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ACCULTURATION, FAMILIAL RELATIONSHIPS, AND ADOLESCENT WELL-BEING
By
BINDI SHAH
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2012
2
© 2012 Bindi Shah
3
To my family
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank my friend and mentor for her generosity, and guidance. I also thank my
advisor, and my committee for all their help, support, and direction in developing and
completing my thesis. Finally, I thank my family for their continued support and
encouragement.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 6
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 9
2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 13
Adolescent Development & Well-Being .................................................................. 13
Latino American Adolescent Well-Being........................................................... 14 Mexican American Adolescent Well-Being ....................................................... 14
Familial Relationships ............................................................................................. 16 Acculturation Issues ................................................................................................ 19
3 METHODS .............................................................................................................. 25
Sample .................................................................................................................... 26 Add Health Survey .................................................................................................. 26
Alternative Methods ................................................................................................ 28
Procedures ............................................................................................................. 29
4 RESULTS ............................................................................................................... 30
5 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................... 35
Importance of Results ............................................................................................. 36
Recommendations for Counselors and Counselor Educators ................................ 37 Limitations of Research .......................................................................................... 38
Future Research ..................................................................................................... 38
LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 40
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ............................................................................................ 46
6
LIST OF TABLES Table page 4-1 Parent-child relationship questions ..................................................................... 30
4-2 Adolescents’ development and well-being .......................................................... 30
4-3 Acculturation ....................................................................................................... 31
4-4 Participants’ demographic information (sex and age) ......................................... 32
4-5 Participants’ demographic information (sex and background) ............................ 32
4-6 Participants’ demographic information (background and age) ............................ 32
4-7 Case processing summary from the questions of parent-child relationship ........ 32
4-8 Reliability statics from the questions of parent-child relationship ........................ 33
4-9 Case processing summary from the questions of adolescents’ development and well-being .................................................................................................... 33
4-10 Reliability statics from the questions of Adolescents’ development and wellbeing ............................................................................................................ 33
4-11 Correlation between parent-child relationship and adolescents’ development and well-being .................................................................................................... 34
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Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Education
ACCULTURATION, FAMILIAL RELATIONSHIPS, AND ADOLESCENT WELL-BEING
By
Bindi Shah
May 2012
Chair: Cirecie West-Olatunji Major: Mental Health Counseling
In comparison to non-Latino White adolescents, Latino adolescents who make up
almost 20% of the adolescent population in the United States experience more anxiety,
depression, and daily stress that may lead to disruptive behaviors and poor mental
health. Despite, the many needs of Latino adolescents, they have one of the lowest
rates of utilization of counseling services, especially Mexican American adolescents.
Currently various literature explores Mexican American adolescents’ mental
health, family relationships, and acculturation in their respective families. However,
minimal research exists where the relationship between acculturation, familial
relationships, and adolescents’ well being is explored.
Acculturation theory and its associated concepts are used to conceptualize the
purpose of this research thesis, which is to explore the factors related to Mexican
American adolescents’ well being. Professional school and mental health counselors
need to be aware of the multiple challenges experienced by Latino students.
The purpose of this thesis research is to explore how acculturation can affect
family dynamics and the well-being of Latino adolescents. The proposed research will
attempt to answer the following three questions: a) What is the relationship between
8
acculturation among Mexican American parents and adolescents and familial
relationships? (b) What is the relationship between familial relationships and adolescent
well-being? (c) What is the relationship between acculturation and adolescents’ well-
being?
9
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
In the U.S., Mexican American youth were found to have higher rates of
depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation (Aldridge & Roesch, 2008; Garcia, Skay,
Sieving, Naughton, & Bearinger, 2008) than their White counterparts. The Latino
population makes up about 16.3% of the total U.S. population and continues to increase
as more families migrate to the United States from their countries ("Pew Hispanic
Center," 2011). Mexican Americans comprise 67% of the Latino population, the largest
ethnic minority group in the USA and one that has grown rapidly over the past two
decades (Updegraff, Delgado, & Wheeler, 2009). Furthermore, Latino American
adolescents aged 10 to 19 make up about 16% of the adolescent population in the
United States (National Adolescent Health Information Center, 2003). In comparison to
non-Latino White adolescents, Latino adolescents experience more anxiety, depression,
and daily stress that may lead to disruptive behaviors and poor mental health. Despite
the many needs of Latino adolescents, they have one of the lowest rates of utilization of
counseling services, especially Mexican American adolescents (Malott, Paone,
Humphreys, & Martinez, 2010).
Adolescence is already a stressful time for youth as they face issues such as
puberty and social changes. In addition to these developmental transitions, immigrant
adolescents may experience further social stress related to acquiring a new language,
establishing new peer relationships, and adjusting to cultural norms that differ from their
parents’ and country of origin (Garcia & Saewyc, 2007). Latino families and adolescents
may also experience a variety of challenges while living in the United States, including
systemic struggles, personal-social struggles, and acculturative stress. Familial
10
relationships, including emotional support from parents, parental involvement, and
parent-child conflict have all been shown to affect adolescent adjustment and mental
health (Caldwell, Silverman, Lefforge, & Silver, 2004; Crockett, Brown, Russell, & Shen,
2007; Dumka, Gonzales, Bonds, & Millsap, 2009).
Research has shown that the acculturation process can affect family dynamics
within Latino families such as parent-child relationships, adolescent adjustment and
mental health overall (Crockett et al., 2007; Dumka et al., 2009; Garcia & Saewyc,
2007). However, each Latino group’s immigration and acculturation history differs. The
three largest Latino groups in the U.S are Mexicans (63%), Puerto Ricans (9%), and
Cuban American (4%) (Healey, 2011 pp. 281-332).
Cuban Americans began migrating to the U.S. in the late 1950s. They were
actually welcomed by the United States as political refugees, as they were fleeing from
the Communist regime in Cuba. The majority of Cuban Americans settled in South
Florida, where they were able to become an enclave minority. An ethnic enclave is a
social, economic, and cultural sub-society controlled by the group itself and located in a
specific area. Group members are able to avoid the discrimination and limitations
imposed by larger societies.
During the late 19th century, Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States
and in 1917, Puerto Ricans became citizens of the United States. Therefore immigration
had no restrictions, and movement was easier. Puerto Ricans migrated to the U.S.
much later than Mexican Americans, during the time when U.S. was more urbanized
and industrialized, thus Puerto Ricans were able to obtain jobs in those fields.
11
Mexican Americans originated as a colonized minority group. During the 19th
century, Mexican Americans were conquered and colonized by the United States, and
used as a labor force. The colonization left many Mexican Americans powerless,
isolated in rural areas, and lacking resources. The proximity of Mexico to U.S., allowed
for constant migration between Mexico and U.S, however patterns of immigration
reflected economic conditions in the U.S.
Acculturation across groups varies depending on length of resident and
generation. Colonized minority groups such as Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans
were discouraged to integrate with the mainstream culture in the past due to
discrimination, and racism. As for Cubans, their immigration history is recent, and due to
their enclave communities, acculturation process is a lot slower. Cubans are also more
easily able to keep their language and traditions intact, due to their history of low
discrimination and racism (Healey, 2011 pp. 281-332).
Acculturation issues may vary generationally, depending on if the individual is first
generation (born in Mexico), second generation (born in U.S., but parents born in
Mexico), and third generation (both parents and children are born in U.S.). There is a
significant decrease in identification with Mexican American identity in second and third
generation children than first generation children (Buriel,1993). As youth and their
families spend more time in the U.S., they may start to lose their connection to their
ethnic identity.
The stresses of acculturation and immigration undeniably affect the mental health
of Mexican American adolescents in terms of depression, self-esteem, self- concept,
social relationships, familial relationships, and suicidal ideation (Christenson, Zabriskie,
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Eggett, & Freeman, 2006; Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao, 2009). Using acculturation
theory as the theoretical framework of this research thesis allows the researcher to
explore the role of acculturation in Mexican American immigrant adolescent
development and well-being and familial relationships.
Numerous scholars have explored Mexican American adolescents’ development
and well-being, family relationships, and acculturation in these Latino immigrant families
(Chung, Chen, Greenberger, & Heckhausen, 2009; Garcia & Saewyc, 2007). However,
the relationship between acculturation, familial relationships, and adolescents’ well-
being has not been sufficiently explored. The purpose of this study is to explore how
acculturation can affect familial relationships and the well-being of Latino adolescents.
13
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Adolescent Development & Well-Being
Accompanied by rapid physical, psychological, and social changes, adolescence
represents a particularly vulnerable developmental phase (Chung et al., 2009). Along
with experiencing pubertal development, adolescents also go through significant
cognitive changes. Their ability to organize and reflect on their thoughts, information-
processing strategies, and abstract thinking increases during adolescence (Wigfield,
Lutz, & Wagner, 2005). However, even though their reasoning and decision- making
skills have increased, adolescents are still more likely to engage in risky behaviors
showing that there are still limitations to their cognitive development (Wigfield et al.,
2005). Adolescence is also marked by self- formation, where individuals begin to form
their identity, self-esteem, and self-concept (Rayle & Myers, 2004). This transitional life
stage in between childhood and adulthood is filled with numerous challenges causing
adolescence to be a population in need of much support to foster healthy overall
development.
All adolescents experience normative stress related to daily hassles, school
transitions, and more (Choi, Meininger, & Roberts, 2006). These youth are coping with
issues such as identity development, transition from childhood into adulthood, and
physical changes (Collins & Collins, 1994). Teenagers’ main concerns consist of family
problems, peer relationships, self-esteem, and school problems (Boehm, Schondel,
Ivoska, Marlowe, & Manke-Mitchell, 1998). Self- concept is a major part of adolescent
development, where individuals begin to form their identity through inclusion and
exclusion of various activities and relationships in their environments. A person’s
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gender, sexual orientation, and ethnicity also contribute to the development of an
adolescent’s identity (Collins & Collins, 1994).
Latino American Adolescent Well-Being
Pahl and Way (2006) examined how gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, and
experiences of discrimination affect identity exploration and affirmation in Latino
adolescents. Their research found that by mid- adolescence, ethnic identity exploration
is at its highest and then it starts to decrease as adolescents begin to clarify the
meanings of their ethnic group membership. Social support from same-ethnic peers and
living in neighborhoods where majority of individuals are of the same ethnicity may
contribute to the resolution of their identity crisis, feelings of security, and high levels of
affirmation (Pahl & Way, 2006; Sánchez, 2009). In addition, higher racial and/or ethnic
density in geographic areas contributes to higher personal self-esteem, furthermore
promoting the well-being of Latino adolescents (Pahl & Way, 2006; Sánchez, 2009).
Mexican American Adolescent Well-Being
Several aspects of Mexican American adolescent immigrants’ development and
well-being differ from their White counterparts. For example, Mexican American
adolescent immigrants experience different types of stressors in their environments
related to cultural factors (Garcia & Saewyc; 2007). Such stressors often include work
and family obligations, maintaining employment, and acquiring English language skills
(Martínez, 2009; Love & Buriel, 2007). It is important to understand the role of social
stress in the development and reporting of adolescents’ mental distress. Social stress
was conceptualized as general stress, that is normative sources of stress that all
adolescents may experience, such as; (a) transition to a new school, (b) process-
15
oriented stress (acculturative stress or adjusting to interactions with another culture),
and (c) discrimination, which is also another form of sociocultural stress.
Traumatic stress refers to events that are experienced as negative, sudden, and
uncontrollable, which may be moderated by an individual’s social context, life events,
and developmental level (Carson, 1997). Racial and/or ethnic discrimination may be
traumatic to an individual because it is experienced as hostile, threatening, and sudden.
It is an oppressive act that may be experienced as violent and as an assault on an
individual’s sense of self, similar to other traumatic experiences such as rape, violence,
and war (Flores, Tschann, Dimas, Pasch, & de Groat, 2010). Culturally minority groups
such as Mexican American immigrant adolescents are more likely to experience
traumatic stress due to discrimination and hegemony, which is the dominance of one
social group over another (Carlson, 1997; Carter, 2007; Goodman & West-Olatunji,
2010). Mexican American adolescents may experience overt and subtle acts
discrimination in their school and community environments, causing these places to be
hostile for them. Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the effects of discrimination
due to their developmental stage where they are establishing their sense of self and
identity (Carlson, 1997; Flores et al., 2012; Pahl & Way, 2006; Romero & Roberts,
1998).
Mexican American adolescents were found to more likely experience social stress
including process-oriented, and discrimination stress, leaving them at higher risk for
depression and suicidal ideation than White adolescents (Choi, Meininger & Roberts,
2006). It is evident that a positive relationship exists between social stress and mental
16
distress in ethnic youth groups, especially Mexican American adolescents (Choi et al.,
2006; Garcia & Saewyc, 2007 ).
Several factors have been found to affect the mental, social, and emotional health
of Latino American adolescents, such as circumstances of immigration, social-economic
status, levels of acculturation, levels of acculturative stress, familial acculturative gaps,
previous education experiences, context of host culture, and the perception of
community belonging (Blanco-Vega, Castro-Olivo, & Merrell, 2008). Cultural pressures,
perceived discrimination, levels of parental involvement, and levels of acculturation all
affect psychological well-being of Latino adolescents (Tapia, Kinnier, & MacKinnon,
2009). Furthermore, immigrant youth need the support of the host culture in order to
maintain and enhance their cultural identity. However, despite all of the stress and
hardship these immigrant Latino adolescents may experience, many of them are still
able to succeed and persevere in life. Parental or familial involvement, positive
community support, positive self-concept, and biculturalism are all sources of social and
emotional resiliency for Latino adolescents (Blanco-Vega et al., 2008; Tapia et al.,
2009).
Familial Relationships
Various studies have explored how familial relationships are related to
adolescents’ behaviors and emotional adjustment (Caldwell, et al., 2004; Crockett,
Brown, Russell, & Shen, 2007; Dumka, Gonzales, Bonds, & Millsap, 2009). Positive
relationships were found between parental emotional support, parental involvement,
and emotional adjustment in adolescence, and negative relationships were found
between parent-child conflict and adolescent mental health. In addition, adolescents’
psychological adjustment and behaviors depend greatly on the meaning they attribute to
17
parental behaviors and in turn, adolescent adjustment affects family functioning
(Crockett et al., 2007). Caldwell et al. (2004) defined familial emotional support as
adolescents’ report of their ability to seek out emotional support and/ or advice from
family members. Familial emotional support has been negatively associated with
delinquent behavior in Mexican American adolescents and positively correlated to
adolescents’ emotional well-being.
Gender. In Mexican American families there are distinct differences between the
role of the mother and father (Updegraff et al., 2009). The mother’s role is more
involved, where she is caring, nurturing, and accepting. Fathers tend to have a more
distant relationship with their adolescent children, maintaining a hierarchical relationship
and paternal authority which is prevalent in Mexican American families (Crockett et al.,
2007). Parents tend to have different relationships with the male and female adolescent
children also; fathers have stronger relationships with their adolescent sons than
daughters. One study explored connections between parenting practices, cultural
orientations, and adolescents’ academic success and found that mothers’ parenting
practices affected academic outcomes for boys and girls, but fathers’ parenting affected
academic outcomes for only boys (Dumka, Gonzales, Bonds, & Millsap, 2009). Even
when both parents are highly involved, in Mexican American families, mothers were still
found to be more involved in their adolescent children’s lives (Updegraff, Delgado, &
Wheeler, 2009).
Parent-adolescent conflict has been associated with youth’s well-being and
participation in risky behaviors (Updegraff et al., 2009). Adolescents who reported
significant parent-child conflict were more aggressive than their peers with lesser
18
amounts of parent-child conflict (Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao, 2009). Additionally,
parent-child conflict greatly affects adolescent well-being in terms of academics,
behaviors, and emotional adjustment (Schofield, Parke, Kim, & Coltrane, 2008).
How Mexican American adolescents view positive parent-child relationships may
be very different to their White counterparts. Familismo refers to the concept of family
being an extension of self along with feelings of loyalty, reciprocity, and solidarity
towards the family and preserving those close family ties (Crockett et al., 2007; Villalba,
2007). Respeto means maintaining respectful hierarchical relationships within the family
and extended family which may be determined by age, gender, and social status
(Crockett et al., 2007). Additionally, a strong emphasis on family may influence a young
individual’s decisions about work and school later on in life, taking into consideration the
family’s well-being (Sánchez, Esparza, Colón, & Davis, 2010). Crockett et al. (2007)
found that cultural values, such as those defined above, influenced adolescents’
perceptions of good familial relationships. The adolescents discussed concepts, such as
respect, viewing family positively, open communication, and parental control, in regards
to positive familial relationships. The researchers suggested that cultural influences
operate at multiple levels, and that the Mexican American adolescents’ views and
practices in their own relationships were consistent with particular Latino cultural
themes (Crockett et al., 2007; Villalba, 2007).
Research showed high levels of parental warmth (defined as closeness, nurture,
and acceptance) and parental emotional support in Latino families (Chung et al., 2009;
Crockett et al., 2007; Updegraff et al., 2009). Contrary to other cultural groups, Latino
American parents were perceived to provide continuous emotional support and warmth,
19
regardless of adolescents’ level of depressive symptoms. This may be indicative of the
strong collectivistic culture and family orientation in Latino culture. Individuals from a
collectivist culture value interdependence and family reliability more and are expected to
reach independence and autonomy later in life than persons from individualistic cultures
(Chung et al., 2009). Furthermore, higher levels of parental warmth and parental
emotional support have been shown to be related to better positive adjustment, such as
higher school achievement, engaging in less risky behaviors, and less depressive
symptoms in Mexican American adolescents than their counterparts (Updegraff,
Delgado, & Wheeler, 2009). Strong, positive parent-child relationships, along with
familial support, are important in adolescents’ overall well-being. Consequently, parent-
child conflict can negatively affect an adolescent’s psychological well-being (Crockett et
al., 2007). Acculturation plays a major role in familial relationships and adolescents’
well-being (Pasch et al., 2006).
Acculturation Issues
Acculturation is defined as “when groups of individuals having different cultures
come into continuous first –hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original
culture patterns of either or both groups” (Berry, 2008, p. 330). Usually, the non-
dominant group is strongly influenced to take on cultural norms of the dominant group
(Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao, 2008). Two major concepts involved with acculturation
are assimilation and enculturation. Assimilation is associated with high levels of
involvement with the dominant culture, basically when an individual completely adopts
the dominant culture’s norms. Enculturation is when an individual maintains their culture
of origin norms. An integration of assimilation and enculturation is defined as
biculturalism (Smokowski et al., 2008). Finally, an acculturation gap is the difference
20
between the parent’s level of acculturation and the adolescent’s level of acculturation
(Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao, 2009) and acculturative stress results from the anxiety
and distress of adapting to cultural differences (Aprahamian, Kaplan, Windham, Sutter,
& Visser, 2011).
Adapting to a new cultural environment and developing ways to function in that
new environment is a complex process (Chae & Foley, 2010). Initially, theorists studied
acculturation through a unidimensional model, asserting that individuals were either
acculturated or not acculturated (Abe-Kim, Okazaki, & Goto, 2001; Chae & Foley,
2010). Recently, competing models discuss how acculturation is multidimensional and
may cover many domains such as language/communication, customs, self-
identification, and preferences, attitudes, and values (Abe-Kim et al., 2001; Newcomb, &
Myers, 1995). Acculturation is a dynamic and complex process (Pasch et al., 2006).
Sanchez (2009) discussed the concept of transnationalism and the positive
implications for personal and familial attachments that are bicultural. Staying in touch
with one’s culture of origin helps to authenticate a positive Mexican identity in
adolescent youth that aids in positive adjustment and acculturation to a new host
culture. A positive Mexican identity in adolescent youth can help to maintain a cultural
home and their ethnic language minimize the intergenerational gap between children
and parents, and reduce acculturative stress (Sánchez, 2009). Staying involved with
one’s culture of origin helps to maintain a positive identity that, in turn, helps with overall
family adjustment. Biculturalism, where adolescents adopted American and Latino
cultural practices, was associated with parental involvement, positive parenting and
21
family support and bicultural adolescents reported the most favorable perceptions of
their families (Sullivan et al., 2007).
Family leisure involvement in Mexican American families plays an important role in
the acculturation process (Christenson, Zabriskie, Eggett, & Freeman, 2006). Bicultural
or less acculturated youth spent more time in core leisure activities with their families
than high acculturated youth. Core family activities such as reading together, playing
card games, gardening, and eating together were also found to be related to increased
feelings of closeness and family cohesion (Christenson et al., 2006). Less acculturated
youth spent more time with family and have more respect for parental authority (Love &
Buriel, 2007). This was related to increased family cohesion, better parent-child
relationships and less parent-child conflict, and thus, better adolescent adjustment
overall (Christenson et al., 2006; Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao, 2009).
Minimal research exists that discusses acculturation as a factor in parent-child
conflict. However research has shown that the acculturation process does affect family
dynamics in Latino families (Crockett et al., 2007; Dumka et al., 2009), including parent-
child relationships, and adolescent adjustment overall. Families may experience
conflicts due to differences from growing up in the United States versus growing up in
Mexico (Crockett et al., 2007; Schofield et al., 2008). Research has also shown that
acculturation gaps do function as a stressor in families.
Contrastingly, Pasch et al., (2006), found that regardless of an acculturation gap
between parent and child; parents’ level of acculturation affects adolescents’ adjustment
and parent-child conflict is related to adolescent adjustment. Parents and children who
both ranked higher on the acculturation scale were more likely to experience conflict,
22
especially in father-child relationships. A relationship was found between mothers who
were less acculturated and daughters’ receiving higher school grades (Dumka et al.,
2009) and mothers’ higher acculturation levels were related to increased sexual
behaviors in their adolescent children (Pasch et al., 2006). Overall, parents’ higher level
of acculturation was related to problem classroom behavior and problem peer
association with their adolescent children. Further research that will focus on
acculturation’s role in Latino families and adolescents is needed to better understand
the development and well-being of Mexican American adolescents and Mexican
American family dynamics in the United States.
Acculturation Theory. Acculturation theory and its associated concepts are used
to conceptualize the purpose of this research thesis, which is to explore the factors
related to Mexican American adolescents’ mental health. Using acculturation theory
within the context of counseling entails taking into account the clients’ cultures,
interaction of the cultures and effects of the interaction of the cultures on clients’ well-
being. Professional school and mental health counselors need to be aware of the
multiple challenges experienced by Latino students; challenges such as language and
cultural barriers, racism, dropout rates, acculturation and pressure to assimilate.
Exploring the acculturation factor within the adolescent and within the adolescent’s
family will help to delineate many of the adolescent’s issues such as social stresses,
family conflict, school pressures, and more. Working within an acculturation framework
will help the professional counselor better conceptualize their client’s problem, and thus
deliver more effective, holistic services.
23
To summarize, the Mexican American population continues to increase in the
United States. Mexican American adolescents experience more traumatic stress, social
stress, and anxiety related to immigration and acculturation issues than non-Latino
White adolescents which often leads to higher rates of depression and suicidal ideation.
Acculturation issues, including acculturative stress and acculturation gaps may also
function as a stressor in Latino families. Family involvement, positive community
support, positive self-concept, and biculturalism all function as sources of social and
emotional resiliency for Latino youth. Parental emotional support and involvement is
linked to better emotional adjustment in adolescence, while parent-child conflict is linked
to decreased adolescent mental health. Mexican American adolescents, who are
bicultural and stay in touch with their own culture, tend to have a positive Mexican
identity, which in turn helps with adjustment and acculturation. Additionally, less
acculturated youth spend more time with family, have more respect for parental
authority, and engaged in more activities with family. This leads to better parent-child
relationships, and better adolescent adjustment overall.
Future research suggestions include exploring acculturation issues among recent
immigrants, effects of acculturation on families, and multiple dimensions of
acculturation. Researching adolescents’ perceptions of relationships with parents and
family life is also suggested (Caldwell, et al., 2004; Christenson et al., 2006; Pasch et
al., 2006). Minimal research explores the role of acculturation in adolescent
development and well- being, and Mexican American adolescents’ relationships with
their parents. It is unknown how Mexican American adolescents’ acculturation levels
affect their relationships with their parents. The affect of parent-child relationships on
24
adolescent well-being also needs to be further explored among the Mexican American
population. Lastly, how acculturation affects the development and well-being of Mexican
American adolescents needs to be investigated.
25
CHAPTER 3 METHODS
As a child immigrant in the United States, and a history of immigration in my
family; I have experienced many acculturation issues that have affected me and my
family. The development of my cultural identity was very prominent for me, as I was
growing up in a culture very different to my ethnic culture. As my family and I adjusted to
living in the United States, acculturation processes differed for me and my parents,
often causing stress and change in family dynamics. My past experiences and
education have helped me become aware of the similarities between my Indian Asian
culture and the Latino culture, thus allowing me to feel more connected with the Latino
culture.
After reviewing the literature, the researcher poses three research questions. The
first question, “What is the relationship between acculturation and Mexican American
adolescents’ relationships with their parents?” This leads to the following hypothesis:
There will be a statistically significant negative correlation between the participants’
level of acculturation and their relationships with their parents. The second question,
“What is the relationship between Mexican American adolescents’ relationships with
their parents and adolescents’ development and well-being? which would lead to the
following hypothesis: There will be a positive relationship between parent-child
relationships and adolescents’ development and well-being. The third question, “What is
the relationship between acculturation and Mexican American adolescents’
development and well-being? which would lead to the following hypothesis: There is a
negative relationship between acculturation and adolescents’ development and well-
being.
26
Sample
The target population is Mexican American adolescents, females and males aged
12 to 18. The sample of this study consists of Mexican-origin adolescent children aged
12 to 18 years old who have been living in the United States for at least one year. A
total of 415 adolescents reported being Mexican or Mexican American on the Add
Health surveys. Among the 415 adolescents, a total of 151 participants were selected
for the research study based on their accurate responses.
Add Health Survey
The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) (Harris & Udry,
2008) will be utilized to aid in the collection of data. Add Health is a longitudinal study of
a nationally representative sample of adolescents in grades 7-12 in the United States.
Data from a total of 132 middle and high schools representative of schools in the United
States with respect to region of country, urbanicity, size, type, and ethnicity was
collected during the 1994-95 school year. Add Health combines longitudinal survey data
on respondents’ social, economic, psychological and physical well-being with contextual
data on the family, neighborhood, community, school, friendships, peer groups, and
romantic relationships. Data sources include school questionnaires and adolescent and
parent in-home interviews. The adolescent and parent in-home interviews covered
topics such as peer networks, decision-making processes, family composition and
dynamics, substance abuse, criminal activities, marriages, marriage-like relationships,
involvement in volunteer, civic, and school activities, parent-adolescent communication
and interaction, and health status. These issues closely address the constructs of
interest that are adolescent well-being, familial relationships, and acculturation. The
following instruments were used as references in developing Add Health’s theoretical
27
framework and construction of the survey items; (a) Center for Epidemiologic Studies
Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977), (b) Cornell Parent Behavior Description
(Ellis, Thomas, & Rollins, 1976), (c) Parent Behavior Inventory (Schaeffer, 1965), and
(d) Parent-Child Interaction Scale (Heilbrun, 1964).
Development and well-being. Adolescent well-being is contextualized as
depressive tendencies such as unhealthy behaviors, excessive stress, and distraught
emotional states. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D)
(Radloff, 1977) addresses adolescent well-being. The CES-D scale was tested on an
adolescent population, including Latino youth (Phillips et al., 2006).
Parent-child relationships. Parent-child relationships are measure by emotional
support, communication and conflict among parents and children, and parental
involvement. These items are addressed by the Cornell Parent Behavior Description
(Ellis, Thomas, & Rollins, 1976), Parent Behavior Inventory (Schaeffer, 1965), and
Parent-Child Interaction Scale (Heilbrun, 1964). The Cornell Parent Behavior
Description have implemented slightly different versions of the scale to be used with
cross-cultural populations (Growe, 1980). The Parent Behavior Inventory has been used
with Latino, including Mexican American population in a study that investigated
socialization, family and mental health outcomes among children and adolescents
(Knight & Others, 1994). The Parent-Child Interaction Scale has been analyzed and
tested for internal-consistency reliability, and construct validity with the use of two data
samples: (a) a purposive representative sample from Washington State University in
1970, and (b) Brigham Young University in 1973. The literature fails to mention
demographic data representing race or ethnicity (Ellis, Thomas, & Rollins, 1976).
28
Acculturation. Acculturation is measured by relationships with same- ethnic
peers, language, and family leisure involvement. Surprisingly, Add Health (Harris &
Udry, 2008) did not include an instrument to address acculturation among adolescents.
The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II (ARSMA-II) (Cuellar, Arnold, &
Maldonado, 1995) evaluates acculturation processes through a multidimensional
approach. It would have been helpful to Add Health (Harris & Udry, 2008) as it assesses
cultural orientation towards the Anglo culture and Mexican culture independently
(Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995). Due to no representation of an instrument for
acculturation, items in the Add Health questionnaires that were similar to the ARSMA-II
were selected to represent acculturation. However, the questions from Add Health
mostly responded to demographic information and identified with only a limited section
of ARSMA-II. Therefore, the construct of acculturation could not be used as a factor in
the data analyses.
Alternative Methods
Multiple options were explored to conduct this research study before finalizing on
the utilization of Add Health’s (Harris & Udry, 2008) data. The local population in
Gainesville, Florida did not have a sufficient representation of Mexican American
adolescents to effectively carry out the research. The Alachua county school system
has demographic data on their students, however it would have been extremely labor
intensive to obtain parent permission. Parents may have issues of trust, especially for
undocumented students. Another option was to develop online surveys to administer to
adolescents. Established instruments to measure adolescent well-being, parent-child
relationships, and acculturation were found, however many barriers still existed.
Individuals must be 16 years of age or older to complete online surveys, not every
29
household may own a computer with internet access, and acquiring email addresses
would have been labor intensive. Add Health (Harris & Udry, 2008), on the other hand
has compiled comprehensive data including demographic information for a nationally
representative group of adolescents.
Procedures
The following protocols were used to complete the research thesis:
1. Three members of the research team independently selected items from the Add Health surveys for each of the constructs (adolescents’ development and well- being, parent-child relationships, and acculturation) reflective of the established instruments and the conceptualized definitions of the constructs as stated above. Then, the principal investigator selected survey items where consensus has been reached for 2 out of 3 researchers’ selections to ensure content validity for construct items.
2. The Adolescent In School questionnaire was utilized to gather demographic information to identify Mexican American adolescents who: (a) culturally self-identify as Latino, Latino American, Hispanic American, or Hispanic, and (b) ethnically self-identify as Chicano, Mexican, or Mexican American.
3. Data from 151 participants who met the above criteria was then collected and organized into SPSS.
4. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to determine which items loaded with the constructs (adolescents’ development and well-being and parent-child relationships).
5. Reliability for each construct was measured using Cronbach alpha set at p- values less than .01.
6. Next, Pearson product-moment correlation tests were conducted to determine correlations between the two constructs (adolescents’ development and well-being and parent-child relationships). The researcher looked for p-values less than 0.01.
7. After thorough data analysis, the results allowed the researcher to reject or fail to reject the hypotheses and then discuss implications for counselors’ practice and future research.
30
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS
To confirm that the questions were appropriate to use for this research study, the
researcher conducted three procedures: (a) content validity, (b) factor analysis, and (c)
reliability. Tables 4-1,4-2, and 4-3 show the questions utilized for this research study
after achieving content validity.
Table 4-1. Parent-child relationship questions
Question
1 How much do you think she cares about you? 2 How much do you think he cares about you? 3 How close do you feel to your mother/etc? 4 How close do you feel to your father/etc? 5 Most of the time, your mother is warm and loving toward you. 6 When you do something wrong that is important, your mother talks about it with 7 You are satisfied with the way your mother and you communicate with each other. 8 Overall, you are satisfied with your relationship with your mother. 9 Most of the time, your father is warm and loving toward you. 10 You are satisfied with the way your father and you communicate with each other. 11 Overall, you are satisfied with your relationship with your father.
Table 4-2. Adolescents’ development and well-being
Question
1 I feel close to people at this school. 2 I feel like I am part of this school. 3 I have a lot of good qualities. 4 I am happy to be at this school. 5 I have a lot to be proud of. 6 The teachers at this school treat students fairly. 7 I like myself just the way I am. 8 I feel like I am doing everything just right. 9 I feel socially accepted. 10 I feel loved and wanted. 11 I feel safe in my neighborhood. 12 I feel safe in my school. 13 You have a lot of energy 14 When you do get sick, you get better quickly. 15 You are well coordinated. 16 You are physically fit. 17 You have a lot to be proud of.
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Table 4-3. Acculturation
Question
1 Are you of Hispanic origin? 2 What is your background? 3 Were you born in the United States? 4 Are you of Hispanic or Latino origin? (parent question) 5 Is your current spouse/partner of Hispanic or Latino origin? (parent question)
Next, factor analysis was completed to see how the items are categorized.
Acculturation questions were ruled out because those five questions are categorical
variables which asked only demographic information. The results of factor analysis
consisting of questions from parent-child relationships and adolescents’ development
and well-being yielded seven components. The seven components were organized into
two groups based on the results of analysis and the contents of questions.
Factor analysis was then completed by each group, indicating one factor for each
group. Factor analysis completed for the first group identified as parent- child
relationship yielded three components. The researcher merged those items into one
component because the patterns of the numbers reflected one factor, and the contents
of the questions were fit for the construct. Factor analysis completed for the second
group identified as adolescents’ development and well-being yielded four components.
The researcher merged those items into one component because the patterns of the
numbers reflected one factor, and the contents of the questions were fit for the
construct. Then reliability was evaluated for each construct (parent-child relationships
and adolescents’ development and well-being). The Cronbach’s Alpha value for the
parent-child relationship was .895, which means those 11 questions have a high level of
reliability in measuring the construct. Adolescents’ development and well-being had a
32
Cronbach alpha value of .880, signifying that those 17 questions have a high level of
reliability in measuring the construct.
Table 4-4. Participants’ demographic information (sex and age)
Table 4-5. Participants’ demographic information (sex and background)
Table 4-6. Participants’ demographic information (background and age)
Table 4-7. Case processing summary from the questions of parent-child relationship
N %
Cases Valid 127 84.2
Excluded 24 15.8
Total 151 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.
Age Total
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sex Male 11 9 13 13 17 9 4 76
Female 4 11 17 22 11 7 3 75
Total 15 20 30 35 28 16 7 151
Background Total
Mexican/ Mexican
American
Chicano/Chicana
Sex Male 67 9 76
Female 64 11 75
Total 131 20 151
Age Total
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Background
Mexican/
Mexican
American
12 19 28 26 26 14 6 131
Chicano/
Chicana
3 1 2 9 2 2 1 20
Total 15 20 30 35 28 16 7 151
33
Table 4-8. Reliability statics from the questions of parent-child relationship
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.895 11
Table 4-9. Case processing summary from the questions of adolescents’ development
and well-being
N %
Cases Valid 119 78.9
Excludeda 32 21.1
Total 151 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure Table 4-10. Reliability statics from the questions of Adolescents’ development and
wellbeing
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.880 17
The three procedures: (a) content validity, (b) factor analysis, and (c) reliability
tests showed that the constructs applied for this research study are appropriate. Lastly,
the researcher measured the correlation between parent-child relationships and
adolescents’ development and well-being to test the hypothesis. Results showed that
the Pearson correlation value was .436 at the P-value less than .01 two tailed level.
Therefore, there is obvious positive correlation between parent-child relationships and
adolescents’ development and well-being.
Overall, the results showed that the questions items for each construct (parent-
child relationships and adolescents’ development and well-being) were appropriate for
one factor with a high level of reliability. Finally, the Pearson correlation value resulted
in .436 indicating a strong, positive correlation between parent- child relationships and
adolescents’ development and well-being among Mexican American adolescents.
34
Table 4-11. Correlation between parent-child relationship and adolescents’ development and well-being
RELATIONSHIP WELLBEING
RELATIONSHIP Pearson Correlation 1 .436**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 128 104
WELLBEING Pearson Correlation .436** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 104 120
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
35
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION
The first research question states: What is the relationship between acculturation,
and Mexican American adolescents’ relationships with their parents? The researcher
hypothesized that there will be a statistically significant negative correlation between the
participants’ level of acculturation and their relationships with their parents. This
hypothesis was not tested due to a lack of representation of acculturation, therefore the
researcher could not evaluate this hypothesis.
The second research question states: What is the relationship between Mexican
American adolescents’ relationships with their parents and adolescent development and
well-being? The researcher hypothesized that there will be a statistically significant
positive relationship between parent-child relationships and adolescent development
and well-being. This hypothesis was tested using the Pearson product-moment
correlation between parent- child relationships and adolescent development and well-
being. The researcher failed to reject the hypothesis, as the results showed that there is
a statistically significant positive correlation between parent-child relationships and
adolescent development and well-being.
The third research question states: What is the relationship between acculturation
and Mexican American adolescents’ well-being? The researcher hypothesized that that
there is a statistically significant negative relationship between acculturation and
adolescent development and well-being. This hypothesis was not tested due to a lack of
representation of acculturation, therefore the researcher could not evaluate this
hypothesis.
36
Importance of Results
The results are important because they illustrate how parent-child relationships
and Mexican American adolescent development and well-being are correlated. The
results support the current literature that also states positive relationships exist between
familial relationships and adolescent adjustment (Caldwell, et al., 2004; Crockett,
Brown, Russell, & Shen, 2007; Dumka, Gonzales, Bonds, & Millsap, 2009). Stronger
parent-child relationships in terms of caring, closeness, and communication are
positively correlated with adolescents’ self-esteem, physical health, feelings of safety,
and school life. This implies that parent-child relationships are important in the
development and mental health of Mexican American adolescents.
This research also highlights the lack of research on cultural and acculturation
issues which is also supported by current literature (Caldwell, et al., 2004; Christenson
et al., 2006; Pasch et al., 2006). There is a lack of focus on culture as a factor of interest
while conducting research.
The results of this study can be generalized to other populations and
developmental stages. Other Latino groups such as Puerto Rican American
adolescents can benefit from this research as familismo is also an important concept in
their culture (Villalba, 2007). Different cultural groups that identify with the collectivist
orientation such as African American adolescents can also benefit from this research
since family support and interdependence is also valued (Chung et al., 2009). The
results of this study can also to apply to different developmental ages of individuals
such as primary school or college age students.
37
Recommendations for Counselors and Counselor Educators
When working with Mexican American adolescent populations, counselors need to
be more aware of the contexuality of their clients’ issues. Counselors are encouraged to
be more intentional in discussing and including parent- child relationship issues in their
counseling sessions.
Professional counselors can reach out to this marginalized population by opening
communication with parents and families as well as adolescents. Counselors should
become aware of the issues in the community by building relationships with key
stakeholders in schools, communities, and families. By establishing rapport with
community members, counselors can increase their comfort level with this client
population, and become a resource to the community.
Counselors are encouraged to become agents of change for Mexican American
adolescents and their families. Counselors can spread knowledge and awareness about
the mental health issues Mexican American adolescents may experience by: (a)
facilitating workshops or education sessions for parents, teachers, administrators, and
students and (b) implementing one-on-one sessions to consult, ask and answer
questions, and discuss related issues. These activities can ensure that counselors are
serving as advocates for their Mexican American adolescent clients by working with the
individual, family, and community.
Counselor educators are in a position to teach counselors in training about the
value of family in Mexican American culture. As research has shown that high caring,
closeness, and communication among parent and adolescents is positively correlated
with high self- esteem, feeling of safety, and school life among Mexican American
adolescents, counselor educators should encourage their students to inquire more
38
about familial relationships with their clients. By encouraging counselors in training to
take familial relationships into consideration when working with Mexican American
adolescents, counselor educators are helping future counselors achieve cultural
sensitivity and cultural competence.
Limitations of Research
A major limitation to this research was the use of a secondary data source. The
survey questions were already formulated, therefore the researcher was limited in the
type of information received from the participants. The Add Health survey questions
were formulated with pre- existing intentions different from the researcher’s intentions.
Secondly, acculturation and cultural factors were not reflected in the survey questions,
despite the multicultural demographic of the participants. Statistically, the number of
participants for the factor analysis procedure was lower than desired. Ideally, factor
analysis procedures need more than 300 participants, only 151 participants were
involved in this study.
Future Research
Future research should entail collecting raw data to assess acculturation and
familial issues in regards to Mexican American adolescent well- being. The ARSMA-II
(Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995) could be used to collect information on
acculturation for both parents and adolescents in areas such as language, attitudes,
and behaviors. By assessing acculturation levels for both parents and adolescents,
researchers will be able to see how acculturation gaps also affect parent- child
relationships and adolescent well-being. This research will provide professional
counselors, and counselor educators richer information about the contexuality of
Mexican American adolescent mental health.
39
In summary, the purpose of this research study was to determine the relationships
between acculturation issues, relationships with their parents, and Mexican American
adolescent well- being. It was hypothesized that: (a) there is a negative relationship
between acculturation and adolescents’ relationships with parents, (b) there is a positive
relationship between relationships with parents and adolescents’ well-being, and (c)
there is a negative relationship between acculturation and adolescents’ well-being.
Acculturation items could not be assessed due to insufficient representation. After
completing various statistical analyses, the constructs of parent- child relationships and
adolescents’ development and well-being were applicable to the study. A positive
correlation was found between parent-child relationships and Mexican American
adolescents’ development and well-being. The results illustrate that parent-child
communication, closeness, and involvement are important to adolescents’ self- esteem,
feelings of safety, and school life. Counselors and counselor educators are
recommended to increase their awareness of the contextuality of their Mexican
American adolescent clients’ mental health issues. Future research entails utilizing
validated acculturation scales to gather information on acculturation issues among the
Mexican American population.
40
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Bindi Shah has a Master of Arts in Education and Education Specialist degree
from the Counselor Education program at the University of Florida. As an aspiring
professional mental health counselor, her areas of concentration include pediatric and
multicultural counseling issues. Bindi’s research endeavors focus on social justice and
multicultural issues among youth and family populations.