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C-Change Secretariat (Canada) www.coastalchange.ca C-Change Secretariat (Caribbean) Telfer School of Management, c/o Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of University of Ottawa Social & Economic Studies (SALISES) 55 Laurier Avenue East University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Ottawa ON K1N 6N5 Canada Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies Tel: (613) 562-5800 Post 2933 Telephone: (868) 662-6965 Email: [email protected] E-mail : [email protected]

C-Change Working Paper:

Climate Change and Physical Development Threats, Challenges and

Adaptation Responses in Coastal Communities: Grand Riviere, Trinidad

by

Michelle Mycoo Department Geomatics Engineering and Land Management The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad

email: [email protected]

and

Michael Sutherland Department Geomatics Engineering and Land Management The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad

email: [email protected]

C-Change Working Paper April 2010

Published by the C-Change Secretariat (Canada) Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa

C-Change ICURA Working Paper Series No. 33 This document is prepared as a public discussion document among C-Change communities as part of the C-Change ICURA Project 2009-2015 (www.coastalchange.ca) and with the permission of the C-Change Secretariat (Canada). This paper has not been subjected to peer review or other review processes and does not necessarily represent the

position of individual C-Change Community Partners or researchers. This work is presented to encourage debate and enhance awareness of environmental change among coastal communities in Canada and the Caribbean.

© C-Change

Correspondence on this paper should be directed to the C-Change Secretariat, c/o C-Change Administrator, Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa,

55 Laurier Avenue East, Ottawa, Ontario CANADA K1N 6N5 email: [email protected] Telephone: +1 (613) 562-5800 x2933

mailto:[email protected]


http://www.coastalchange.ca/


C-Change Working Paper #33

Abstract

Climate change and physical development pose threats to the sustainability of coastal communities in the Caribbean if immediate steps are not taken to adapt to these challenges. This paper, using the coastal village of Grand Riviere, Trinidad, first investigates the challenges of climate change, associated sea level rise, beach erosion and physical development on leatherback turtle nesting and eco-tourism. It then explores engineering, physical planning and eco-design adaptation responses to minimise negative effects on the coastal environment and its community. Finally, it makes recommendations for building the coping capacities of coastal communities affected by climate change and physical development. A key finding of this paper is that when a projected minimum sea level rise scenario employing a geographic information system model is applied, the beach area, which is essentially the nesting habitat of leatherback turtles, may be altered. Another important finding is that the fragile habitat zone is further disturbed by physical development such as resorts and their activity that are located in close proximity to these sites. One conclusion is that some adaptation measures can be undertaken by communities once they are exposed to training. Another conclusion is that the mapping output from this research is useful as a communication tool for building adaptation capacity among affected coastal communities. It also serves to inform policymaking and regulatory stakeholders in the preparation of physical planning and design guidelines aimed at promoting sustainable coastal communities. Keywords Climate change; leatherback turtle nesting; physical planning; eco-design; adaptation capacity; geographic information systems

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C-Change Working Paper: Climate Change and Physical Development Threats, Challenges and

Adaptation Responses in Coastal Communities: Grand Riviere, Trinidad

1. Introduction Climate change, sea level rise, associated storm surges and flooding are serious threats to the leatherback turtle. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (2009) the leatherback turtle, referred to as the ‘gentle giant’, is the largest of all the living turtles and is listed as a critically endangered species. An emerging challenge in the context of climate change is to ensure its protection by finding appropriate solutions to minimise the possibility of extinction. Among the solutions are a range of engineering structures, physical planning adaptation measures and eco-design options, informed by the use of sea level rise mapping scenarios generated by a geographic information system. The definition of climate change that this paper has adopted is the one put forward by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007). Climate change in IPCC usage refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. The IPCC has highlighted significant trends that are likely to present challenges to small island developing states (SIDS). It has projected that global sea level may rise to 0.6m or more by 2100 (IPCC, 2007). There is also observational evidence of an increase in intense tropical cyclone activity in the North Atlantic since about 1970 (IPCC, 2007). This is evident from the growing frequency and greater magnitude of devastating hurricanes in the Caribbean (Collymore, 2007; Grey, 1999). In the 1990s, there were more than seven major hurricanes in this region (Collymore, 2007). All coastal communities are at risk, but those in developing countries, particularly SIDS, are vulnerable because of their limited adaptation capacity. The impact of climate change on ecosystems and the resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change, associated disturbances (e.g. flooding, drought, wildfire, insects, ocean acidification) and other global change drivers (e.g. land use change, pollution, fragmentation of natural systems, overexploitation of resources) according to Pachauri and Reisinger (2007). They also stated that approximately 20% to 30% of plant and animal species assessed so far are likely to be at increased risk of extinction if increases in global average temperature exceed 1.5 to 2.5°C (medium confidence). Additionally, for increases in global average temperature exceeding 1.5 to 2.5°C and in concomitant atmospheric CO2 concentrations, major changes are projected in ecosystem structure and function, species’ ecological interactions and shifts in species’ geographical ranges, with predominantly negative consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem goods and services (Pachauri and Reisinger, 2007). A concern of this paper is the resilience of leatherback turtles to these projected changes and the potential for the migration of this specie from the geographic region of the Caribbean.

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Fischlin et al. (2007) argue that ecosystems provide many goods and services that are of vital importance for the functioning of the biosphere, and provide the basis for the delivery of tangible benefits to human society. Hassan et al. (2005) define these to include supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Those that are of significance to this paper in relation to the leatherback turtle are supporting services and cultural services. Sea turtles provide supporting services in protecting coastal and marine habitats in that they contribute to the health and maintenance of coral reefs, sea grass beds, estuaries and sandy beaches. The sea turtles form an important component of biodiversity which society has begun to value and appreciate. They also provide cultural services, which satisfy human spiritual and aesthetic appreciation of ecosystems and their components. Leatherback turtles approaching the beach at night, methodically excavating beach sand, despositing their eggs and camouflaging the nesting sites before returning to the sea is a unique visual, aesthetic and spiritual experience of witnessing one of the natural wonders of the world (See Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 1 Figure 2

Leatherback turtles nesting on the sandy beach

and returning to the sea at Grand Riviere. Two critical concerns of this paper that have been identified by the IPCC (2007) revolve around assessing the vulnerability of ecosystems to anthropogenic climate change and the impact on sea turtles. One concern is that ecosystems are increasingly being subjected to other human-induced pressures, such as extractive use of goods, for example deforestation, and increasing fragmentation and degradation of natural habitat such as beaches and other coastal ecosystems (Bush et al., 2004). Research by Lovejoy and Hannah (2005) suggests that in the medium term (i.e. decades) especially, climate change will increasingly exacerbate these human-induced pressures, causing a progressive decline in biodiversity. Another concern relates to species extinction (e.g. leatherback turtles), and especially global extinction as distinct from local extinctions, since the former represents irreversible change. This extinction is of significance to researchers, particulalry because of a very likely link between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in the maintenance of ecosystem services (Duraiappah et al., 2005; Hooper et al., 2005; Diaz et al., 2006; Worm et al., 2006). These researchers conclude that extinctions critical for ecosystem functioning, be they global or local, are virtually certain to reduce societal options for adaptation responses. Turning to a more detailed knowledge of sea turtles generated by recent research, trends in climate change, sea level rise and extreme weather events such as storm surges and hurricanes

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http://www.pbase.com/rainbirder/trinidad_leatherbacks�


put endangered species such as sea turtles at risk of extinction. Sea turtles in particular are vulnerable to aspects of climate change as their physiological attributes and behavior are sensitive to environmental changes (Hamann et al., 2007; Hawkes et al., 2009; Poloczanska et al., 2009; Witt 2009). The specific effects of climate change on sea turtles can be a loss of nesting and feeding habitats due to sea level rise, increased sand temperatures, increased ocean temperatures, changes in ocean currents and extreme rainfall events sometimes associated with storms, which can increase the potentially lethal transfer of sediment to coral reefs and raise water tables, thereby flooding nests (World Wildlife Fund, 2007). Sea turtles in particular are excellent indicator species for considering climate change conservation planning because of their interdependence on terrestrial and marine resources (Spotila and Standora, 1985; Janzen, 1994; Hawkes et al., 2007, 2009; Mitchell, et al., 2009; Telemeco et al., 2009). With climate change, beaches may become ‘natal’ and force turtles to shift nesting sites to more environmentally friendly conditions (Sea Turtle Conservancy, 2010). Limpus (2006) has argued that sand temperatures may become unfavourable for suitable incubation of turtle eggs, which would result in lower nest-site fidelity for leatherback turtles (Witt et al., 2008). In addition, the dispersal and availability of food for particular turtle species may be limited. As noted earlier, sea turtles play an important role in the marine ecosystem and therefore diminishing populations could have major ramifications. For example in Grande Riviere, Trinidad, villagers were convinced that leatherbacks frequented the beach because of the abundance of jellyfish (Harrison, 2005). In the food chain, the sea turtles main source of food is jellyfish and jellyfish in turn feed on fish larvae. Fewer sea turtles may lead to a bloom in jellyfish and an extinction in fish larvae (Fish et al., 2005; Fuentes, 2010). Additionally, changes in ocean currents may result in declines of turtles visiting the shores. Ocean currents are also vital to both juvenile and adult leatherbacks which use them for navigation and long-distance migration (Limpus, 2006). Over the last century, turtle nesting beaches have been greatly modified by coastal development (Burke, 2005) where in particular built development along the coast may also be to the detriment of sea turtles. Artificial beachfront lighting associated with hotels, guest houses, restaurants, bars and jetties can adversely affect egg-bearing females and hatchlings because they lead to misorientation, that is move in the wrong direction, and disorientation which is an inability to orient in a constant direction (Witherington and Martin, 2003). This can cause death and severe harm to hatchlings by attacks from predators, exhaustion, and fatal encounters with vehicles. Empirical findings show that between 1998 and 2000, approximately 65% of the hatchlings on the south coast and 33% on the west coast of Barbados suffered from some form of hatchling disorientation. Using Grand Riviere, Trinidad as a case study, this paper firstly seeks to determine the importance of leatherback turtles to the coastal community. Secondly, it investigates the potential impact of sea level rise and its implication for beach loss that will challenge the survival of the leatherback turtles. A geographic information system model is used to map rising sea level scenarios and to determine which locations of the nesting area are vulnerable to change. Thirdly, in seeking possible solutions to the challenge of climate change, it will explore adaptation measures to protect the nesting sites that are vulnerable to sea level rise and other developmental pressure. Finally, the paper draws important conclusions and makes recommendations for improved adaptive capacity of coastal communities to climate change. 2. Background and Profile of Case Study

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Grande Riviere is a small remote village of a total area of 5117 hectares located on the north east coast of Trinidad. Its economy is narrowly based on natural resources used by the agricultural, fishery and forestry sectors. Ecotourism activities in Grande Riviere revolve around its biodiversity resources (CREP, 2002). Hiking along the nature trails to the Matura National Park, sea and river bathing, and bird watching contribute to Grande Riviere’s high ranking as a tourist attraction. However, leatherback turtle watching is one of the main attractions. It is characterised by a significant seasonal inflow of both local and foreign tourists during the months of March to August annually and in 2006 alone, there were an estimated 10,000 visitors to Grande Riviere (Harrison, 2005). Data collected from a community survey of a 101 households in Grande Riviere, conducted for the BIOLAC/ICURA research project, confirmed that an estimated 84% of the respondents in the survey agreed and strongly agreed that the visitors to Grande Riviere came mainly to see the turtles. All of the respondents in the survey were in favour of turtle conservation and protection, which is partly explained by the turtles being the main attraction for visitors to Grande Riviere. According to the national census conducted in 2000, approximately 55% of the community was unemployed. About 15% of the respondents or their family members worked as tour guides at Grande Riviere Bay, and of this 15% approximately 67% earned income from tour guiding. An estimated 88% of those persons interviewed indicated that the employment created by the tourism industry that developed around turtle nesting at Grande Riviere was either very important or moderately important. Nearly all the survey respondents (94%) either strongly agreed or agreed that the turtles were important to the existing and future development of the community. The majority of them indicated that attracting more visitors would have a positive impact on Grande Riviere’s community and economy. The same percentage of respondents believed that significant business opportunities may be generated in the future by ecotourism activity in the community. At least half the respondents stated that they would like to participate in a training course on small and medium sized eco-tourism business management. Although approximately 97% of the survey respondents indicated that turtle nesting had increased, a significant finding of this paper is that the community-based tourism activity of tour guiding in relation to turtle nesting and the small guest house facilities may be both vulnerable to climate change. Studies conducted by the Institute of Marine Affairs in 2005 concluded that the Grande Riviere beach was eroded over the past years. The question raised was whether climate change and sea level rise were the main causes of beach erosion in this location (Lee Lum, 2005). The following section of the paper describes the methodology used by this study to determine sea level rise scenarios and highlights the implications for leatherback turtle nesting at Grande Riviere. 3. Application of Geographic Information System Methodology Sea level rise scenarios were created and modelled in a GIS, using topographic and hydrographic field survey data to determine the possible impact on the beach area and turtle nesting sites. The primary data included estimated mean sea level and spot height measurements taken along the beach at Grande Riviere. The best available secondary spatial data (i.e., buildings, building

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heights, roads, and property boundaries) were used to supplement the primary field data where appropriate. Absolute local sea level rise was modelled, excluding coastal subsidence and uplift. Coastal dynamics relevant to the study site were also not taken into account. ArcMap and ArcScene were used to create 2D and 3D models of Grande Riviere and environs. Additionally, selected IPCC projections were used to digitize various flood polygons, simulating sea level rise at 0.4m, 0.5m, 0.6m, 0.8m, 1m etc. above MSL. Spatial Results and Analyses Some of the sea level rise impact visualisations that result from the application of the foregoing methodology are illustrated in Figures 2 to 9 below. Figures 2 and 3 show 2D and 3D views, respectively, of mean sea level at Grande Riviere beach. Crudely measured, using the area measuring tool in ArcMap, the beach area where the leatherback turtles nest is approximately 4700 m2. According to the results of the models, even at 0.4m above mean sea level the beach at Grande Riviere would be severely inundated or significantly forced to retreat. If these scenarios were to be realised, serious threats would be posed to leatherback turtle nesting sites, and could have negative impacts upon the coastal community’s socioeconomic wellbeing.

Figure 2: MSL at Grande Riviere Beach

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Figure 3: MSL at Grande Riviere Beach (3D)

At a simulated 0.4m sea level rise above MSL (Figures 4 and 5), approximately 2060 m2 of the beach may be lost, either to inundation or beach retreat. This represents approximately 44% loss of turtle nesting habitat. Private property boundaries also are impacted.

Figure 4: Simulated 0.4m above MSL at Grande Riviere Beach

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Figure 5: Simulated 0.4m above MSL at Grande Riviere Beach (3D)

Figures 6 and 7 show simulated 0.6m sea level rise above MSL. At this level, approximately 2900 m2 (or approximately 60%) of turtle nesting habitat may be lost to inundation or beach retreat. Private property boundaries continue to be impacted.


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Figures 8 and 9 show simulated 0.8m sea level rise above MSL. At this level, approximately 3200 m2 (or approximately 68%) of turtle nesting habitat may be lost to inundation or beach retreat. Private property boundaries continue to be impacted. Additionally, physical infrastructure in the form of a beachfront hotel building begins to be physically impacted.


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The results show that between 44% and 68% of the beach area may disappear based on simulations in sea level rise. Informed by these projected scenarios, the community of Grande Riviere can gain some understanding of possible beach loss and coastal inundation due to sea level rise, and its potential impact upon sea turtle nesting sites. The community can then take the appropriate steps to mitigate or adapt to the threat. The GIS model, used in this manner, can be an effective communication tool and assist in building community capacities to deal with the potential threat of sea level rise. The following section of this paper discusses possible solutions including the adaptation measures needed to protect leatherback turtle nesting activity against the challenge posed by climate change, sea level rise, storm surge and coastal flooding. 4. Adaptation to Climate Change and Sea Level Rise

The poor and marginalised have historically been most at risk, and are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Marginalised, primary resource-dependent livelihood groups, such as those in Grande Riviere, are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts if their natural resource base is severely stressed and degraded by overuse or if their governance systems are in or near a state of failure and hence not capable of responding effectively (Leary et al., 2006). According to Adger et al. (2007) adaptation to climate change takes place through adjustments to reduce vulnerability or enhance resilience in response to observed or expected changes in climate and associated extreme weather events. In reality, adaptation occurs in physical, ecological and human systems. They also argue that it involves changes in social and environmental processes, perceptions of climate risk, practices and functions to reduce potential damages or to realise new opportunities. Adaptations include anticipatory and reactive actions, private and public initiatives, and can relate to projected changes in temperature and current climate variations and extremes that may be altered with climate change (Adger et al. 2007). In practice, adaptations tend to be on-going processes, reflecting many factors or stresses, rather than discrete measures to address climate change specifically.



Several adaptation measures can be implemented in the case study to address sea level rise, beach erosion and protection of existing turtle nesting sites. Adaptation measures can be categorised as ‘hard’ or ‘soft.’ Hard measures involve beach armouring (coastal engineering), whereas soft measures are conservation and management programmes and legislative provisions that have been formulated in response to climate change.

Before any adaptation measures are suggested it is important to understand coastal dynamics. While erosion is intuitively the most common response of island shorelines to sea-level rise, it should be recognised that coasts are not passive systems. Instead, they will respond dynamically in different ways dependent on many factors including: the geological setting; coastal type, whether soft or hard shores; the rate of sediment supply relative to rate of submergence; sediment type, sand or gravel; presence or absence of natural shore protection structures such as beach rock or conglomerate outcrops; presence or absence of biotic protection such as mangroves and other strand vegetation; and the health of coral reefs.

Dynamic coastal systems often show complex, non-linear morphological responses to change (Dronkers, 2005). Erosion, transport and deposition of sediment often involve significant time-lags (Brunsden, 2001), and the morphological evolution of sedimentary coasts is the outcome of counteracting transport processes of sediment supply versus removal. A shoreline may adopt an equilibrium, in profile or plan form, where these processes are in balance. However, external factors, such as storms, often induce morphodynamic change away from an equilibrium state. Climate change and sea-level rise affect sediment transport in complex ways and abrupt, non-linear changes may occur as thresholds are crossed (Alley et al., 2003). If sea level rises slowly, the balance between sediment supply and morphological adjustment can be maintained if a saltmarsh accretes, or a lagoon infills, at the same rate. In this scenario the beach area may remain unaffected and the leatherback turtle may not be as vulnerable. However, an acceleration in the rate of sea-level rise may mean that morphology cannot keep up, particularly where the supply of sediment is limited, as for example when coastal floodplains are inundated after natural levees or artificial embankments are overtopped. Exceeding the critical sea-level thresholds can initiate an irreversible process of drowning, and other geomorphological and ecological responses follow abrupt changes of inundation and salinity (Williams et al., 1999; Doyle et al., 2003; Burkett et al., 2005). For each coastal system the critical threshold will have a specific value, depending on hydrodynamic and sedimentary characteristics. Better understanding of thresholds in, and non-linear behaviour of, coastal systems will enhance the ability of managers and engineers to plan more effective coastal protection strategies, including the placement of coastal buildings, infrastructure and defences. In short, adaptation measures should not be pursued without a thorough understanding of the coastal dynamics of Grande Riviere.

Hard Engineering Measures The construction of seawalls, rock revetments, riprap, sandbag installations, groynes and jetties are used in an attempt to adapt to climate change (Burke et al., 2004). These measures are hold the line measures that are used to curtail beach erosion. However, various examples throughout the Caribbean confirm that beach armouring can result in accelerated erosion, which can hamper female turtles from accessing suitable nesting sites. In Barbados, seawalls (Lewis, 2002) have contributed to a decline in turtle nests (Choi et al., 2009). They are also expensive to construct and maintain as was found in Barbados. They are also aesthetically unpleasing as these structures visually impair the natural ambience of beaches. In light of these findings elsewhere, engineering



measures should only be used if the beach erosion at Grande Riviere is severe and needs immediate remedial action. Hard engineering options be regarded only as a last resort. Soft Measures A more recent trend in coastal engineering is the use of “softer” and less extrusive coastal structures (Sorenson 2006; Speybroeck et al. 2006). Examples of these measures are set back distances, beach nourishment, land use zoning, building codes, legislation and ecosystem-based measures. Coastal Setbacks Setbacks have several advantages over traditional beach protection structures (Fish et al., 2008). They provide a buffer area that can simultaneously accommodate the naturally dynamic nature of beaches (French, 2006). Setbacks ensure the preservation of sufficient beach habitat for turtle nesting and beach area for tourism-related recreation. They also provide protection for coastal property (Hayes, 1985) and lessen the likelihood that local residents are excluded from the beach. Additionally, setbacks enhance the probability that artificial lighting will not shine directly on the beach (Belle and Bramwell, 2005) and affect turtle nesting. Setback regulations are a pre-emptive retreat strategy (Fish et al., 2008) and are less expensive than hard engineering measures. Site visits and satellite imagery revealed that there are small guest houses and car parks along the beachfront at Grande Riviere. Figure 10 shows the guest house directly on the beachfront in proximity to the leatherback turtles’ nesting site. These existing buildings cannot be setback as shown in Figure 11, but all future new built development in the beach area should be informed by setback distances which will widen the beach area.

Figure 10

Showing guest house directly on beach with potential to disturb turtle nesting



Figure 11

Showing narrow beach, river mouth and coastal property Coastal development setback guidelines differ depending on shoreline characteristics and typically range from 15m to 100m from the line of permanent vegetation and provide buffer zones between the ocean and coastal infrastructure. Setbacks for new development such as guest houses and small eco-lodges can be implemented in the short term, but existing built development cannot be setback overnight and will have to be damaged by a storm or be purchased by the state to enforce these regulations. The specific setback distance for Grande Riviere should be informed by rigourous scientific research on the highest contour normally reached by the high seas, long-term trends in erosion, short-term storm effects, wave uprush, wind forces and existing development. Beach Nourishment Beach restoration (or renourishment) is an adaptation technique used on Caribbean islands, but it is unpopular. The nourishment of the beach is of benefit to tourism that is beach-centred. However, if restoration is unavoidable, replacement sand should be similar (grain size, organic content) to that which was eroded, thereby maintaining the suitability of the beach for the incubation of sea turtle eggs. It should be noted that restoration should never occur during nesting and hatching seasons when heavy equipment and activity can deter nesting, crush eggs, and/or prevent hatchlings from successfully digging out of the nest. Steinitz et al. (1998) and Rumbold et al. (2001) have published data demonstrating that the number of nests decreases and the number of false crawls (unsuccessful nesting attempts) increases immediately following the renourishment of a beach. Crain et al. (1995) concluded that while beach restoration projects may enhance some nesting areas, in general the effects for sea turtles are negative. Eco-system based adaptation: Re-vegetation Ecosystem-based adaptation measures to climate change have become popular in recent times. One such example is re-vegetating beaches. It is a relatively cheap measure and has benefits ranging from cooling beaches through shading, reducing beach erosion by stabilising sediment to mitigation of greenhouse gases by acting as a carbon sink. In addition, tree planting is an ideal activity to adapt in coastal areas as it can easily be made into a community activity, involving all ages, the results of which are obvious and tangible. The shade of trees along the beach has been shown to reduce the incubation temperature in exposed beach areas by 2 to 3 degrees centigrade.



Light Pollution Reduction Witherington et al. (2003) argue that light pollution has been affecting sea turtles during nesting periods. They recommend a variety of effective management solutions to alleviate this problem. For example, artificial lighting onshore can discourage egg-bearing females from coming ashore to nest. Light inspections to determine the lights which caused the highest amount of light pollution are required. Other remedial measures include reducing light wattage, shielding light sources using appropriate designs, recessing luminaries into roof soffits, the use of lower pole-mounted luminaries, installing timers and motion detectors and alternative long-wavelength light sources. Ecological alternatives such as the use of native vegetation as light screens are also recommended. Another measure that can reduce the effects of artificial light-pollution on sea turtles is the use of sea-turtle friendly site programming and planning. This involves the choosing of a site and building design that has a minimal site coverage which minimises the disruption of the existing ecosystem upon which turtles and their hatchlings depend. Parking lots should also be carefully sited away from the beach site to ensure that light pollution from cars does not disturb the sea turtle nesting zone. Light fixtures for car park lighting should be placed as low as possible and the use of long wavelength lamps and black opaque baffles is recommended so that it does not directly, indirectly or cumulatively illuminate the beach (Choi and Eckert,2009). Manual Nest Relocation Manual nest relocation is another option for adapting to climate change and it can be a community-based employment activity. In Grenada, in the case of Levera Beach the current management strategy includes manual relocation of individual nests laid in unsuitable areas. In 2005, 20 out of 42 nests laid in the affected area were relocated to more suitable sites, due to projected impacts from the runoff. Without these relocations, up to 10% of the total nests laid during the study period may have been lost due to impacts of runoff from the development site. Integrated Coastal Zone Management As discussed earlier, beach erosion and coastal tourism development present a particular hazard to turtle nesting sites, which provide the main economic thrust for the community. Ad hoc approaches to addressing this problem have recently given way to the integrated coastal zone management approach (McLean et al., 2001), which involves data collection, analysis of coastal processes, and assessment of impacts. Daniel and Abkowitz (2003, 2005) present the results of such an approach in the Caribbean, which involves the development of tools for integrating spatial and non-spatial coastal data, estimating long-term beach erosion/accretion trends and storm-induced beach erosion at individual beaches, identifying erosion-sensitive beaches, and mapping beach-erosion hazards. Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is a continuous and dynamic process that addresses the use, development and protection of coastal areas. It aims to manage human activities within the coastal zone and consequently address conflicts among the different resource users. The process unites government and the community, science and management, sectoral and public interests. ICZM also considers the options for expanding employment opportunities using local natural resources and skills. ICZM recognises the importance of community-based tourism as a means of offering a possible way to encourage small-scale, locally-owned tourism enterprises that can generate employment and revenue at the community level, contribute to reducing fiscal leakages, and reduce the impact of large numbers of visitors on the environmental landscape. ICZM also promotes the community-based coastal resources management approach.



Environmental Impact Assessments Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) have also been integrated on a national and local level and aim to ensure development can take place without destroying the environment. The Environmental Management Agency of Trinidad and Tobago should evaluate all new coastal development projects whether these are small or large scale projects. This presents an opportunity to recommend that specific mitigation measures be adopted, which will ensure the protection of turtle nesting and foraging sites. The benefits of this integrated management are clear as conservation and planning efforts are more likely to succeed if they incorporate all potential influences on the system. GIS: Communication and Capacity Building Tool As Swain (1999) noted, interactive tools, especially those that offer visualizations of scenarios and events, are valuable to decision making processes. Visualization enhances, for example, simulations of scenarios that give aid to decision makers (Jankowski 1995, Kovalerchuk 2001). GIS is well known for its interactive and visualization capabilities, and has been applied to many solutions including, but not limited to:

Mulitcriteria decision making for aquaculture site selection (Sutherland et al 2007; Sutherland et al 2009);

Multidimensional marine rights management (Ng'ang'a et al 2004; Nichols, Monahan and Sutherland 2000);

Understanding rural landscapes for environmental decision making (Appleton and Lovett 2003);

Environmental modelling (Hennecke and Cowell 2004; Valavanis et al. 2004); Collaborative governance (Jankowski and Nyerges 2001); Enhancing public and community participation (Al-Kodmany 1999; Wood 2005;

Jankowski 2009); Conservation biology using Gap Analysis is of relevance to this paper. Gap

analysis is the mapping of sensitive species habitats and overlaying the protected and undisturbed areas of habitat. The results allow biologists to visualize areas of sensitive species that require protection; and

Prioritisation of land parcels for acquisition to protect sensitive habitats.

GIS is a powerful communication tool which can engage communities and enhance the adaptation capacity of coastal communities to climate change, sea level rise, beach erosion and flooding. GIS has the capacity to produce visualizations and spatial analytical outputs that assist communities in learning about their environments, and this new knowledge can empower communities to make appropriate decisions to safeguard their socioeconomic futures. There are a myriad of case studies and papers written to underscore this point. These include, but are not limited to, the use of GIS to empower communities in relation to community planning (Elwood 2002); build community capacities through community-university relationships (Savan 2004); and more recently it has been recognised as an innovative technology which can build community capacities to deal with climate change threats (Snoussi, Ouchani and Niazi 2008; Shaw 2009). The challenge is to link the capacity of local knowledge in geospatial data to leverage greater involvement and accuracy for conservation and development needs. In summary, adaptation measures to climate change can be categorised as hard engineering and



soft measures. The implementation of some measures can involve the community of Grande Riviere once its adaptive capacity can be developed and strengthened. Other measures necessitate policy and regulatory changes at the governmental level and private sector initiatives that may be encouraged through incentives. Table 1 is a summary matrix of these adaptation measures in response to the challenges of climate change and sea level rise in particular.

Table 1 Adaptation measures in response to the challenges of climate change

and sea level rise at Grande Riviere, Trinidad

Adaptation Response Measures Stakeholders Hard Engineering Sea walls, Revetments Groynes

Government agencies

Soft Measures Coastal setback distances Beach Nourishment Re-vegetation Light pollution reduction Manual nest relocation Integrated coastal zone management Environmental impact assessment Geographic information systems

Government agency (Town and Country Planning Division) Government agency (Institute of Marine Affairs) Community, NGOS including private sector Community-based guest house operators Community guides Government agency Government agency (Environmental Management Authority) University of the West Indies

5. Conclusion Both hard engineering and soft adaptation measures are options that are available to protect the biodiversity of coastal environments from sea level rise, and in the case study context, the beach which is essential for the survival of the endangered leatherback turtles. The hard engineering measures are a last resort because they can destroy the turtle nesting sites. On the other hand, the soft measures are less expensive, can permit community participation in implementation and monitoring, and create income-earning opportunities.

The climate change adaptation measures discussed in this paper involve a mix of institutional and behavioural responses, the use of technologies, and the design of climate resilient infrastructure. The extent to which these measures can be adopted and implemented depends on the adaptive capacity of the country and community, which is influenced not only by the level of economic development and access to technology, but also by social factors such as human capital and governance structures.

Building climate change resiliency among coastal communities calls for engagement with these communities, through dissemination of research findings and the use of such as geographic information systems as communication and educational tools.



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