besides the weavers brush. The Introduction

o f loom was thus itBfcrumental In pushing up the textile

Industry of Kashmir In general and Pattu In particular

during the period of our study. As a result we find

"Pattu*' the common dress of the people of Kashmir whether

men or woman. More lu^ortint is the fact that according

to Jahangir, the mass of the p >pul tlon used to wear16

*Pattu* not only In winter but also In summer, Pattu

as a common dress of the people of Kashmir both for men

and women and both In summer and winter Is thus the sufficient

proof to prove the highly flourishing nature of this

Industry,

The introduction o f loom in the country during

our period Is no doubt an Important factor which opened

a new era In the history of Pattu Industry In Kashmir, but

this was not fefce only factor which was responsible for the

extensive establishment of this Industry. There were same

other factors too. Firstly the climatic conditions of

Kashmir require the people to put on woollen clothes at

least for six months (from October to March) which led

the people to manufacture woollen cloth either to fu lfill

their own needs or to earn their livelihood by supplying the* Secondly

ft fce Urban p eo p le^he cotton cloth was not manufactured on such

an extensive scale so that it would ££lfill the demand of

1 5 . Shrlvara, p . 151

16 . See Supra, p.

378

the summer dress of the people* The cotton cloth was17

imported from foreign lands and was thus vory dear* As

a result the masses could not, with their limited income,

afford to bear the high cost of the cotton clothes.

Silken clothes, as we will see later on were manufactured

in the country but their cost was also too high t® be

born by the common people* Thus the people except the ricli

satisfied their demands of both summer and winter cloth ng

from their own domestically manufactured 'Pattu*• The

raw material ©f the Pattu was also available in the country.

It was procufred from the sheep extensively reared in

the vast pastures and waste lands of Kashmir, Ultimately

the Pattu Industry received the tremendous boost in

Kashmir, The Kashmiri Woollen cloth 'Pattu ' was known for

its warmth and durability, which could last for years 19

together*

16b

We find Sainagir, the newly established town o f

21Sultan ^ainu'l-Abidin famous for the Pattu Industry? which

it soem3 was established by the Sultan in the Parganah and

16b. In ths contemporary literature .*e find some indirect references about the cultivation o f Cotton plant. (B .S .f .3 7 a ) but its cultivation war, done on a limited scale. Moorcraft, a ninteenth century European traveller also gives a very poor opinion about theproduction of Cotton and its Industry in Kashmir thoughhundreds of years had elapsed since our period.Mooreraft Vol I I , p . 154

17 . See Supra, p* nq II

1 9 . A , a * I I (Jarrett), p . 350 (ii ) Tuzuk/(R&B) p . 14821* W.K* p .76

379

and was granted full state patronage. This is also

substantiated by Shrivara who says that Airing the reign

o f Sultan Zainu'l-Abidin Woollen cloth became famous22

in Kashmir for its durability and was fife for the kings*

The process of weaving 'Pattu* was the same as

we find in modern times in the rural areas af Kashmir* The

contemporary literatur furnishes us with some important

references about the different parts of the loam like

23warp, shuttle, woop, press board, which shows that the said

loom has not gone under any change since then and continues

to be the same upto the present times.

We do not know whether Pattu was exported but there

can be no doubt that it would have been one of the important

articles of internal trade particularly between the rural

and urban areas,

MkmL..lafluato*-

There were a number of industries but the manufacture

for which Kashmir was celebrated throughout the world,

promoted its trade, filled it with wealth and furnished to

a means of livelihood to a considerable section of its

population was the light, warm and elegant article of dress

known s 'shaw l*•

22 . Shrivara, p . 151

23 . Saqi, p , 87

380

Various arguments have been put forward about the

origin of shawl Industry In Kashmir, but there is no

contemporary evidence to trace its origin* According t©

one tradition the first Kashmiri shawls were manufactured

by Turk is tan weavers who ware invited by Sultan 2a inu*l-24

Abidin to settle in the valley* Another tradition ascribes

the foundation ©f Shawl Industry in Kashmir to a great Sufi

^a int , Mir Saiyid A li Hamadani who came to Kashmir in the25

second half of the 14th Century* Nothing can be said with

certainity, but there is no doubt that this industry develop-

ed in Kashmir for the first time and received the world

wide reputation during the Sultans which is supperted by

many factors. First there is no reference about the Shawl

in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana or any other source relevant

upt© the establishment of Muslim Sultanate in Kashmir. In

the Rajatarangini we h^ve noticed to many references about26

the Woollen cloaks like 'Kutha' Sathulakambla but there

is no mention ©f Shawl ©r *Soha* which Shrivara has used to28

denote the Shawl. Secondly we have seen the Hindu rulers

bestowing skins of antelops as raresants on their favourities

24* Hu jel, 'Travels in Kashmir, pp. 116-19

25 . T .H .V o l .I , 354-55

26 . Rajt. I# pp . 1 54 ,2 33 . See also Ray, p . 208

28 . Shrivara, p* 151

381

but there is no mention of shawl or any such woollen

cloth . Had there been Shawl# the leather would not have

become such an emblem of honour and respect and even at

the cost of Shawl since there is no mention of i t . Thirdly

Shrivara the court chronicler of Sultan Zalnu*l-Abldln

remarks that during the reign o f Sultan Zainu'l-Abidin

a number of master artisans came to Kashmir f ram distant

countries as a result excellant shawls were manufactured

in the valley for which it became famous in the world.

Moreover as John Zrwin remarks that the twil tapestary

technicjue of Kashmiri Shawls has a parallel in Persia and30

Central Asia but nowhere in the Indian subcontinent. In

view of these facts it can be said that this industry

was developed by the artisans o f Persia and Central Asia

who came to Kashmir during the period and were patronised

by the Sultans.

From Afoul Fazl we know that the Shawl Industry

was a well developed and flourishing Industry of Kashmir

on the eve of the Mughal occupation of Kashmir. The Mughal

historian has given a detailed account about this Industry

o f Kashmir with some superficial improvements made in it31

by the Emperor Akbar. Striking out the account o f those

measures# a clear picture of the Shawl Industry of Kashmir

under the Sultans Is ascertained.

30 . For More details see the article by John Irwin . The Kashmir Shawls (The Marg# vl No. I pp. 43-50

31 . A*A. I (Biochman) p . 97

382

According to Abul Fazl two kinds of Shawls were

* •manufactured In Kashmir namely Tus Shawls and Alcha

Shawls* • Tus Shawl was $fcs best quality . It was made

©f the wood rattier hair o f an animal of that name which

inhabits great T ib et . That Is why the great Tibet was32

the greatest supplier o f Shawl wool to Kashmir, This

kind of Shawl was unrivalled for its t ightness# warmth33

and softness and was much esteemed. This kind o f Shawl

had many ciours«like black, red and white. People wore34

without altering its natural clour. Alcha Shawl also35

known as Safid Ale ha or Tarhdar was made of the wool

o f the native country. However, this kind o f Shawl was37

not as fine and delicate as that of the Tus Shawl.

According to Abul fazl these stuffs were in three colours,

white, black or raijsed. The white kind of Shawl beforeA'ioA

the Mughals was dyed in three ways and Akbar got i t 'i n38

various ways.

The flourishing nature o f the Industry can also be

judged by the prodigious quantity o f Shawls manufactured

in the valley. Though Kashmir witnessed the chaos and

32- A.A.(Blockmann) p .97 (Jarrett I I ) p .34933 . *bld . See also B em la r , p . 40334 . A .a . (Blochman), p . 9735 . Ale ha or Alacha means any kind of corded (mukhattat)

s tu ff . Tarhdar also means corded, c f (Blochmann)p 97nl37 . Xbid.l£l> Bernier, p . 40338 . A .A . I (Blockmann) p . 97

383

canfusion after the death of Sultan z a in 'u l—Abidin

which continued up to Kashmir fell into the hands of

the Mughals, yet there was a fairly large number of

factories for making Shawls on the eve of the Mughal

conquest of Kashmir, According to Razl, the author of

Haft Iqllm, there were in the time o f Akbar two hundred39

factories for making Shawls, Since we do not find Shawl

Industry stowing any unusual progress or any sign of

decay during the reign o f Akbar, the same number must

have been during the last phase of ©ur period too.

The shawl Industry had also attained a high degree

of excellence. The Shawls of Kashmir were given the name40

of *Parm-i*arm* by Bnq&eror Akbar, Abul Fazl also praised

the high perfection and excellence of the Kashmiri 41

Shawls, Emperor Jehangir says that they are so excellent

and famous that "there is no need to praise them" (hajat42

ba tar i f nist) , The delicate texture, softness and

durability had made Kashmiri Shawl unrivalled in the whole

world, which attracted the covetous attention of a number

of foreigners who tried to introduce such Shawls in their

own lands, but notwithstanding every possible care they

39 , Razl, Haft Iqlim f ,156a (vide Mtthlbbul Has*anp. 243)

4 0 , Tuzuk (R&B) p , 14741 , A .A .H (Jarrett) p . 34942 , Tuzuk (R&B) I I p . 147

384

they had never such delicate texture and softness of 42b

Kashmiri Shawls. The delicate texture and softness

o f Kashmiri Shawls have been attributed by the European

travellers to some unicue quality o f the water of the43

valley . Shawl Industry had a considerable commercial

and economic value to Kashmir. The Shawls earned for

the valley a flourishing trade with the far off countries

of the world and thus contributed a lot to the economic44

u p lift of the country.

It had an additional economic value since besides

the trader and the weaver a number of families who were

associated with the various processess of its manufacture45

earned their living by It . The Shawl was also an Important

tool with the Kashmiris with the help of which they could

make friendly relations with the rulers o f the greatest

countries or could eoncilate a powerful invader

42b. Besides the eoqperor Akbar who took great pains Inmanufacturing similar shawls in Patna, Agra and Lahore but without success, (Bernier p . 403) the Europeans particularly Mooreraft (Mooreraft, w & Trebeck, VoLXX p . 165) a t t e s t e d his best to produce similar shawls In his native land but all In vain since they never had the delicate texture and softness of Kashmir Shawls.

4 3 . Bernier, p . 403 (il) Vigne H p . 13044 . See "Infra** p . US545 . Compare Mofrcraft I I pp. 174-84

385

Invading the country. According to Suka, one of the

Important tempting offerings# which the Kashmiri

nobility made to Mirza ^aldar Dughlat (on his first

Invasion 1553) for leaving the country was the nine

pieces of cloth which In all probability would have46

been the nine p»ieces of Shawls,

SUK.iafitaftfcm-

Among the most Important Industries which

developed during the period mainly because of the royal

patronage# S ilk Industry is worthy mention. Silken

cloth was the most favourite and esteemed dress of the 47

royalty. The silken robes ware also conferred by the

s ultons-on their favourites as an emblem of honour48

and respect. There was no public ceremony which was not

marked by the frequent distribution o f Silken clothes by49

the Sultans. Thus not only to meet the exhaustive demand

of Silken clottjs but also to make them fit for themselves,

the Sultans patronised and promoted the S ilk Industry

of Kashmir.

Madusudan Ganju*s reseirchs on the origin and

early beginnings o f Sericulture In Kashmir prove that the

46 . Suka# p . 373

4 7 . See Supra, p £ n 5 ’-"l^

4 3 . Ib id .

49. See Supra, p p

s i l k Industry was a very ancient In&istry of Kashmir.

The arguments which the author has put forward in

supports ®f his thesis may be summarised as follows***

(a) The mulbary tree on which the S ilk worms are

reared were and are worshij/ed by the people of

Kashmir# like those of Chinese with great reverance*

There are a few places in the valley reserved for

the Bhairava Pooja in the valley where mulbary

trees are being worshlgfed as Bhalravas. Since

Bhairava ls*one of the Ganas o f Siva and Siva

worship Is very old In Kashmir, it not only proves

the very old antiquity ©f Silk industry in Kashmir

but also the people's zeal for and dependence on49&

the S ilk Industry*

(b) At the performance of Yajnopavlta ceremony when a

sacred fire Is burnt into which, besides many other

incenses, a large number of twigs or cuttings of

some sacred trees are put. In India such twigs are

obtained from trees like p ipala, Khadlra, ShamI benyan

e t c ., but from mulbary in Kashmir* "Now since the

Yajnopavita ceremony takes its origin from the Vedas,

which were written thousands of years before Christ#

49a . Madusudan Ganju 'Textile Industries in Jammu and Kashmir state Delhi 1945, p* 190

387

we are on a firm ground to believe that the ex 1 stance

of and the rove ranee for the mulbary trees in Kashmir50

is at least as old as the Vedas, if not older"

(c) The code of Manu declares that at the time » f Yajno-

pavita "a Brahraana shall (carry) according to sacred

laws a staff of Bilva or Paisa# a Kshatriya, o f Vata or

Khadira# and a Vaishya, o f P ilu or Udurabara". But in

the absence of such trees in the land, Kashmir took

recourse to the mulbary tree. This again leads us to the

conclusion that not only this tree existed in the valley

tens of centuries before Christ and vi&uld have been

of s«ne immense economic advantage in the shape of probly

being the source of silk to the people since we can

not find any reason as to why apple trees and other delicious

fruit yielding trees should not have been treated with51

such reveranee.

(d) The word 'S i l k ' is believed to be from Mongolian origin

OSirkok' which means s ilk . The Korean word for it is '-air*,

Chinese SSI, Greek ^Ser, French, ‘S o il / German e iden and

the Latin-Sericum,# All these words according to the

( *authorities seam to have been derived either from Tarter 3er

or Chinese t s i . However the Kashmiri word 'Poot' used for

50* Ib id .

51 . Ib id . p . 191

388

s ilk Is quite different from the above derivations,

which also shows that the mulbary silk worm Is52

Indigenous to Kashmir.

Moreover Mahabharata mentions a thread spun

by worms to have been one of the many presents to

Yudhlsthlra by his feudatory princes from the north­

western side of Hlmalyas. Since Kashmir has been

and is even now the great home of Silk production in

Northern India, the referance in the above document

might mean Kashmir which forms a part of Northern53

In d ia .

In conclusion it can be said that the S ilk

Industry is very ancient Industry of Kashmir* However,

it cannot be denied that because of the tremendous royal

patronage it achieved a great progress during the period 53b

under review. The manufacture of Silken cloths attained

an unusual degree of excellence about which we have the

first hand information from the pen of S hr I vara. Besides

the in roductlon o f loom and weavers brush which Improved54the methods of ft s weaving, the period under review

also saw the Introduction and the development of art of

colour and decorative designs In the silken fabrics* The

silken cloth* w$£« manufactured of different colour • o f

52 . Ib id .53 . Ib id . p .19253b* Shrivara, p p .151-52 54* Ib id .

389

improved in content and variety. Beautiful patterns were

woven on the cloth which to quote Shrivara "painters saw

and remained dumb". These included tree forms, circular55

designs and human figures.

The S ilk worms were reared an an extensive

sc^le in the country. According to Kfcrza ^ »idar and Abul

Fazl there were abundance of mulbary trees in the country

exclusively cultivated for rearing the silk worms to56

obtain the s ilk . The abundance of mulbary trees in

Kashmir with their definite purpose of obtaining silk

puzzled Mirza Haidar t ho says **^mong the wonders of

Kashmir are the quantities**of mulbary trees cultivated57

for their leaves -from which silk is obtained." To give

an impetus to the industry the Kashmiris imported silk

worm eggs from Gil gat anc1 Tibet where they were procurred58

in greater abundance and were more choice.

The S ilk Industry was a well developed and

profitable industry o f Kashmir on the eve of the Mughal

conquest of Kashmir# which is clear by the fact that as

threads. The art of the designs of prints ware considerably

55. Ib id .56 . T .R . (E&D) p . 425 (ii ) a . a . I I (Jarrett) P . 349,

See also Tuzuk (text) p . 304 (R&B) I I . p .146

57 . Ib id .

58 . A .A . I I (Jarrett)pp. 349-50 (II) Tuzuk (Ibid)

390

they like other lucrative Industries of the valley59

declared It as a government undertaking Industry.

soon as Kashmir fell Into the hands of the Mughals,

Apart from the manufacture of cloth, carpets

were also manufactured during the period, c arpet Industry

In Kashmir was for the first time Introduced by Sultan

Zalnu'l-Abidln, who Invited some? ejqpert carpet weavers60

from Samarqand and settled them In the valley . Ho'.jover,

t M s Industry does not seam to have developed during the

period because except Salyld 11 who referred to this

industry during the period of Sultan Zalnu'l-Abldin, neither

any local nor any Mughal source has mentioned any thing

about this Industry. The Investment of the high cost which

a finished carpet involves, the consequent limited Internal

demand and the difficulties of the means of communication

which banned Its export In view of Its bulky weight, might

have contributed to Impovershlng the carpet Industry

during the Sultans.

The textile Industry geve birth to some small or

6 l 62cottar?" Industries like spinning, dyeing, embroidery.

59 . A . * . (Biochmann) p . 53560 . S .A .f . i s b . Howev>r, S a iy l d A l l wrongly says that Shahl

Khan, the future Sultan Zalnu'l-Abldln was taken Into prison by Timur (In Samarqand) when the latter Invaded India and that when Timur died he was released and brought with him many craftsmen like carpet weavers etc . The Imprlsnment of Shah I Khan by Timur Is not correct because when he Invaded India, Za. inu11-Ab id in ijaa not even b s n w at that tim e.What seems probable Is that like the Introduc­tion o f other arts In the TOlley he might have either Invited these artisans or sent some persons there for receiving tra In lng In these arts.

6 1 . A . * . I (Biockmann) p . 97 62 . Bernier, p . 403

391

Besides they offered to a means of livelihood to a

number of other people atnd gave birth to such professions63

like carder# cleamer# designer etc,

Papar Industry*—

Another important Industry of Kashmir which

earnod a great reputation for her (the valley) in the

neighbouring countries and formed an extensive article

of traffic# was the fabrication of best writing paper

famous as 'Kashmiri Knghaz*.

The Paper Industry (rag paper) was Introduced

In Kashmir for the first time by Sultan Zalnu'l-Ahldin

who according to the author of Baharistan-l-Shahi sent

an Intelligent person of Kashmir to Samerqand at govern­

ment expenses to receive training In this art# After

receiving the training, he taught this art to others for

which he was given the revenues of a village and in

this way the art of paper making (Kaghaz gari) became64

popular in Kashmir* T? give an Impetus to this Industry

Sultan £alnu*1-Abidln Is seemed to have established

this industry near his royal quarters, Naushahr so that his

personal attention, care and patronage towards this

6 3 . Grierson, p* 114 (li) Shrlvara, p . 151

64* B .S . f . 22b-23a. S-se also S .A .f , 15b, H .M , p . 47

392

Industry would be ensured In a proper way. This

industry was not, however, confined to Naushahr. It

also flourished in other parts of the valley. Haidar

M4l!fc# the author of Tarikh-iJKashmir says that Sultan

Zainu'l-Abidin made arrangements for manufacturing

paper in Phag Parg na and gave a village to a paper67

manufacturer for imparting training in this art .

66

Thus the patrooige of the State, the problem

o f the non availability of any other paper in the valley

except birch bark and the external demand o f Kishmiri

paper were among the important factors which helped in

building up a very flourishing paper (rag paper) industry.

The Kashmiri paper was regarded as one o f the winders68

of Kashmir and was sent outside as present. I t was in

great demand in Indian subcontinent where it was used for69

writing the Holy Qurans, valuable documents and painting .

It was of silky texture and glossy appearance. It possessed

the quality that it could be washed and used again fi»r

• • • • • • • • • * • • • • * * • ia ie t * • • * * *Buhlar wrongly says that/Sdfc was introduced '"by Afcbar to KsssEhBttr. p . 29

6 6 . Lawrance# (p . 38o) says that the paper workers were settled by the Sultan In Naushahr (Srinagar) and in his time there were 30 such fam ilies.

6 7 . H ,M , p . 47 . This is further substantiated by a 19th Century European traveller# who refers to the Paper M ills near Shalimar# which is one of the villagers of Phag Parganah. Vigne II# p . 121

6 8 . T .A ,(te x t ) p.603 (ii ) T ,P , (text)# p . 344

69 . M .T . ( i i i ) p . 202

393

writing, which Is corroborated by a letter addressed

by shaikh Yaqub Sarfl , a sixteenth century Sa'nt-scholar

of Kashmir, to Abdul Qadlr Badaunl " I f you should have

any need of Kashmiri paper for rough notes and drafts,

I hope that you will Inform me of the fact, so that I

may send you from Kashmir the rough copy o f my commentaries,

the writing on which can be washed from the paper so

completely th it no trace of the ink will remain as you

7oyourself havs seen ."

There Is no contemporary information about the

process of the manufacture o f Kashmiri rag paper, whtch

Is , however, furnished by the foreign travellers who71

vlsltod Kashmir late In the 19th Century* Since in 19th

Century Kashmiri Paper was also unique and superior to

other paper manufactured 'I n the plains* the technical

process of manufacturing Kashmiri paper would not have

undergone any radical changer

It Is also worth to note that the Indigenous paper

of Kashmir known ns birch bark was not given up by the

people and w-s simultaneously used in writing the docu«ments72

ana o ffic ial records.

70* Ib id .7 1 . See vlgne I I , p . 121

7 2 . . I I (J arrett) p . 351

394

Allied to paper Industry a mention may be made of

book binding. The art of book binding was also Introduced

In Kashmir by Sultan zainu' 1-Abidin, who sent a person

on State expenses to Samarqand to receive training In

this art, who later on popularised this art In Kashmir73

with full state patronage. We do not know much than this

about this industry since no Information Is forth-coming.

wood io m i-

The wood work existed in Kashmir since the

ancient times, but before the Sultans it was confined74

to the boat building and to the house construction. It

had neither received the state patronage which is evident

by the extensive stone architecture of the period nor

received any excellency. Infact it was the stone architecture

not the wooden one which was popular and at the peak of

Its height during the Hindu rulers. The Muslims replaced

the stone architecture by wooden one. Both the literary

and archeological evidence testifies the fact that wooden

architecture was popularised and patronised by the Sultans.

Their palaces, buildings, bridges and religious edifices

73 . B .S . f . 22b (It) H .M . p . 47

7 4 . See Infra, p .

335

were mostly constructed sf wood, as a result the wood

work not only became common but achieved a great m erit.

Besides the buildings constructed under the patronage

of the Sultans, we also find the houses of the people75

generally constructed of wood. It was also used for the

manufacture of such articles like walking stalves, utensils76

especially plates and cups, palkoys, bed steads, lnk-77 78

strin's, boxes, spoons. Images besides, in the construction

of boats. As a matter of fact wood work was In common

use and a considerably targe population was engaged In

It . Abul Fazl while corroborating this says that the79

carpenters drove a very thriving trade In Kashmir.

The high excellence of the wood work of the

period Is shov/n both by the literary and some rare specimens

of the period. The twelve storeyed wooden palace of Sultan

Zalnu'l-Abldln and the wooden bridges of the Sultans

presented a puzzle not only to those who had the fortune

to see them luring the par tod or linned lately after It

but also t® those who vis I tad Kashmir even in the nlnteenth80

century* Besides we have at the present time some specimens

75 . See Supra, p . IS67 6 . Th . A p . 285 ( I D A. Abrar. f . 123a7 7 . Bernier, p . 40278 . T h .A . p . 2137 9 . A . a . IX (Jarrett) p . 35180 . See Supra p. Si infra §p -J ®8

396

o f the period like the door of the Mosque o£ Madanl

which bears fine carvings and lattice work. The 'J a i l '

screens o f existing Jam I Masjld and Khanqah-l-Mualla

and Khataro-band (ornamental ceallng) o f the latter

bear an eloquent proof of the marvellous skill o f81

the carpenters. The ' tabdan tarasht* (lattice work)

caused much wonder to Mlrza Haidar Dughlat who could

not find It any where In Central Asia except In Saraarqand82

and Bukhara.

Stone and brick worki-.

Kashmir had been very fomous for highly advanced

stone Industry during the Hindu rule to which the extant

ruins of the Hindu temples bear an ample witness. With

8 1 . The existing features of these two monuments of Muslim architecture of Kashmir show that these buildings must haven possessed similar characteristics before, for when they were rebuilt during the Mughal period, the original features were retained.

8 2 . T.R.(EScD) p . 4348 3 . D r . Bernier, who visited to Kashmir In the 17th

Century, was also surprised to find the excellentsk ill of the Kashmiri carpenters. He could notfind such an art In the whole of India and foundthe Kastattlrl wooden articles In use In every partof Indian subcontinent. While giving a pictureof the highly developed skill of the Kashmiri carpentorshe says "They.........are eminently sk ilful In closelyInxnltatlng the beautiful veins of a certain wood, by Inlaying with gold threads so delicately wrought that I never saw anything more elegant and perfect" Bernier p . 402

397

stone architecture was replaced by the wooden one but

it was not totally given up. In the contemporary sources

we have a number of references about the construction

of buildings, causeways and temples made of stone83

though none of them has survived so far. Besides,

number of household and other articles were made of stone

like chisled stones for husking paddy, pestle stones

for pounding or crushing things, chiSled stones used

84in water mills for crushing grains. Chisled stones

85for the pavement of bazars and streets, courtyards of

87 88^ .the upper classes, for the hot bath rooms, ep i tap hi The

fact that stone industry continued to be flourishing

during the period is also evidanced by Mirza G aidar 's

praises, he showered on an extensive and flourising art89

of stone cutting and stone polishing of the period . There

was in Srinagar a locality inhabited exclusively by the90

stone cutters known after thetr art as 'tnauza sang-tarashan*

the establishment of Muslim Sultanate though the

8 3 . Jonaraja, p . 89 (11) Shrivara, pp. 121, 123,

8 4 . Saql, p . 44

8 5 . T .R . (E&D), p . 425

8 7 . See Supra, p .

8 8 . There are a number of graves of our period having stone epitaphs

8 9 . T .R . (E&D) P . 434

9 0 . T h .A . p . 258

398

Mention may also be made to the brick and t ile

works. It is believed that the Kashmiris learnt the art

of making pucca bricks and polishing them from Samarqand,

Bukhara and Persia, The contemporary sources refer to

the use of pucca bricks in the buildings. The Jam! Masj id

at Srinagar, which was built with the help of the architects

of Central Asia , was constructed of pucca bricks cemented

with lime?1

lUs .varM-

About the tile work of the period no less than some

specimens of the Mosque of Madani, which are preserved

in the Sri Partab Museaum of Srinagar can testify the

excellency of the art. They are glazed and in square units

with various brilliant colours such as blue, red, brown,

green and yellow. Another interesting feature of these coloured

>"glazed tiles is the excellent paintings drawn on them. This

coloured tile work was introduced in Kashmir from Persia,

About these coloured tiles of the period John Marshall says

"The tile work in que tion is one o f the most valuable

antiquities which Kashmir possesses. There are only three

monuments that I know of in India where such t iles can be 92

found"

9 1 , See, Supra p .

92 , Mershall, Note on Archeological workin Kashmir, 1908 pp . 34-35

399

Metal .wriH.-

The metallic Industry was one of the most important

and well developed Industries of the period. The

contemporary evidence reveals the fact that there were

Iron and copper mines In the valley which were worked 94

by the state . There were also some places where from95

gold was obtained. The output o f the gold seems to

have been meagre and was suppleralm&ed by importing It96

from other countries.

The Industry based on Iron was a flourishing

one. I t was tho backbone of the political as well as

economic stability of the country - for strengthening

the Central power and to guard against internal revolts

and foreign invasions. The state had no other alternative

but to equip their soldiers with the arms. Besides the

Iron malls used by the soldiers while fighting, we find

a number of arms like spears, battles axes, daggers,

bows, knives, Iron maces etc* used frequently In the97

wars and rebellions of the period. It Is Interesting

to note ttet the period saw a marked development In this

94 , T .A . (text) p* 60l ( I D A ,A , I I (text) pp. 253-54

9 5 , A ,A , I I (text) pp. 358-59

9 6 , See p . Infra p , l|l($

9 7 , Shrivara pp , 296-99 I I Suka p . 386

490

industry* Shrivara refers to a weapon made for the

first time In Kashmir In the time of Sultan Zalnu'l-Abidln

which "destroys forts, perces the hearts of men# strikes

the horses with terror# throws balls of stone from a

distance and remains unseen by the soldiers from98

encampments" About the nature of this weapon there Is

a controversy among the modern scholars. M&hlbbul Hasan

Is of the tap In Ion that the 'weapon Invented was not a

canon but some kind of mechnlcal device by which fire99

missiles or stones could be discharged" However Dr.Zutshl

dismisses the view of Mfclhtbbul Hasan and holds the opinion

that that Invention was a canon?0 Whether It was a canon

or something like that# the Invention shows the developed

nature of the Industry. It Is also important to note

that If Shrivara does not clearly mention the name o f this

weapon and creats doubt whether It was a canon or not#

yet after Sultan Zaln^ul—rbldlns reign suka and other

chroniclers clearly refer to the canons used oy the Kashmiris

In the c ivil wars and against lnv^loA§*

9 8 . Ib id . p . 105

9 9 . Mohlbbul Hasan# p . 211

100. Zutshl# pp . 117-18

101. c f . M&hlbbul-Hassan# p p .211-12.

401

For carrying agriculture and other Industries,102

Iron tools and Implements were Indlspenslble, This

Industry w a s also necesslatad by the household necessary

articles ,

Mention may also be made of copper, gold and

sliver work o f the period. There was a fairly la£ge

class of Copper workers In Srinagar who resided at

a separate quarter In Srinagar* which was famous after 103

them. They had a fairly large b siness and used to

manufacture the cooking and eating vessels. The coins

of the period were also commonly minted of copper. Copper

work of Kashmir was mostly Influenced by the Persian and

Central Aslan art . However they were not mere Imitators

but developed their own style too. Thus says U jfaly "with

Islam came perso-Arab art In Kashmir, The people the most

Ingenious perhaps In the entire world and certainly In

Central Asia, found themselves In the presence of admirable

models, and with their marvellous talent for Imitation

and execution they set themselves to work and create for

their dally use a series of objects of art which soon104

surpassed the orig inals ," The gold and sliver smiths

102 , Saql, pp . 76 , 93

103 , T h .A , p . 250

104 , tljfalvy# L 'A rt des Culvres Anclens au Cachemere# p , 26, vide Mohlbbul Hassan, p , 264

492

had attained even greater sk ill . Mlrza Hatder fovuad

enormous number of gold beaters or guilders ( zarkob) with their10 5

extraordinary sk ill In Kashmir. They used to manufacture

different sorts of ornaments worn by the women and Sultans 106

and nobles. Besides we also find the gold and sliver107

pots used by the upper classes. Like the other guilds of

crafts, the gold smiths resided and sold their articles

at a separate quarter In Srinagar known after them as

' Ba zar- l-M I sgaran?^

Leather work t—

Another Industry of no less importance was leather

Industry. It was an ancient Industry o f Kashmir as we

have seen from the accounts of Hleun Is’ang and Kalhana that

the leather clothes were commonly used by the people during 109

the Hindu rule . There was a fairly large group of workers

known as chamars** (leather dressers) who lived ant leather110

work* After the establishment o f Muslim Sultanate,

when the Influence of Persian and Central Aslan culture

became pronounced, the leather Industry received much more

105 . T .R . (EScD) p. 4341 0 6 . See supra, p . I 6V 86

107 . Jonaraja, p . 90

108 . See Infra l». 1 13

109 . Beal p* 148

110 . Grierson, p .

403

Saddles was the most important factor towards this111

direction* Since horses were the only convenient

means of communication in land used by all the upper

classes and that the cavalary was an Important wing

©f the^artny, the demand of Suddles must have been very

high. Besides Saddles, the art of making leather caps

was also probably Introduced during this period as v/a

fLnd for the first time In our chronicles the people112

wearing leather caps. We also find that the old tradi­

tion of wearing leather dress was adopted by the people113

though at a minor scale. Shoes and other articles were114

also made of leather. Thus the old leather industry

of K sbmlr was not only maintained but push xl forward,

Patteciia-

VImi archaeological evidence has shown that the

pottery was a very ancient Industry of Kashmir, The Yale

Cambridge expeditionary party which made a trial

excavations at Burzahom (between Srinagar and Gandecbal)

In the year 1935 found a large number of ancient pottery

importance• The Introduction of the art of making

111. W .K . p . 4 8

112 . See Supra P-101

113 . N . Nama f . 389a.

114 . See Supra, p*

404

assignable to a period ranging from 300 to 1800 B .C .

A latsge number of earthen vessels such as jar# Jug, bowl,

earthen brazier, earthen lamp etc . have also been

recovered at Avantipura. a s a matter of fact except a

few belonging to the upper strata of the society, the

general people of Kashmir both the Muslims and the Hindus

used tfe cooking# dining and other pots for storage made

of clay. It may not be out o f place to ne ntion that while

as the household property of the upper classes constituted

of gold# silver^bopper vessels and ornaments, those of

the common masses was constituted of clay potrj which they

could easily acquire in view of their cheap rates. Shaikh

Nooru*d—Din*s following verse probably deoicts the same 116

fact.

God made Adam of clay

Of clay is made the household,

He created all delicious things from clay,

Of clay are made the utensils to cook*

I

The manufacture of oil for cookery was common

daring the perioa. We« find the pe.»ple using o il in preparing117

the vegetables and various kinds o £ dishes. Since the Walnuts

were found in abundance in Kashmir, the oil was exclusively

115. c f . Ray, p , 108116. Saqi, p . 21117. Shrivera, p . 119 (ii) Tuzuk (R&B) I I , F . 147

115

495

extracted from them as we do not find the mention o f118

any linseed oil used by the people* tfe also find that

in the times when walnuts became scarce In the country#

the oil was extracted from the pine. As Shrivara says

"During the famine# men had eaten up walnuts# so the

Intelligent kind (Zalnu'l-Ablaln) observing the conditions119

of the people caused oil to be extracted from the pine"

Besides the cookery# the walnut oil was also employed

for burning In the lamps since there was no Keroseen120

-11 or the present facilities of lightening. Thus the

oil was extensively caused to be manufactured.

Both Abul Fazl and Jahangir are unanimous on

this fact that the wine known as 'mas* was manufactured121

on a very larger scale In Kashmir* It becomes more

clear when Abul Fazl Includes wine among the principal122

artlcl s of food of the Kashmlrfe. We also find that there

vyer® wine shops not only In the capital city (Srinagar)123

but also in other towns* Since grapes vere found In124

abundance In Kashmir# wine was prepared from them. However#

118. Xbid. Moorcraft writing about Kashmir In 19th Centuryalso that walnut o il was preferred to linseed oil In Kashmir and was thus commonly used. Moorcraft II# p . 148

119 . Shrivara, p . 119120 . See Supra, p .121.. A .A . I I (Jarrett) p . 350 (11) Tuzuk (R&B) j>. 146122 . Ib id .123. See Supra p . I

406

some drunkard Sultans like Sultan Haidar Shah got it

a Isa prepared from molasses and candies. In this connsction

Shrivara says " In this reign owing to the prevalence of

drunkness wine came to be prepaired from molasses as from

grapes, and this wine became as common here as the wine125

prepared from sugar is in other caun .ries .

We have frequent references of sugar cane,

Sugar candies and molasses in the contemporary literature

j £ the period which leaves no ro*n to doubt that Sugar

candies and molasses were prepared in the country. This

can be further substantiated by the following facts.

f irs tly Sugar cane was cultivated in Kashmir by before the

Sultans and continued to be cultivated throughout our

period. Lalla the 14th Century poetess frequently refers126

to sugar candies and molasses. We are also told by

Jonaraja that Sultan Zainu'l-Abidtn introduced tha cultiva-127

tion of sugar cane on the pi -tean of Matan, Shaikh Nooru'd-

Din , who breathed hist last a l it t le after the succession

of pouer by Sultan Zainul•Abidin , oftenly refers not only

123the sugar candies but also the sugar cane and its u t ility

125. Shrivara, p . 188

126 . Temple, p . 209

127 . Jonaraja, p . 97

128 . Saqi, p , 17

Shrivara, as we have seen, refers In the reign of

Haidar Shah that tha Sultan prepared the wine from the

molasses and candies and "this wine became as commonM

here as the wine prepared from sugar is in other countries.

As a result# the chronicler says "molasses and candies

and other things prepared from the Juice of sugar cane 129

became scarce" These# references show that the Sugar

cane was not only cultivated but different types of

unrefined sugar was also manufactured in the country.

Moreover# while giving an account about the looting of

different principal products of Kashmir# in the civil

war during the first phase of Muhammad Shah*s reign#

Shrivara also includes Sugar cy.no ajnong them. To quote

him "one hundred Khari of rice v/ith sugar cane were taken

away from the houses of those who did not give a handful130

to beggar3" • It is, therefore, evidancled that the

manufacture of sugar candies -and molasses wont hand in

hand with other industries of tha time by which agricultural

produce was worked up for consumption# furiously enough

sugar cane is not totrlly cultivated in Kashmir in the

present times.

129. Shrivara, p. 188

130. Ibid. p. 274

408

Mention may also be made of some minor Industries

like the manufacture of fire works, plumes of feathers etc .

Apart from the manufacture of fire arms# as already

referred to, the fire vnrks for amusement were al30 for

the first time invent ad in Kashmir during ths reign of

Sultan Zainu'l-Abldin, According to Shrivara before

Sultan Zainu'l- Abidin, charcoal powder was not obtained

in Kashmir and the Sultan with the collaboration o f an131

expert namely Habib succeeded In procurbing It# The

Interest taken by the Sultan and the people towards

this art can be visualised by the fact that books were

written on this art bsth under the patronage of the Sultan132

and independantly by the people. These fire works were

made fry the miature of charcoal powder, sulnare and133

saltpetre.

The plumes of feathers were n nu€■ ictured and

marketed In Kashmir, Jahangir refers to them among the

excell ancles 3f Kashmir. The annual produce o£ the plumes134

In the time of Jahangir was lo#7oO p ieces. These plumes

were made of the feathers of some hunting birds and were135

mainly sold by hawkers.

131 . Shrivara# p p .134-35

132, Ib id .

133* Ib id .

134 . Tuzuk, (RSeD) I I p. 178

135 . Shrivara, p . 125