By Kimberly Jones, Anthropology Jim Skibo, Faculty Advisor Martin

Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton: Looking at Squatting Facets / Senior Thesis by Kimberly Jones / Dept. of Sociology & Anthropology

Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton: Looking at Squatting Facets

By Kimberly Jones, Anthropology

Jim Skibo, Faculty Advisor

Martin Nickels, Faculty Mentor

Abstract

Remodeling of bone occurs in response to physical stress. Habitual squatting in humans is

associated with modifications of the ankle, specifically, the neck of the talus (squatting facets) and its

trochlear surface (trochlear extensions). Individual populations exhibit different incidences of these

modifications that reflect their lifestyle and behavior. Certain types of behavior can leave markers on the

skeleton, indicating some type of strenuous activities. Activities such as hunting and gathering,

cultivation, grinding and kneeling (squatting at rest) leave skeletal markers on the bone. The Schroeder

Mounds Burials were used in this experiment to investigate if this population showed skeletal evidence

of habitual squatting. Forty-four individuals were examined from the Schroeder Mounds collection. The

analysis of the data indicates that the medial squatting facet occurred most frequently (32%), the lateral

squatting facet occurred less then the medial (11%) and both combined occurred more frequently (23%)

then the lateral squatting facet by itself. The results indicated that this population engaged in a squatting

posture as a regular behavior.

Introduction

The purpose of this research is to investigate what types of behavior cause habitual squatting

facets on the neck of the human talus. Certain behaviors leave markers on the skeleton, indicating

certain types of strenuous activities. I will compare different case studies with my own research of the

prehistoric study of Schroeder Mounds skeletal series, by using data that I collected from 44 burials

containing both the left and right talus. Schroeder Mounds is an area comprising a prehistoric Native

American burial ground. The burials date from 800 AD -1100 AD, placing in the Woodland cultural

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period (Stauth 1975:20). The 44 burials examined in this study are the property of the Illinois State

Museum and the collection is in the process of being assimilated into the Museum's collection.

In each burial the neck of the talus was thoroughly investigated for wear patterns that indicated

areas that had a smooth or smooth-curved area. The Woodland Indians subsisted on a variety of plant

and animal foods, and not much of ground grains. They had plenty of refined carbohydrate foods, and a

vigorous amount of starch as their food consumption. However, this population lived during a time of

overpopulation, which lead to food shortages and more stress on the body (Smith 1984:43). Forty-four

burials were used in my research to illustrate the two types of behaviors practiced on a daily basis that

induced skeletal markers on the bone. The analysis of the data explored the two types of behavior such

as hunting and gathering, agricultural, and other strenuous activities involving habitual squatting that

caused the morphology of the bone to change and leave skeletal markers. These activities, practiced on

a daily basis, can cause skeletal markers not seen on individuals who did not practices these activities

regularly. The case study in this thesis demonstrates that certain squatting facets can indicate behavioral

activities from an individual’s daily life. Some earlier researchers discovered squatting facets were not

considered a true facet but an extension of the facet. My data will be compared to different case studies

used in previous research to see if the populations adopted the same kinds of patterns that can be

interpreted by their behavior.

The Morphology of the Talus

The talus is a stout, asymmetrical bone. The talus articulates (1) with the distal tibial facets above

it via its trochlear surface; (2) medially, with the medial malleolus of the tibia; (3) laterally, with the

lateral malleolus of the fibula. Anteriorly, the shallow, cup-shaped posterior articular region of the

navicular bone receives the semi-ball-shaped head of the talus. Inferiorly and somewhat posteriorly, the

head of the talus articulates superiorly with portions of the calcareous. The talus does not anchor any

muscles, but many ligaments are attached to it. The superior portion of the talus, the trochlear surface,

which articulates with the tibia distally, is composed largely of an arced, semilunate articular surface

with blunt, almost parallel medial and lateral edges; the lateral edges is somewhat shorter than the



medial edge. The region between these two edges is depressed slightly, giving the surface the

appearance of a shadowy pulley. The articular facet "drapes" over the sides of the elevated eminence,

with the lateral articular surface being roundly triangular in shape and the medial articular surface being

somewhat lunate. The general configuration of these medial and lateral articular areas conforms to the

shapes of their respective articular surface on the tibia and fibula (Jeffery 1995:137).

In viewing the talus from the dorsal view (see fig.1), one can make several observations. (1) The

lateral articular surface may be oriented rather vertically, whereas typically the inferiorarticular area for

the lateral malleolus of the fibula is reflected outward. (2) In the anatomical position, the head and neck

of the talus are directed anteriorly relative to the long axis of the body of the talus; because the long axis

of the body of the talus is oriented obliquely, it forms an obtuse angle with the long axis of the neck.

And (3) the "heel" of the talus us swollen in its midline into an elongate lateral posterior tubercle; the

lateral posterior tubercle us separated from a bulkier medial posterior tubercle by the obliquely inclined

and variable distinct groove for the flexor hallucis longus (Jeffery 1995:138).

Brief History

It has been suggested that the so-called squatting facets found upon the neck of the talus and the

lower end of the tibia in many Oriental races provide evidence for the inheritance of acquired characters,

since they are present also in the Oriental foetus (Charles, 1894; Wood Jones, 1944). Sewell (1904)

disputed this contention on the grounds that "these facets occur in the foetus of the European, and

probably in all other races, whether the facets are found to be present in the adult or not" ( ). As Inkster

(1927) pointed out, several distinct facets have been described in literature, and the subject is further

confused by the lack of an agreed terminology. Although many series of adult tali have been reported

there has been no comparable study of foetal material. Most workers have examined dry tali; with these

it is sometimes impossible to determine whether a smooth area on the neck of the talus is in facet an

articular facet.

Thomson (1889) first described the presence of squatting facets on the anterior margin of the

distal extremity of the tibia and the upper surface of the neck of the talus in 1889. Since then, these


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facets have been studied in different groups of populations both ancient and present-day (Barnett, 1954;

Charles, 1893; Inkster, 1927; Morimoto, 1960; Rao, 1966; Sewell, 1896; and Singh, 1963). Studies have

been made on higher Apes, Australian Aborigines, Indians; including a study of the Punjabi, Egyptians,

Europeans, and Japanese (Satinoff 1972:209). The natural history aetiology of squatting facet justifies

two main theories, 1) acquired features modified by the squatting posture and 2) they are inherited as

genetic traits.

If Bones Could Talk

The reconstruction of bones can tell a story about an individual lifestyle and the behaviors

they practiced. Activities in an individuals life can produce specific skeletal markers that are

related to repetitive activities associated with a particular physical activities or postures.

Squatting (see fig.2) is a good example of a behavior producing skeletal markers on the bones.

Squatting is described as a resting postural complex that involves hyperflexion at the hip and

knees and hyperdorsiflexion (see fig.3 & fig.4) at the ankle and subtalar joints (Oygucu

1997:287). The squatting position puts pressure on the flexion of the knees and ankles, producing

specific bone markers that characterize the strong pressure and traction forces on the knee and

ankle joints when the lower limbs are in hyperdorsiflexion. These markers are characterized by

variations in bone morphology and by supernumerary articular surfaces. The articular

morphology of the human skeleton can be subject to modification by stress imposed upon it.

Thus modifications of the neck of the talus and the distal tibia indicate habitual contact of the

ankle when squatting occurs. However, habitual squatting can indicate wear patterns on the bone

from daily stress. The stress that causes these patterns can be located on the edge of the tibia and

the neck of the talus. Habitual squatting is one activity that is found in many populations. For

some, habitual squatting is more profound then others, which cause the squatting facet to wear

down the anterior part of the tibia and the posterior part of the talus.






Skeletal Markers

Bone structure is affected by repetitive mechanical actions. These actions can change the

morphology of the bone indicating skeletal markers from the strenuous activities. The skeletal

markers that are found on the tibia and the neck of the talus give an indication that changes

occurred throughout the individuals’ life causing the morphology of the bone to be affected. The

five skeletal markers are the following:

1. Tibial Retroversion

2. Poirier's Facet

3. Martin's Facet

4. Medial Squatting Facet and

5. Lateral Squatting Facet.

Each facet is located at a different area on the neck of the talus and tibia. Tibial Retroversion is located

on a backward incline of the tibial plateau. This is induced by the traction of the patellar ligament

toward the anterior proximal part of the tibia, in conjunction with the compression of the femoral

condyles toward the posterior proximal edges of the tibia during hyperdorsiflexion of the knee (Boulle

1998:51). Poirier's Facet is located at the extension of the articular facet from the head into the anterior

superior aspect of the femoral neck (Haas 1994:94). Martin's Facet is located more so on the femora,

which indicates that squatting people have a deeper intercondyler fossa, and the lateral edge of the

patellar surface is often rounded (Brothwell 1972:49).

The Medial Squatting Facet is located on the medial side of the upper surface of the neck of the

talus, but it does not articulate with the tibia (Rao 1966:56). The Lateral Squatting Facet is located on

the upper surface of the talus, which is a smooth cartilage-covered area on the lateral side articulating in



full dorsiflexion with a well-marked facet on the anterior surface of the lower extremity of the tibia. In

the tibia the lateral squatting facet is present on the lateral sided of the anterior margin of its distal

extremity and articulates with the corresponding lateral facet on the talus (Rao 1966:56). Numerous

skeletal makers induced by the regular use of squatting position have been described as Poirier's facet

and Martin’s facet. Some scholars disagree with the existence of Tibial Retroversion, Poirier’s and

Martin’s facets because they consider those facets not to be true wear facets but merely extensions of a

facet. Only two are normally found on skeletal remains: the lateral and medial squatting facets.

When looking at squatting facets there are different types of morphologies on the talus that can

be identified on the skeleton. The talus sits at the top of the tarsal skeleton. It is squat in a dorso-plantar

direction, and elongated in a posteranterior direction. It has a single ossification centre, which is present

at term and becomes indented at round 6 months to produce the "peanut" pattern described by pediatric

radiologists (Laude 2002:1). The talus has six surfaces that describes the anatomy of the talus:

1. Super surface fig.5 (which articulates with the tibia. The long axes of the neck and the

body makes an angle of 150 degrees to 160 degrees; this angle is reduced in pes planus flat

foot).

2. Medial surface fig 5a (which articulates with the tibia).

3. Lateral surface fig 5b (which articulates with the fibula. It has a mean vertical concavity of

115 degrees; this angle is increased in pes planus, and reduced in pes canvus.

4. Inferior surface fig.6 (which articulates with the calcaneus).

5. Anterior surface fig 6a (which articulates with the navicular bone. The long axis of the

head is rotated at 45 degrees medially; this angle is reduced in pes planus, and

6. Posterior surface fig 6b (Laude 2002:1).

Earlier Studies

Collignon, Manouvrier, Thomson, & Charles Interpretation





M. Collignon (1880) first described the Retroversion (see fig.7). He attributed it to an attitude of

incomplete extension of the knee-joint and regarded it as a legacy from a simian ancestor (Woods

1920:243). He did his observation on prehistoric remains and found that an imperfect standing position

produced marked retroversion in individuals. This was later challenge by Manouvrier in 1890; he

proposed a detailed and practical method to measure the retroversion angle (see fig.8). Manouvrier

defined the tibial retroversion as an angle that is measured from the anatomic axis, which passes through

the tibia's diaphyseal center to the transversal plane (Boulle 1998:51). Manouvrier believed that

retroversion was due to the method of walking with the knee en flexion by inhabitants of hilly countries.

Also in 1890, Thomson introduced the "Lateral Squatting Facet" (Morimoto 115:164). He proposed that

the articular morphology of the human skeleton could be subject to modification by stress imposed upon

it. His theory was tested on the Australian and European talus and tibia. He noticed from his data the

facets were occasionally developed on the anterior margin of the interior articular surface of the tibia,

and the neck of the talus. These facets came into contact with each other in extreme flexion of the foot

on the leg (Thomson 18:632). This caused a controversial issue when Charles (1894) and Wood-Jones

(1946) claimed that the traits present in both the foetus and adult represents an example of the

transmission of acquired characters (Saunders 1978:209). Havelock Charles demonstrated this when he

did his case study on the Australian and European talus and tibia. He believed the presence of squatting

facets for the Australian and Europeans illustrates dorsi-surface of the neck of the talus, which showed

modification on the neck (Oygucu 1997:287). The modification of neck of the talus, and distal tibial

indicated evidence or extreme dorsiflexion of the ankle that occurs in squatting. Charles believed that

the retroversion was due to the habit of extreme flexion of the joint in the act of squatting, acting from

the earliest childhood. Charles showed that the squatting posture, which was adopted by natives of

Eastern and savage races during many hours of day, both at work and during leisure, has a profound

effect on the conformation of the tibia.

Sewell’s Case Study on the Egyptian’s Talus

By 1904, Sewell proposed a different idea, the forward prolongation of the medial articular





surface and the medial curvature of the talus are attributable to extreme dorsiflexion of the talo-crual

joint combined with strong inversion of the foot in the squatting or sartorial posture on the Egyptian

talus (Morimoto 1960:163). Sewell described the so-called medial squatting facet of the ancient

Egyptians, which convex from side to side and slightly concave antero-posteriorly. The medial facet on

the anterior margin of the lower end of the tibia of the Egyptians was also present together with a lateral

facet (Rao 1966:55).

Barnett’s Philosophy

Earlier workers like Thomson (1889), Charles (1893), and Sewell (1904) did not distinguish the

lateral extension of the trochlear surface from the lateral squatting facet. According to Barnett, the lateral

squatting facet in the upper surface of the talus is a smooth cartilage-covered area on the lateral side

articulating in full dorsiflexion with a well-marked facet on the anterior surface of the lower extremity of

the tibia (Rao 1966:50). Barnett was the first to attempt to systematically display the various facet

extensions on the talus. He proposed a classification of different varieties of the talus observed in the

Europeans population and distinguished the extension from the facet. He described the lateral extension

as a sinuous form of the anterior origin of the trochlear surface that caused forward extension of the

lateral (Boulle 1998:51). Barnett did not considered it a true squatting facet, which is a smooth area

located on the upper lateral surface of the neck of the talus, articulating in full dorsiflexion with a well-

marked facet on the anterior surface of the distal tibia.

Classifications of Barnett’s nomenclature

Barnett came up with a nomenclature method that was used to identify and define squatting facet

on the talus. Barnett's nomenclature described at least six different morphologies of the talus:

1) Talus without specific variation (see fig.9) for Barnett's nomenclature)

2) Forward prolongation of medial articular surface. A forward prolongation of the comma-shaped

medial articular surface of the talus beyond the anterior margin of the trochlea (Charles, 1983). When of




large size, this surface is curved medially at its anterior end. The corresponding facet on the tibia is

rounded, and cartilage is fond covering part of the anterior as well as the lateral aspect of the medial

malleolus

3) Medial extension of trochlear surface (see fig.10). A rectangular area, covered with articular cartilage,

upon the medial side of the upper surface of the neck of the talus has been incorrectly described as a

squatting facet (Paeker & Shattock, 1884). This area "which is essentially a prolongation of the trochlea

on its medial side, has a surface which continues the line of curvature of the trochlea and must therefore

come into contact with the under surface of the lower end of the tibia during dorsiflexion of the ankle

and not with its anterior margin" (Inkster, 1927). Since there is not corresponding facet on the tibia, this

prolongation is not a true squatting facet, and is better termed the 'medial extension of the trochlear

surface'. It is invariably associated with a forward prolongation of the medial articular surface of the

talus.

4) Lateral extension of trochlear surface (see fig.10) Rarely, a facet is present on the upper medial

surface of the neck, which does not follow the line of curvature of the trochlear surfaces and is separated

from this surface by transverse ridge of bone not covered with articular cartilage. This facet does not

articulate with the tibia in dorsiflexion; its exact causation is therefore obscure (Inkster, 1927). However,

it appears to be associated with the habit of squatting and it may therefore legitimately be termed the

'medial squatting facet'.

5) Medial squatting facet. It is not uncommon for the anterior margin of the trochlear surface of the talus

to present a sinuous form due to forward extension of the lateral one-third of this surface. This extension

continues the line of curvature of the trochlea and thus makes contact with the undersurface of the tibia

during dorsiflexion. It is not a true squatting facet and is therefore termed the 'lateral extension of the

trochlear surface'.

6) Lateral squatting facet (see fig.11 & fig.12a-12c). Finally, the facet originally described by Thomson

(1889) is a smooth, cartilage-covered area on the upper, lateral surface of the neck of the talus,

articulating in full dorsiflexion with a well-marked facet on the anterior surface of the lower extremity of





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the tibia. It is often divided from the anterior margin of the trochlea by a distinct groove; in the other tali

is continuous with the trochlear surface, though always making a sharp angle with the line of curvature

of the latter. This may be called the 'lateral squatting facet (Barnett 1959:509-510).

Barnett's Case Study on the European Talus

In Barnett's (1959) study he found that the forward prolongation of the medial articular surface of

the talus upon the talar neck is not uncommon in the adult series. In the series of foetal tali the medial

surface was prolonged anteriorly to a greater extent than in the adult; correspondingly, posterior end of

the medial surface usually situated anterior to the posterior margin of the trochlea. It would appear that

during growth there was a backward shift of the medial articular surface of the talus relative to the upper

surface. A medial extension of the trochlear surface was present in eleven of the adult tali. In the foetal

series the incidence was much higher. No medial squatting facet was present in either the adult or the

foetal series. Lateral squatting facet were present in only two adult tali, but there were thirteen well-

marked examples in the foetal series, each associated with a corresponding facet on the tibia. It was clear

that, relative to the upper surface, the medial articular surface of the talus is situated more anteriorly in

the foetus than in the adult. The European foetal talus resembles the adult talus of other races, such as

Panjabi (Charles, 1894), the ancient Egyptian (Sewell, 1904), and the Australian (Inkster, 1927). The

medial extension of the trochlear surface was much more common in European foetus than in the adult.

Lateral extension of the trochlear surface occurs frequently in the present series but no exact comparison

with non-European tali is possible. The medial squatting facet is known to be rare in both Europeans and

Australian tali.

Singh’s Case Study on the Indian Talus and Tibia

Inderbir Singh's (1959) study dealt with the so-called squatting facet. The incidence of these

facets was in a series of 300 adult and 66 foetal tali, and in 292 adult and 66 foetal tibiae is described.

Modifications produced by squatting are more frequent in the Indian adult in than the Europeans. It is

concluded that these facets in the Indian adult are purely acquired and are not inherited.

Wood’s Case Study on the Australian Aborigines



Quarry Woods (1920) recognized the similarities of Thomson and Charles theories. He noticed

in European tibiae the anterior margin of the distal epiphysis is usually sharp and well defined, but most

primitive races it presents an articular facet towards the fibular side. The facet is directly continuous

with the distal articular surface. A similar facet was found on the neck of the talus, which fits exactly

into the tibial facet when the two bones are articulated. Thomson, who first described this condition,

attributed it to the extreme dorsiflexion at the ankle-joint in the act of squatting. Charles described also a

second facet of a smaller size and occupying a more medial position. He found medial facet present in

47 percent of Punjabis, while the lateral facet was present in 64 percent. In the Australian tibia Woods

found that the average Angle of Retroversion was 17 degrees and the average Angle of Inclination was

13 degrees. These angles were very high in comparison with those of other races. The high degrees of

retroversion were due to marked genuflexion in the common attitude of rest, and not merely to the

attitude of squatting. Retroflexion did not occur as frequently in the Australian tibia’s then other races.

The bones that were present were strong and well formed, and had a lot to due with the yielding of the

bone to forces tending to bend it in the sagittal direction (what is the sagittal direction). Morimoto’s Case Study on Japanese Talus

In Morimoto's (1960) study, 301 cartilage-covered adult and foetal Japanese tali, and the

corresponding tibia, were examined for the so-called squatting facets. The various types of these facets

and their incidences were described. The terminology presented by Barnett (1954) was found not to be

always applicable to adults and foetal Japanese tali. The adult and foetal Japanese tali are distinguishable

from those of many other racial groups by the fact that the so-called medial squatting facet is concave

antero-posteriorly and acts as a "stop" for the inferior articular surface of the tibia. The absence of a

lateral squatting facet as described by Thomson (1889-90) distinguishes adult Japanese tali from those of

both Indians and Australian Aborigines. These facts supported the view expressed by Lisowski, Ashton

and Ormerod (1957) that the trochlear facet variations are related not only to the extreme dorsiflexion of

the talo-crural joint but also to the structural configuration of the talus, and that the "squatting facet"



given by Barnett is therefore really only part of the same trochlear extension complex.

Rao’s Case Study on the Australian Aborigines

According to Prasado Rao (1966), Australian Aborigines were individuals that had similar taste

when it came to squatting posture (see fig.2). The Aborigines were accustomed to a certain daily life

that caused their bones to modify in a way that it completely changed their posture. However, their

squatting postures were very similar to the Indians and a little different from the Europeans. When Rao

examined and studied the Aborigines he looked at both males and females to see if there was any

difference between the two. He found the men to show evidence of squatting facet more so then

women because men were more active then men. He examined 238 tali and 234 tibiae of both sexes of

the Australian Aborigine according to Barnett’s classification. The medial and lateral extensions of the

trochlear surface were both present on the neck of the talus of the Australian Aborigines. The true

medial squatting facet was seen in three male talus bones, and faint impressions were seen on two of the

corresponding tibiae at the anterior margin of the lower end. The tibia illustrated a lateral squatting facet

that coincided with the corresponding facet on the talus and a medial squatting facet.

Satinoff's Case Study on the Ancient Egyptians

In Merton Satinoff's (1972) study he tried to figure out the variation where the squatting facet on

the talus and tibia would differ. Satinoff’s study consisted of 300 ancient Egyptian skeletons examining

the tibia and talus of both sides. He proposed two theories that could play a significant role in squatting

posture. The two theories account for the presence of acquired features modified by the squatting

posture, or squatting posture could be inherited as a genetic trait. When he conducted his research he

applied the two theories on the tibia and talus. The two main groups of tibial facets; those that associated

with a combined fossa and those associated with distinct medial and lateral fossae. For the lateral facet

and combined fossa, this group had several varying forms of lateral facets. They include smaller

varieties of lateral facets and also lateral facets with differing degrees of extensions. The lateral facet

associated with lateral and medial fossae: including the differing forms of lateral facets. The squatting

facet of the tibia lies on the anterior margin of its distal extremity and articulate with the corresponding




facet on the talus. Macroscopically these facets appear to be covered by the same type of articular

cartilage as that of the normal articulating surface of the inferior aspect of the lower end of the tibia.

These findings suggest that the squatting facets are prone to the same degenerative changes, which affect

the normal articulating surfaces of the joint.

In the talus the squatting facets are situated on the upper surface of the neck of the talus, (see

fig.13) anterior to, and quite distinct from, the trochlear surface. The smooth cartilage-covered facet on

the neck of the talus should, if it is a true facet, articulate in full dorsiflexion with a correspondingly well-

marked facet on the anterior surface of the lower extremity of the tibia. The study of these variation of

the squatting facets clearly include the morphological and functional movement of the ankle joint that

appears to adopt the position of squatting in a extreme dorsiflexion position. For example, it is found

that the anterior part of the medial articular surface and the corresponding part of the malleolar facet are

in perfect apposition only when the joint is in the extreme dorsiflexion position associated with the

squatting posture. A classical description of the anterior part of the medial articular surface refers to it as

a "stop which impinges upon the anterior edge of the medial malleolus in acute dorsiflexion" (Cameron

1934).

Oygucu’s Case Study on the Bzyantine’s Talus

According to Oygucu (1998), modifications of the talus indicative of habitual squatting

have been reported to occur in hominids since the Pleistocene era. Of the 175 tali investigated in

his current study, 68 were the right and left tali from the same skeletons, i.e. there were 34

complete pairs. Of these, 31 pairs displayed the same features on both sides and only 3 pairs

exhibited side asymmetry. The modifications of the talus (see fig.14) observed in the current

study were consistent with prolonged extreme dorsiflexion of the talus during squatting, an

activity compatible with the farming lifestyle of the late Byzantine population in Iznik (Ozbek,

1984). In the Byzantine male tali, the lateral squatting facet occurred most frequency, compared





to the medial, combined and continuous facet on the neck of the talus. The occurrence of the

lateral squatting facet between apparently similar Indian populations may reflect the sex ratios of

the bones investigated, as Pandey & Singh (1990) reported that the prevalence of squatting facets

is significantly greater in females than in males.

Boulle’s Case Study on the Evolution of Modern Age

According to Eve Boulle (1998), the frequencies of the presence of the lateral squatting

facet are related to hyperdorsiflexion (see fig.4) of the ankle. Similar observations of the

hyperdorsiflexion were found in populations who still used the squatting posture, and they seem

to indicate a frequent use of this posture till the end of the Middle Ages. The general trend shows

a relatively consistent presence of facets from Antiquity up to the end of the Middle Ages.

Starting with the 14th-16th century there was a clear decrease in frequency and a major

difference in talar facet presence between the Antique-Medieval. The pattern seems to

demonstrate the habitual use of the squatting posture, followed by progressively decreasing in

frequency.

However, from the 14th century (Macon I) to the present day, there was a considerable

decrease in the frequency of facets. Modern samples, such as the Hamann-Todd collection,

observed by Oliver Dutour for this study, showed evidence of habitual squatting and no lateral

squatting facet. The decrease in squatting facet frequency corresponded to an apparent change in

interior space organization. The introduction and general use of hearths at the end of the middle

Ages did not entail major changes in postures as long as the hearth remained low. The increasing

presence of furniture may have resulted in changes in domestic habits and postures. This lead to

a progressive decrease in the squatting position, which was no longer necessary in an

environment that favored standing and sitting positions. The mechanization of some activities,




such as agriculture, did not require the use of hyperdorsiflexion. This study reveals that the

examined populations apparently did not use the squatting position sufficiently often in sub-

adulthood to maintain a remarkable tibial retroversion. However, the results concerning the

lateral talar squatting facet, the ancient populations studied seem to have used the squatting

position during childhood or mostly during adulthood. Boulle's findings concerning the squatting

facet illustrate that it was a more reliable indicator of the use of the squatting position in a given

population than is tibial retroversion. Furthermore, the use of squatting in ancient French

populations was confirmed, and its progressive disappearance can be related to change in

lifestyle.

Molleson’s Case Study on the Abu People

According to Molleson (1994), reconstructing how people lived in ancient times is similar

to detective work. The number of skeletons that he used were about 162 individuals, 75 children,

and 87 adults, whom 44 were female, 27 male and 16 of undetermined sex- have been identified

from seven trenches dug at Abu Hureyra. The bones found revealed details of the daily life of the

Abu Hureyra people and therefore that of other Neolithic groups whose members had made the

transition from hunting and gathering to an agricultural economy. One of the first skeletal traits

that was noticed were signs of extra and sometimes excessive strains caused by the carrying of

loads, most likely game, grain and building materials. These cases were not common. In fact the

general health of the people appeared to be good, except for bond deformities that turned up

repeatedly. Clearly the bones bespoke a demanding physical activity that was also injurious. For

example, kneeling depicted activities that caused pathologies for the Abu people. Kneeling

consisted of long hours spent grinding cereal grains on the saddle quern. Hours of kneeling

caused strain upon the toes and knees, whereas grinding applied additional pressure on the hips



and especially, the lower back. These activities clearly indicated that habitual squatting was a

major part of their daily living.

Present Study on the Indians of Schroeder Mounds

In my study (2002), I proposed that certain behaviors could leave markers on the

skeleton. Activities in our life impact our skeleton on a daily basis. Some activities are more

strenuous than others. However, modern activities sometimes are quite different than activities

that were common centuries ago. For example, the people of Schroeder Mounds probably did not

exercise everyday with weights and machinery that can build muscle mass. They probably got

their exercise through hunting and gathering, agriculture and a host of other physical activities.

These types of activities can cause obvious wear on the skeleton. Looking at the tali from

Schroeder Mounds, I was able to infer that habitual squatting did take place in this population.

This population clearly showed evidence that the surface of the talus was worn down at the neck,

especially the area where the medial squatting was located. The worn-down surface was used as a

guideline (William Bass 1995) to trace the wear patterns left on the skeleton. Numerous anatomy

and osteology books were used (Cox, 2000) as illustrations of rotating views (dorsal, posterior,

anterior) of the talus. Using Barnett’s (1959) nomenclature, I recognized and classified the

skeletal markers that showed profound wear patterns on the talus as well as the edge of the tibia.

The skeletons that showed medial squatting facets (see fig.15) were marked on the

hyperdorsiflexion position. When the knee and the ankle are contracting the pressure is

immediately put upon the subtalar joints causing the lower limbs to contract in a full dorsiflexion

position. The medial squatting facet was a more frequent among the females in the population

and less frequent in male. The lateral squatting facet (see fig.16) was more frequent in the males

compared to females. The medial and lateral extension (see fig.17) was primarily present in






majority of the specimen but more so in the males than females. The Schroeder Mounds

population sustained a lot of stress on a daily basis causing the skeletal markers to be repetitive

and distinctive.

Methodology

The observations presented in this paper are based upon the study of 44 tali of both sexes

of the Schroeder Mounds Burial. The steps that were used to record the morphology of each talus

are the following.

1) I used the illustrations of the William Bass book on bone morphology. This book gave

illustrations on how to recognize different structures and morphology of the bones. Each burial

was thoroughly investigated to see if the talus and tibia was applicable or non-applicable.

2) A data sheet was constructed for each burial to use as a checklist and a data table.

3) I recorded the presence of wear patterns on the neck of the talus and the tibia. If the talus or tibia was

non-applicable that burial was discarded. If the talus or tibia show presence of wear patterns (i.e. lateral,

medial, and lateral and medial extensions) that recorded with the use of Barnett's nomenclature.

4) Using Barnett's nomenclature, each talus was thoroughly inspected for the presence of skeletal

markers and recorded.

5) All data were recorded and calculated for the percentage.

6) The percentage was calculated by the total specimen used divided by specific number of skeletal

markers for each squatting facet.

Analysis of Behavior

It is difficult to sort out general activity levels and specific articular joint modification in

interpreting skeletal morphology. The skeleton of a living person is highly responsive to physical



activity. Throughout life a person’s bones change shape and structure in response to mechanical forces

acting on them (Larsen 2000:84). When a person walks, for example, or stands, forces deriving from the

pull of muscles or from the body weight triggers cellular activity in the bone that results in skeletal

remodeling. The remodeling of the bone occurs in response to physical stress. Habitual squatting is

associated with modifications of the neck of the talus (squatting facets) and its trochlear (trochlear

extensions). Modifications of the skeleton reflecting habitual postures provide a picture of squatting and

kneeling. For example, the crouched posture (see fig.18) characterizes squatting that involves extreme

flexion of the hip, knee, ankle, and foot joints. As a result, mechanical demands on lower limb articular

joints may produce distinctive joint modifications (Larsen 1998:185).

However, articular modification in several different contexts reveals that habitual kneeling is in

food preparation tasks (see fig.19), occupational activities that can be identified on the skeleton. When

kneeling for preparation of food or occupational activities, this posture maintain a hyperdorsiflexed

position of the toes that is sustained for extended periods, causing the joints to develop articular

modifications reflecting these behaviors. During the process of kneeling for hours grinding (see fig.20)

was considered an essential step in the preparation of food. The preparation of food took much labor and

time, which indicated that grinding left traces of wear patterns (see fig.21) on the skeleton. For example,

the Abu people were known for squatting and kneeling especially the women. The women were always

position on their knees in a grinding-like position (Molleson 1994:71-2). Kneeling for many hours

strained the toes and knees, and grinding put additional pressure on the lower back and knees.

"During grinding (see fig.20), the body pivots alternately around the knee (and hip

joints). The movement subjects the femurs (thigh bone) to considerable bending

stresses. These bones develop a distinct buttress along the back to counteract the

bending movements imposed from the knee as the weight of the body swings back

and forth across the saddle quern. The knee also takes a lot of pressure because it

serves as the pivot movement. The process of grinding was the habit of resting one

foot on the other to relieve pain" (Molleson 1994:72).








Squatting, kneeling, and grinding have a parallel affect on hunting and gathering. Hunters and gathers

(see fig.22) relied on the fish, game, or plants readily available in their environment for food.

Agriculturist relied on intensive cultivation that used tools and technology to enhance their style of

living.

The Schroeder Mounds population shows evidence of medial squatting facet over half the

population. The population subsisted on a variety of plants and animal foods, because they lived a

hunting and gathering lifestyle that caused both male and females to engage in strenuous labor. Their

labor consisted of intensive gardening, hunting wild animals, and gathering wild plants. The principal

subsistence tools were the following; digging sticks, clubs, spears, bow and arrows, fishing devices,

traps, fire, and containers for storing. These tools allowed them to gather sufficient amounts of food for

their hard labor (Carpo 1996:139). These tools allowed them to gather sufficient amounts of food for

their hard labor.

The Schroeder Mounds burials illustrates that squatting facets were acquired features that were

modified by squatting postures. The breakdown from daily activity allowed their bones to become

vulnerable to modification. These modifications caused the bone to have a smooth surface that was

acquired over time. However, some scholars such as Barnett (1959), Morimoto (1960), and Singh (1963)

believe that genetic inheritance justified the reason why squatting facets occurred in adults, because it

was present in the foetal tali first. Since the foetal tali showed evidence of the squatting facets (medial

and lateral) early on, indicating that strenuous activities had no affect on the talus.

In the Molleson’s (1994) case study hunting and gathering and agriculture was a practice behavior

that they adopted to enhance their style of living. Boulle’s (1998) case study showed evidence of lateral

squatting facet, but medial squatting was more frequent, indicating that they practiced hunting gathering

not agriculture. Oygucu’s (1960) case study showed evidence of lateral squatting facet present among

their population, indicating that they used intensive forms of cultivation, such as irrigation, animal

traction, and fertilizers of the soil because they practiced agriculture. Satinoff’s (1972) and Rao's (1966)

case studies both showed evidence of medial squatting facet, and medial and lateral extensions,




indicating there was a transition from hunting and gathering (at the end) to agriculture as a different and

inert style of labor. In addition to my study, the Morimoto (1960) and Sewell (1904) case studies showed

evidence of medial squatting facet indicating they practiced hunting and gathering.

Several of the case studies indicated that medial squatting facet were present and very few were

lateral squatting facets. The evidence from my data I collected I tried to make a link between squatting

behavior that reflected in the presence of squatting facets by looking at the specific subsistence pattern

throughout the population. Due to the fact that the case studies I used did not give enough information

on the subsistence pattern, I was unable correctly named the behavior. However, with further research I

plan to determine the behavior by looking at certain trends that was similar to each other. For example,

if several case studies show attributes that medial squatting facets were present, due to hunting and

gathering and activities that caused extreme or hyperdorsiflexion with evidence of grinding and kneeling

postures. Other case studies show lateral squatting facet present due to the fact they were agriculturist,

that had different subsistence patterns. Looking at the similarities I can make the correlation between

squatting facets and behavior.

Conclusion

Skeletons can tell us a lot about the past. They can reveal evidence of the subsistence

pattern of a population, the activities that individuals in that population engaged in and, perhaps

most importantly what type of behavior was practiced on a daily basis to induce skeletal markers

on the bone. Research has shown that behavior can be interpreted from the human skeleton.

Activities such as squatting, kneeling and grinding can induce skeletal markers that can be seen

on the human skeleton. These activities can determine if a population practiced hunting and

gathering or agriculture. I found that Schroeder Mounds had medial squatting present to such an

extent that hunting and gathering was most likely practiced.



Over 50 percent of the Schroeder Mounds population showed the presence of a medial

squatting facet. Medial squatting facet were more frequent in females then males. hunting and

gathering was most likely practiced among many of the populations that were used in this

research while only a few practiced agriculture.

Data

Schroeder Mounds Burial Data

Table 1 (see appendix A for description)

Type of Facets/ Talus Total No. Percentage

Medial Squatting Facet

Medial and Lateral Extension of the Trochlear

Surface

14

(11 pairs & 3 singles)

8

(7 pairs & 1 single)

32%

18%

Lateral Squatting Facet

Lateral Squatting Facet and

Lateral Extension of the Trochlear Surface

5


10

11%

23%


http://lilt.ilstu.edu/soa/anthrothesis/kdjone1/A:/Schroder%20Mounds%20Burial%20Data


Lateral Squatting Facet and Lateral and Medial

Extension of the Trochlear Surface

7


16%

Table 2

Characteristics Male (percentage) Female (percentage)Normal Talus 5% 16%

Medial squatting facet 26% 32%Lateral squatting facet 16% 8%

Lateral/Medial squatting facet

21% 20%

Lateral/Medial/Medial or Lateral extension

26% 24%


Race Author Total No. Studied Medial Facet

PresentLateral Facet

Present

Talus European Thomson 25 1 (4.0 %)

Pfitzner 840 1 Barnett 100 2 (2.0 %)

Egyptian Sewell 1,000 86 (8.6 %)Indian Charles 53 34 (64.0 %)

Singh 300 1 (0.33 %) 86 (28.6 %)Australian Thomson 11 7 (63.6 %)

Inskter 150 45 (30.0 %) Rao 238 3 (1.2 %) 80 (33.6 %)

Byzantine Oygucu 175 1 (0.6 %) 66 (37.7 %)Indian Present Study 44 14 (32.0 %) 5 (11.0 %)Tibia



Europeans Thomson 30 2 (6.6 %) Wood 118 2 (1.7 %) 20 (17.0 %)

Indian Charles 52 9 (19.2 %) 45 (86.5 %) Singh 292 5 (1.7 %) 226 (77.4 %)

Japanese Mormoto 107 55 (51.4 %) Thomson 14 11 (78.5 %) Wood 236 5 (2.1 %) 190 (80.6 %) Rao 234 9 (3.8 %) 189 (80.7 %)


Race Author Total No. Studied Medial

Extension Present on the

Talus

Percentage

Punjabi Charles 53 25 47.2%Egyptian Sewell 1,006 189 19 %European Barnett 100 11 11 %

Indian Singh 300 165 55 %Japanese Mormoto 107 107 100 %

Australian Aborigine

Rao 238 164 68.9 %

Byzantine Oygucu 175 19 10.9 %Indian Present Study

Jones44 7 16 %


Race Author Total No. Studied Lateral

Extension Present on the

Talus

Percentage

European Barnett 100 17 17%Indian Singh 300 164 54%

Japanese Morimoto 107 102 95%



Australian Aborigine

Rao 238 215 90%

Byzantine Oygucu 175 14 8 %Indian Present Study

Jones44 10 23%

Reference Cited

Barnett, C.H.

1954 Squatting Facets on the European Talus. Journal of Anatomy.

Bass, William

1995 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. Missouri Archaeological Society.

Boulle, Eve-Line

1998 Evolution of Two Human Skeletal Markers of the Squatting Position: A Diachronic Study From Antiquity to the Modern Age. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115:50-56.

Brothwell, D.R.

1981 Digging up Bones: The excavation, treatment and study of human skeletal remains. Cornell University Press.

Cameron, J.

1934 The skeleton of British Neolithic Man. William & Norgate Ltd.

Carpo, Richley H.

1996 Cultural Anthropology: Understanding Ourselves & Others. Dushkin McGraw Hill.

Christensen, John B.



1972 Synopsis of Gross Anatomy. Harper & Row Publishers.

Cox, Margaret, and Simon Mays

2000 Human Osteology: In Archaeology and Forensic Science. Saxon Graphics Limited.

Evans, Philip

1986 The Knee Joint: A Clinical Guide. Churchill Livingstone.

Gray, Henry.

2000 Anatomy of the Human Body. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. www.bartleby.com/107/270-273.

Haas. Jonathan

1994 Standards for data collected from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research series 44.

Larson, Clark S.

1997 Bioarchaeology: Interpreting behavior from the human skeleton. Cambridge University Press.

2000 Reading the Bones of La Florida.Scientific American 63:80-85.

Molleson, Theya

1994 The Eloquent Bones of Abu Hureyra. Scientific American 271:70-75.

Morimoto M.

1960 The influence of squatting posture on the Talus in the Japanese. Medical Journal Shinshu University 5:159-168.

Oygucu, IH, and M.Kurt

1998 Squatting Facets on the neck of the Talus and extension of the trochlear surface of the Talus



in late Byzantine males. Journal of Anatomy 192(2):287-291.

Prasado, Rao

1966 Squatting facets on the Talus and tibia in Australian Aborigines. Archaeology Physical Anthropology Oceania 1:51-56.

Quarry, Wood W.

1920 The Tibia of the Australian Aborigine. Journal Anatomy 54:232-257.

Satinoff, Merton.

1972 Study of the squatting facets of the Talus and tibia in ancient Egyptians. Journal Human Evolution 1:209-212.

Schwartz, Jeffery

1995 Skeleton Keys: An introduction to human skeletal morphology, development, and analysis. Oxford University Press.

Singh, I.

1959 Squatting facets on the Talus and tibia in Indians. Journal Anatomy 93:540-550.

Smith, B. Holly

1984 Patterns of Molar Wear Pattern in Hunter-Gathers and Argiculturists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 63:39-56.

Thomson, A.

1889 The influence of posture on the form of the articular surfaces of the tibia and astragalus in the different races of man and the higher apes. Journal Anatomy 23:616-639.



Appendix A

Collective Data

Schroeder Mounds Burial Data

1. The data (see table 1) that I collected are from 44 skeletons showing some type of squatting facet on the neck of the talus.

2. The true Medial squatting facet was present in 32% of the 44 total.3. The Medial squatting facet and medial extension of the trochlear surface were present in

10% of the 60 total.4. The true Lateral squatting facet was present in 11% of the 44.5. The Lateral squatting facet and lateral extension of the trochlear surface were present in

23% of the 44 total.6. The lateral and medial extensions of the trochlear surface were present in 18% of the 44

total.

Boulle’s Data

1. The lateral squatting facet was studied in this population, which frequently used the squatting posture (Charles, 1893; Singh, 1959; Rao, 1966; Satinoff, 1972).

2. Its frequency varied between 28 (64%) among these populations; only 2% among European adults were found.

3. The frequencies of the presence of the lateral squatting facet were related to hyperdorsiflexion of ankle.

4. The pattern seems to demonstrate the habitual use of the squatting posture, followed by progressively decreasing frequency.

5. Analysis of the frequency of squatting facets observed in the series demonstrates a difference between men (30.35%) and women (40.23%).

Oygucu’s Data

1. 175 tali were investigated in this study, 68 were the right and left tali from the same skeletons, i.e. there were 34 complete pairs.

2. 31 pairs (91.2%) displayed the same features on both sides and only 3 pairs (8.8%) exhibited side asymmetry.

3. The Byzantine male tali, the lateral squatting facet occurred most frequency (37.7%), compared to the medial (0.6%), combined (0.6%) and continuous (0.6%) facets on the neck of the talus.

4. The occurrence of lateral squatting facets in the late Byzantine males is greater than that



reported for modern Europeans, similar to some populations of modern Indians.5. The difference in the occurrence of squatting facets between apparently similar Indian

populations may reflect the sex ratios of the bones investigated, as Pandey & Singh (1990) reported that the prevalence of squatting facets is significantly greater in females than in males.

6. Lateral extensions were present in 8.0%, medial extensions in 10.9% and continuous (lateral/central/medial) extensions in 4.6% of the tali.

Satinoff’s Data

1. Ancient Egyptian skeletons are unequivocal prevalence of specimens having clearly defined squatting facets over those, which do not (only 4% do not show evidence of squatting facets).

2. The lateral squatting facet of the tibia is the most common type of facet on both left and right tibiae and it is associated with either a combined fossa or with a lateral fossa.

3. The medial tibial squatting facet appears rarely and when it is present a lateral tibial facet always accompanies it. The lateral tibial squatting facet is present alone in 96% of the specimens.

4. On the talus the frequency of the lateral facet occurs less frequently then the combined facet, which is not found on the tibia, and this is present in 31% of the tali examined. Also the medial facet never appears alone and occurs together with a lateral facet in only four cases.

5. The extensions of the articular surfaces of the talus appear quite independently of one another, varying in degree and occurring in any combination.

6. The forward extension of the medial articular surface is present in all the specimens examined.

7. The medial extension of the trochlear surface occurs in 79% of the specimens and the lateral extension of the trochlear surface occurs in 90% of the specimens examined. Rao's Case Study

8. The squatting facet were examined and studied in 238 tali and 234 tibiae of both sexes of the Australian Aborigine according to Barnett’s classification.

9. The medial and lateral extensions of the trochlear surface were present in 68.9% and 90.3% respectively in the total tali examined.

10. A true medial squatting facet is a rare condition, which was seen in three male talus bones, and faint impressions were seen on two of the corresponding tibiae at the anterior margin of the lower end. A true lateral squatting facet was present in 80 out of 238 tali (33.6%) examined.

11. In the tibia, a lateral squatting facet was present in 80.7% of which 25.6% coincided with the corresponding facet on the talus and a medial squatting facet was observed in 3.8%



(0.85% coincided with the corresponding facet on the talus) only of the total series.

Morimoto’s Data

1. 301 cartilage-covered adult and foetal Japanese tali, and the corresponding tibiae, were examined for the so-called squatting facets.

2. The various types of these facets and their incidences were described.3. Adult and foetal Japanese tali are distinguishable from those of many other racial groups

by the fact that the so-called medial squatting facet is concave antero-posteriorly and acts as a "stop" for the inferior articular surface of the tibia.

4. The absence of a lateral squatting facets as described by Thomson (1889-90) distinguishes adult Japanese tali from those of both Indians and Australian Aborigines

Singh’s Data

1. The so-called squatting facets described in the literature have been critically analyzed.2. The incidence of these facets in a series of 300 adult and 66 foetal tali, and in 292 adult

and 66 foetal tibiae.3. Modifications produced by squatting are more frequent in (a) the Indian adult than in the

European, (b) the European foetus than n in the Indian, (c) the Indian adult than in the foetus, and (d) the European foetus than in the adult.

4. It is concluded that these facets in the Indian adult are purely acquired and are not inherited.

Barnett’s Data

1. A series of 100 adult and 56 foetal European tali were examined with the object of determining the incidence of squatting facet.

2. The rarity of a lateral squatting facet described by Thomson(1889) distinguishes the adult European talus from that of many races. This facet is commonly found in European fetuses.

3. The racial differences found in human tali can be explained without necessarily invoking the theory that acquired characters are inherited.

Appendix B

Figures and Illustrations

Fig. 1 Dorsal view of the talus (Gray 2000:270).



fig. 2 Squatting at rest (Molleson 1994:73).

fig. 3 Hyperdorsiflexion position (Brothwell 1972:91).



fig. 4Sagittal section of ankle hyperdorsiflexion, showing contact area between anterior edge of distal tibia and tali neck (Boulle 1998:52).

fig. 5, fig. 5a, fig. 5bDescription of the talus viewing the superior, medial, and lateral aspect of the talus (Christensen 1972:114).


http://www.ilstu.edu/~kdjone1/fig%201


fig. 6, fig. 6a, fig. 6b Description of the talus viewing the inferior, posterior, and anterior aspects of the talus (Christensen1972:115).




fig 7 An example of retroversion in an Australian tibia (Wood 1920:245).



fig. 8 Schematic representation of axis allowing measurement of retroversion angles (Boulle 1998 54).

fig. 9 Different morphologies of the talus. A: Talus without specific variation. B: Forward prolongation of medial articular surface. C: Medial extension of trochlear surface. D: Lateral extension of trochlear surface. E: Medial squatting facet. F: Lateral squatting facet (Boulle 1998:53).




fig. 10 Talus of a foetus (175 mm. C.R. length) showing a large squatting facet covering almost the entire upper surface of the neck. A medial extension of the trochlear surface is also seen (Singh 1959:547).

fig 11. on the left Talus showing lateral extension of the trochlear surface.

fig 11a. on the right Talus showing both medial and lateral extension of the trochlear surface (Singh 1959:546).




fig 12a Talus showing a lateral squatting facet (Singh 1959:547).

Fig 12b Talus is showing a lateral squatting facet and lateral extension of the trochlear surface (Singh 1959:547).




Fig 12c Talus showing a lateral squatting facet, and medial and lateral extensions of the trochlear surface (Singh 1959:547).

fig. 13Anterior view of the neck of the talus and the trochlea (Gray 2000:272-273).



fig. 14A photograph of the dorsal aspect of a left talus from a late Byzantine (13th century AD) adult male skeleton excavated from a burial site near Iznik (Nicea), exhibiting a lateral squatting facet (overlain by arrowhead) together with a medial trochlear extension (arrow pointing to its anterior border) (Oygucu 1998:289).



fig. 15An example of medial squatting facet of the Schroeder Mounds population.

fig. 16Examples of medial squatting facet.



fig. 17a Examples of lateral squatting facet.

17b Examples of medial and lateral extension.



fig. 17c Several tali from the Schroeder Mounds population.

fig. 18 The Crouched posture is universal for food gathers squatting to dig for food (Evans 1986:127).

fig. 19Food preparation tasks (Molleson 1994:72).



fig. 20 Grinding for hours in preparation of food (Molleson 1994:73).

fig. 21 Traces of wear patterns that can be detected from daily stress (Molleson 1994:70).



fig. 22Hunters & Gathers relied on tools to help gather the plants from their environment (Larsen 2000:85).


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