bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh ... · PDF fileစပယ္နယ္ေျမမ်ားတြင္ အသံုးျပ ... အားျဖင့္ လူထုုပိုမိုပ

bwf*sufvkyfief;pOfwGif tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aprnfh jyKjyifajymif;vJrIrsm;

- 1 -


ျမနမာႏငငအတြက မေဘာငက ေရးဆြျခငး

ဤစာတမးသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥတြင ျပညသမားႏင အရပဖကလမႈအဖြ႕အစညးဟေခၚေသာ သကဆင

သမား ပမပါဝငမႈက ျမႇငတငရန ကယျပန႔သည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး မဟာဗဟာတစရပ ျဖစေပၚလာေရးအတြက ကး

ေၾကာငးေဖာျပခကက တငျပထားသည။ ေလာေလာဆယတြင ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥသည ျပညေထာငစအဆင

၌ အေရးႀကးဆး ျဖစေနသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငးဟ မားေသာအားျဖင ၫႊနးဆၾကသည

အဆပါ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈသည ျပညေထာငစအဆငေအာက အစးရမားအား ဝငေငြ ပမေကာကခႏငရနႏင အသးစရတ

ပမသးစြခြငရရန အခြငအာဏာ ပမအပႏငးေပးမည ဗဟထနးခပမႈ ေလာခေရးလပငနးစဥကလညး အေထာကအကျပ

ႏငေပသည။ ယခမတဆကစာတမးသည ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးအဆင ႏစမးစလးတြင

ယငးကသ႔ ေျပာငးလမႈမားက လမးၫႊနႏငရန ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈႏင မဝါဒစညးမဥးမားက တငသြငးလာမႈအား ရငးလငး

တငျပထားသည။ ထ႔အျပင လာမည ျပညေထာငစဘတဂကအတြက ကနဦး ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး အခြငအလမးအခ႕က

လညး အႀကျပထားပါသည။ ယခစာတမးမ ေဆြးေႏြးခကမားသည ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ေအာကအဆင ႏစမးစလး

အတြက လာမည ဘတဂကႏစအလြန မဟာဗဟာခမတႏငရန ႏႈငးယဥေလလာရာတြင အသးျပမည ကယျပန႔ေသာ

ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးက လမးၫႊနရာတြငလညး အသးျပမည ျဖစသည။


- 2 -

The Renaissance Institute သည ျမနမာစးပြားေရးျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈက အေထာကအကေပးရန အဓကရညရြယေသာ

ပညာရငအဖြ႕ ျဖစသည။ အဖြ႕သည ျမနမာစးပြားေရး ပမသနစြမးလာေရးက အဓကအာရထားကာ မဝါဒခမတရာတြင

အေထာကအကျပေစရန ဆနးစစေလ႔လာမႈမားေပးလကရၿပး အစးရ၏ စြမးရညတညေဆာကေရးလပငနးစဥက ကည

ေဆာငရြကလကရသညအျပင၊ အစးရႏင အျခားသကဆငသမားအၾကား ဆကသြယေဆာငရြကမႈ လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစ

ရနတ႔ကလညး ေဆာငရြကလက ရပါသည။ အထးသျဖင Renaissance Institute သည လကရအစးရ၏ ဦးစားေပး မဝါဒ

မားျဖစေသာ ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရးႏင ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးတ႔က

ပ႔ပးကညလက ရသည။

aus;Zl;wifvTm

ယခစာတမးက ေရးသားေနစဥႏင ျပငဆငေနစဥအတြငး စာတမးက မားစြာအေထာကအကျပသည ထငျမငခကမားေပး

ခေသာ Asia Foundation မ Dr. Matthew Arnold ႏင႔ Bing Bonoan ၊ Duke University မ ပါေမာကၡ Robert Conrad ၊

International Budget Partnership မ Joel Friedman ႏင႔ Vicek Ramkumar ၊ Boise State University မ

ပါေမာကၡ Brain Wampler ၊ International Growth Center မ Sudhanshu Sharma ႏင Ian Porter တ႔အားလးက

ေကးဇးတငရပါသည။ ထ႔အျပင Renaissance Institute မ အထးသျဖင ဤသေတသနအတြက လမးၫႊနမႈေပးခေသာ

ဦးမးျမငႏင ဦးစးဝငးတ႔ကလညး ေကးဇးတငရပါသည။ ကြနေတာတ႔၏ အႀကဥာဏမားအား ပေဖာ၍အေခာကငရာတြင

အားလး၏ ပါဝငကညမႈသည အလြနတနဘးရၿပး စာတမးတြင အမားအယြငးပါရလာပါက ကြနေတာတ႔၏ တာဝနသာ

ျဖစသည။


- 3 -

ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥက ပမခငမာေစရန အားလးပါဝငမႈရေသာ နညးစနစက အသးျပျခငးသည ဒမကေရစ ေဖာေဆာင

ျခငးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကျခငးတ႔၏ ဆမတတြင ရေသာ မဝါဒျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး နညးလမးတစခ ျဖစသည။ မနကနတကစြာ

ဖြ႕စညးတညေဆာကပါက အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈသည အထကေဖာျပပါ အေျပာငးအလလပငနးစဥ

ႏစခစလးက လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစႏငသည။ အစးရအလစမားသာ အစဥအလာသဖြယ လပေဆာငခေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြ

ျခငးလပငနးစဥတြင ႏငငသားမားႏင အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးတ႔ တကကြစြာ ပါဝငလပေဆာငျခငးအားျဖင ျပျပငေျပာငး

လမႈက ေအာငျမငေစႏငသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင အပခပမႈအဆငတငးတြင အစးရ၏ ဆးျဖတခကမားက ပေဖာမည အခြင

အလမးက လထထ ေပးအပရမည။ ယငးကသ႔ ႏငငသားမားထ အခြငအာဏာအပႏငးမႈသည အစးရအေပၚ ယၾကညမႈတး

ေစျခငး၊ အရပဖကအသငးအဝငးက အားေကာငးေစျခငးႏင ျပညသမားမ တငးေရးျပညေရးတြင တကၾကြစြာ ပါ0ငေဆာင

ရြကသည အေလအထက ျပနလညႏႈးၾကားလာေစျခငးတ႔က ျဖစေပၚေစႏငၿပး ၎အခကအားလးသည ဒမကေရစ ေဖာ

ေဆာငေရးတြင မရမျဖစဟ ႏငငေရးအယအဆပညာရငမားက ဆေလသည။ အဆပါ လပငနးစဥမားသည ႏငငေရး

ေျပာငးလမႈက အားေပးရသာမကပ ဖြ႕ၿဖးမႈကပါ လႊမးမးျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနး

စဥသည တာဝနယမႈ စနစသစမားျဖင အစးရအငစတကးရငးမားက အားေကာငးေစရန၊ လကရဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ ဗဟ

ခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရးလပငနးစဥက လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစရန၊ အမနတကယ လအပေနေသာ စမကနးမားသ႔ အစးရ ရနပ

ေငြမား တကရကေရာကရေအာင စြမးေဆာငႏငေပသည။ ေရရညတညတၿပး အားလးအတြက သာတညမ အခြငအေရး

ရရေစေသာ စးပြားေရး ဖြ႕ၿဖးမႈက အားေပးျမႇငတငရန အဆပါ အငစတကးရငးဆငရာ ေျပာငးလမႈမား မရမျဖစ လအပ

သညဟ ႏငငေရး ေဘာဂေဗဒပညာ ရငမားက ယၾကညသည။

အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥသည အရာရာေျပလညသြားေစမည ေဆးတစခြက မဟတပါ။

၎သည ႏငငေရးႏင စးပြားေရး စဥဆကမျပတ ေျပာငးလမႈက ျဖစေပၚလာေစသည အျပသေဘာ တန႔ျပနမႈမား အဆင

ဆငျဖစေပၚေျပာငးလေစသည လပငနးစဥက လကေတြ႕ေဖာေဆာငေပးႏငမည ကယျပန႔ေသာ မဝါဒအစအေဝးမားထမ

1 See, for example, Fukuyama, Trust, 1995 and Putnam, Making Democracy Work, 1993. ႏစမးစလးသည ေအာငျမငေသာ လမႈ-

ႏငငေရးႏင႔ စးပြားေရးလပေဆာငမႈမားအတြက ယၾကညမႈႏင႔ လ႔ယဥေကးမႈကသ႔ေသာ မရမျဖစ လအဖြ႕အစညးဆငရာ လကၡဏာမားအတြက ျငငး

ခကထတမႈမား ထြကေပၚေစသည။ 2 See, for example, North, Structure and Change in Economic History, 1981 and Kuran, The Long Divergence, 2010. ႏစမးစလးသည

စးပြားေရးဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈက ထနးထားႏငသည ႏငငေရးႏင႔ စးပြားေရးအငစတကးရငးမား၏ အမးမးေသာ သြငျပငလကၡဏာမားအတြက ျငငးခက

ထတမႈမား ျဖစေပၚေစသည။ 3 Jason Lakin and Mokeira Nyagaka., “Deliberating Budgets: How Public Deliberation Can Move Us Beyond The Public

Participation Rhetoric.” 2016, 1.


- 4 -

အစတအပငးငယတစခသာ ျဖစသည။ ေဖာျပပါ အျပသေဘာေဆာငသည အကးသကေရာကမႈမား ရေစကာမ အားလး

ပါဝငမႈရေစသည လပငနးစဥမားသည လတစစ၏ အကးအတြက ထနးခပမႈ ခရျခငး သ႔မဟတ အငစတကးရငးဆငရာ

ဖြ႕ၿဖးမႈ အလးစရပတန႔ေနမႈအတြက အေပၚယဟနျပမဝါဒ ေျပာငးလမႈ ျဖစလာႏငသညက သတျပရေပမည။ ေအာငျမငမႈ

ရရရနအတြက အေျခအေနအားလးႏင သငေတာေသာ တစခတညးေသာ နညးလမးဆၿပး မရပါ။ ယငးအစား ရငးလငးေသာ

စနစမားႏင တညဆအငစတကးရငးမား၏ စြမးေဆာငရညႏင ကကညမႈရၿပး ျမနမာႏငင၏ အေျခအေနမားက ေသခာ

စဥးစားထားသည စမခကမားသည အားလးပါ0ငမႈရေစသည ဘတဂက လပငနးစဥ ေအာငျမငမႈရရေရး အတြက

အလြနအေရးႀကးပါသည။

အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈအတြက အခြငအလမးႏင စနေခၚမႈ ႏစမးစလးရေနသညအခနတြင Renaissance

Institute သည ျမနမာႏငငႏင ကကညေသာ ပစရရေရးအတြက ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားက အားေပးရန ယခ မတဆကစာတမးက

ထတေဝချခငး ျဖစပါသည။ ျမနမာႏငင၏ ကယျပန႔ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအစအစဥက လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစၿပး အားလး

ပါဝငမႈရေစသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးကလညး ျဖစေစမည ပစျဖစသည။ ဤပထမစာတမးသည “အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစ

သည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ” ဆတာ ဘာလ။ ဘယလ အခြငအလမးေတြ ေပးသလ။ ဘယလစနေခၚမႈေတြ ရမလ” စသည

တ႔က နားလညသေဘာေပါကႏငရန အေျခခမားက ချပထားသည။ ထ႔ေနာကတြင ျမနမာႏငငအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြင

ရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး မဟာဗဟာေရးဆြရာမာ အေထာကအကျဖစေစမည လမးၫႊနမမားက အဆျပသြားမည

ျဖစသည။ ထ႔အျပင လာမည ဘတဂကအတြက ခကျခငးစဥးစားထညသြငးႏငမည ရးရငးေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး

အတြက ေရြးခယစရာနညးလမးမားက ထမမားႏငအည အႀကျပသြားဦးမည ျဖစသည။ ဆကလကတငျပေဆြးေႏြးမည

စာတမးတြင ျမနမာႏငငအတြက ပမ၍ ျပညစစြာ ပါဝငသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး မဟာဗဟာက ေလလာတငျပမည ျဖစပါ

သည။ အထးသျဖင ဆကလကေဆြးေႏြးတငျပမည စာတမးတြင ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင တငးေဒသႀကးႏင ျပညနယ

အဆင စမအပခပမႈ ႏစမးစလးအတြက ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး နညးလမးအမးမးက ေလလာရနအတြက အျခားတငးျပည

မားမ သငခနးစာမားႏင ယခစာတမးပါ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး လမးၫႊနစညးမဥးမားက အသးျပေဆြးေႏြးသြားမည ျဖစပါသည။

အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥအတြက အထကမ ေအာကသ႔ သြားေသာ ျပညေထာငစအဆင၏ ျပျပင

ေျပာငးလမႈႏင ေအာကေျခမ အထကသ႔ သြားေသာ ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးမားအဆင၏ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ နညးလမး

မားသည အလယတြင လာဆႏငေသာေၾကာင ဒမကေရစနညးလမးကေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးေဖာေဆာငေရးအတြက ကယျပန႔ေသာ

မဟာဗဟာမား ခမတရာတြင အေထာကအကျဖစေစျခငး၊ အစးရအေပၚ ယၾကညမႈ တးေစျခငး၊ ျပညသ႔က႑တြင ပမ

တာဝနယမႈက ျမႇငတငျခငးတ႔က ျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည အရာ

အားလးက မၿပးေျမာကေစႏငေသာလညး ရငးလငးေသာ စညးမဥးမားျဖင မနကနစြာ ေရးဆြခပါက ဒမကေရစ ေဖာေဆာင

ေရး၊ ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရး၊ ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကေရး စေသာ ကယျပန႔သည ရညမနးခကမားအတြက အတငးအတာတစခ

ထ အလြနအေရးႀကးေသာ ေျခလမးတစခ ျဖစလာႏငသည။

tm;vkH;yg0ifcGifh&aponfh bwf*sufvkyfief;pOf qkdwm bmvJ

အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥဆ သညမာ “အမားပငရငးျမစမားက ခြေဝျခငးႏင ပတသက၍ ႏငငသား

မားက ပါဝင၍ ညႇႏႈငးေဆာငရြကၿပး ဆးျဖတခကခမတသည လပငနးစဥ” ဟ ကမာၻ႔ဘဏက အဓပၸါယဖြငဆသည။ ဤ

လပငနးစဥသည အစးရ၏ ဝငေငြရာေဖြျခငးႏင အသးစရတ ႏစမးစလး အတြက ဆးျဖတခကမား ပါဝငေသာ ႏစစဥ

4 Brian Wampler, Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series, 2007, 21.


- 5 -

ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရး လပငနးစဥႏင အဆေလာဆး

ျဖစသည။ ျမနမာႏငငသည တငပငႏးေႏာ၍ မဝါဒခ

မတသည အေတြ႕အႀကမရသေလာက နညးပါးေသာ

ေၾကာင အစးရ၏ ေရြးခယမႈမားအေပၚ နငငသား

မား ပါဝငညႇႏႈငးေဆာငရြကရန လမးေၾကာငးသစမား

ျဖညဆညးေပးမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရး လပငနးစဥ

တြင သကဆငသမား ပမပါဝငရန နညးလမးမားစြာ

ရေပသည။ ထ႔အျပင ျမနမာႏငငတြင လကရလပ

ေဆာငေနေသာ ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရး လပငနး

စဥမားေၾကာင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည လပငနးစဥ

မားသည အစးရ၏ အဆငအမးမးတြင ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာႏင

သည။

အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ ဟ

ဆလင အမားအားျဖင႔ ဘရာဇးႏငင Porto Alegre

တြင ပထမဆး ကငသးခေသာ ပစႏင ဆကစပၿပး

နားလညေလရသည။ ယခအခါ ကမာၻတစလႊား ျမန

စပယနယေျမမားတြင အသးျပေနေသာ ၎လပငနး

စဥတြင ဘ႑ာေငြသးစြေသာ စမကနးမား၊ အထးသ

ျဖင အမားျပညသအတြက တညေဆာကေရးလပငနး

မားတြင သးစြမႈမားအတြက ႏငငသားမားက အၾက

ဥာဏေပးျခငးႏင တကရကမေပးျခငးတ႔က ျပလပႏင

ၾကသည။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင လကရအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏

စြမးေဆာငရညေပၚ မတည၍ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး

ရညမနးခကမားက ေကာငးစြာ လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေစ

ႏငသည အျခားေရြးခယစရာ နညးလမးမားစြာရေပ

သည။ ကနဦးပငးအဆငမားမာမ အစးရက ဘတဂက

ဆငရာ အခကအလကမားက လထသ႔ ပမထတ

ျပနေပးျခငး၊ ႏငငသားမား ပါဝငလႈပရားရန တကတက

ကြကြအားေပးျခငး စသညျဖင ရးရငးလြယကမႈ ရ

သည။

သ႔ေသာ ရႈပေထြးသည ေျပာငးလမႈ မနသမ ေဆာင

ရြကဖ႔ရန အေျခခေကာငးမား လအပသည။ ဥပမာ

အားျဖင လထပမပါဝငႏငေရးက လထအေနႏင

ျမနမာႏငင၏ လကရ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥက တနဖးျဖတျခငး

ပြငလငးဘတဂကစစတမး ေပးမတ

ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ

၂/၁00

လထပါဝငမႈ

၆/၁00

လႊတေတာ၏ ႀကးၾကပမႈ

၂၇/၁00

စာရငးစစႀကးၾကပမႈ

၂၅/၁00

Renaissance Institute ၏ မတခကမား

ယခငက ျမနမာႏငငသည ဘတဂက

လပငနးစဥ၏ လကၡဏာမနသမႏင

ပတသကသည အခကအလကမားက

ရဖနရခါသာ အသေပးချပတတသည။

အစးရအေနႏင ဘ႑ာေရးစမခန႔ခြမႈ

မဟာဗဟာမားက အစးရမဟတေသာ

သကဆငသမားအား ရငးျပရန အဖြ႕အစညး

ဆငရာ လပငနးစဥ အနညးငယသာရသည။

ဘတဂကေရးဆြသည လပငနးစဥတြင

လထပါဝငရန အခြငအလမးမရသေလာကပင

ျဖစသည။ လထပါဝငမႈက အားမေပးေသာ

ကာလရညၾကာစြာ ရေနသည ဓေလေၾကာင

ျဖစသည။ ၂ဝ၁၅ UNDP စစတမးအရ

ျပညသသးပတစပ နးပါးက အစးရႏင

ပတသကသည ထငျမငခကက ေျပာရာတြင

သတထားရသညဟ ေျပာၾကားခၾကၿပး

ျပညသေလးပတစပက ၎တ႔၏ အျမငက

လသရငၾကားထတေျပာရန လြတလပခြငမရဟ

ယဆေၾကာငး ေျပာၾကားခသည။

ျမနမာႏငငတြင လႊတေတာဆငရာ ျပျပငေျပာငး

လမႈမားက ျပလပေနၿပ ျဖစသည။ လႊတေတာ

မားအတြက ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည အသစ

အဆနးျဖစေသာေၾကာင ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင

ေအာကအဆင လႊတေတာႏစမးစလးအား သင

တနးေပးျခငးသည အေရးႀကးေသာ တာထြက

မတ ျဖစသည။ လႊတေတာမား ဘတဂကက

ေကာငးစြာ ကြမးကငႏ႔စပလာလင လထထမ

ျပနလာေသာ ထငျမငခကမားက ထငဟပေၿပာ

ၾကားလာႏငမည ျဖစသည။

စာရငးစစခပရး၏ စြမးေဆာငရညက တည

ေဆာကေနၿပ ျဖစရာ ၎တ႔၏ အလပတြင လထ

ပါဝငႏငမည ကြျပားေသာ စနစမားလညး ရလာ

မည ျဖစသည။ အျခားႏငငမားစြာသညလညး

တာဝနယမႈႏင ေကာငးမြနေသာ အပခပမႈက

ျမႇငတငရနအတြက အေရးႀကးသည ၎ကစၥ

အတြက မတညေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက

မၾကာေသးမက ေရ႕ေျပးစမးသပခၾကသည။

5 Alta Fölscher, Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series, 183.


- 6 -

အထကအေလာက လလလားလားရမႈႏင ႏငငေရးလပငနးစဥတြင ပါဝငလႈပရားႏငမႈ၏ ထေရာကမႈကလညး လထ

အၾကားယၾကညမႈတ႔ ရရမည။ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမားႏင အစရအဖြ႕အစညးမားအေနႏငလညး ယငးသ႔ ကယကယ

ျပန႔ျပန႔ပါဝငမႈက လလလားလားရရမညအျပင လြြယကေအာင ျပလပေပးႏငရမည။ ထသ႔ လပေဆာငရနအတြက လထ

အေနႏင အေျခခဘတဂကဆငရာ အခကအလကမား ရရႏငမႈ၊ ဘတဂကႀကးၾကပရာတြင ၎တ႔ ေဘးကငးစြာ ပါဝငႏင

မည ဝနးကငအေျခအေန၊ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ၏ အေျခခဗဟသတတ႔က ဦးစြာ လကလမးမရန လအပသည။ ၎တ႔

သည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥမနသမ (ျပညစမႈမရသည တငေအာင) ေအာငျမငႏငရနအတြက

အရငဦးစြာ တညေဆာကထားရမည အေျခခမား ျဖစသည။ တစခနထတြင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည လပငနးစဥမား

သည အစးရအဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးႏင လထယၾကညမႈတ႔က အားျဖညေပးႏငေသာလညး ဗလာနတ

အေျခအေနမးမ စတငေဆာငရြကဖ႔ မျဖစႏငပါ။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအေနႏင ၎တ႔၏

ရညမနးခကမား ေအာငျမငမႈရရနအတြက အေျခခအေဆာကအဦးရၿပးသား ျဖစရမည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ျပျပင

ေျပာငးလမႈမားသည ႏငငေရးႏင စးပြားေရး ေျပာငးလမႈအေပၚ အကးအေၾကာငး အျပနအလနသကေရာကမႈက အရန

ျမႇငေပးႏငေသာလညး ယငးတ႔ သးသန႔ရေနယျဖင႔ ယၾကညမႈႏင အဖြ႕အစညးဆငရာ စြမးေဆာငရညကမ တညေဆာက

မေပးႏငေၾကာငး အတတက အေတြ႕အႀကမားက ၫႊနျပေနသည။ ေအာငျမငမႈရသည အခါတြငမ ေနာကတဆင တကႏင

ရန ျငမးသဖြယ အဆငသစတစခက ထပတးေပးႏငသည။

ပြငလငးဘတဂကစစတမးမ ရလာဒမားက ေဖာျပထားေသာ ဇယားတြင ေတြ႕ရသညအတငး ျမနမာႏငငတြင အေျခခ

အတျမစ သသသာသာအားနညးမႈေၾကာင ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင ပါဝငလာေရးအတြက စနစမား အေကာငထညေဖာ

ရန အခနတစခေပးရမည ျဖစသည။ ခပေသးေသးျဖင စတငကာ အငစတကးရငးမား ပမအားေကာငးလာကာ၊ ယၾကညမႈ

ေၾကာင ပါဝငခြင႔ရရန ပမေတာငးဆလာသညႏင႔အမ တစျဖညးျဖညး ႀကးထြားလာမည ျဖစသည။ အခကအလက မေဝ

ျခငး၊ ပါဝငလႈပရားရန ေဘးကငးေသာ ပတဝနးကငႏင အေျခခဘတဂက ဗဟသတျဖန႔ေဝျခငးကသ႔ေသာ ကနဥး

အေသးစားအဆငမားသည ေနာကပငးတြင ပမရႈပေထြးေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအတြက အေျခခအတျမစက

တညေဆာကေပးႏငေပသည။ တစႀကမတညးျဖင ႀကးႀကးမားမား ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈႀကးတစခက ေဆာငရြကလပကငျခငး

ထက ဘတဂတ ဆးျဖတခကခမတေသာ လပငနးစဥတြင ပါဝငလာမည သကဆငသ အသစမားက မနမနကနကနႏင႔

ရးသားစြာ ခတဆကေပးႏငမည အဓပၸါယျပည0ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ အနညးငယက ေဇာကခေဆာငရြကျခငးသည

ပမ အေရးႀကးပါသည။

ထကသ႔ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥအတြက စနစမားက ခမတရာတြင အားလးပါဝငေစမည နညး

စနစမားက ကညပပးမည လကရအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ အေျခအေနက နားလညသေဘာေပါကဖ႔လညး လသည။ ကယျပန႔

လြနးေသာ၊ သကေရာကမႈႀကးေသာ၊ ျမနဆနလြနးေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားသည ေနာကဆးတြင ဆန႔ကငဖက ရလဒ

က ျဖစေပၚေစႏငသည။ သ႔ျဖစရာ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ၏ လမးၫႊနေျမပသည ပထမဆး

ကင႔သးသည စနစမား စမခန႔ခြရလြယကမႈရေစရန ဂရျပသင႔သည။ သ႔မသာ အရညအေသြးျမငၿပး၊ စစမနေသာ ပါဝငမႈ

ရႏငမည ျဖစသည။

ဥပမာအားျဖင ကငညာႏငင၏ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင အားလးပါဝငလာမႈက ျမႇငတငရနအားထတမႈသည ေလးနက

မႈမရပ ဟနျပသေဘာျဖစေသာေၾကာင ျမနမာႏငငအေနျဖင႔ ေရာငရားရမည နမနာျဖစသည။ ၎တ႔၏ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ

မားသည ဥပေဒတြင ျပဌာနးထားေသာလညး အမနတကယတြင ပမပါဝငလာမႈက ေဖာေဆာငမေပးႏငခ႔ေပ။ ကငညာ

ႏငင၏ ျဖစရပသည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည လပငနးစဥမားက စတငရာ၌ အခကအခမားရေၾကာငး ျပသေနသည။


- 7 -

အားလပါဝငခြငရေစမႈက တြနးအားေပးသည ဥပေဒ မေဘာငႏင ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင ႏငငသားမား၏ အဓပၸါယ

ရေသာ ထညဝငမႈတ႔အၾကား အခတအဆက ျပတေတာကေနသညက ေလလာဆနးစစသညအခါ စစမနသည တငပင

ႏးေနာလပေဆာငေသာ လပငနးစဥမားက ဖနတးဖ႔ရန လအပေၾကာငး ေတြ႕ရရသည။ ဤအခကသည အေရးမႀကး

ေလာကပါဟ၍ ယဆႏငေသာလညး၊ ခမတလကေသာ ဘတဂတ ဆးျဖတခကမားအတြက ေပးေသာ အေၾကာငးျပခက

မားႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အေၾကာငးရငးမား၏ အရညအေသြးႏင ဂရတစစကလပေဆာငမႈ အတငးအတာတ႔က အေရးႀကး

ေၾကာငး ျပသလက ရသည။ ေသးငယၿပး ေျခႏငလကႏင ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားျဖင စတငျခငးသည ဂရတစက ေဆာငရြက

ႏငမႈက ေသခာေစသညအျပင ျမနမာႏငငတြင ရရငးစြ အေျခခအတျမစအားနညးမႈေၾကာင အနာဂါတတြင အားလးပါဝင

ခြင႔ရေစမည ျပညစေသာ စနစမား ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာရနအတြက မနကနေသာ စတငမႈ ျဖစပါလမမည။

tmvkH;yg0ifcGifh&aponfh bwf*sufa&;qGJa&;vkyfief;pOftwGuf rlrsm; - jrefrmEkdifiH\ jyKjyifajymif;vJa&; tpDtpOf

အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥႏင ပတသက၍ ႏငငအမးမးတြင နညးလမးမား လြနစြာ

စလငကြျပားမႈရေသာလညး ေအာငျမငမႈရသည စနစမားက ဖနတးရာတြငမ တစသမတတညး တညေသာ ပစတစခ

ရသည။ ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငးအတြက အလရေသာ ရလဒက ေဖာေဆာငေပးႏငသည႔ စနစမားက ေလလာၿပး သတခ

လကရင ရးရငးေသာ အဆငႏစဆငပါဝငသည ပစကေတြ႔ရပါလမ႔မည -

အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥက စတဝငစားေသာ အစးရမားႏင အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား

သည စနစကေသာ လပငနးစဥ ေလလာမႈႏင အေကာငအထညေဖၚမႈက ေကာငးစြာ ေနရာခထားရမည။ ပထမ

အဆငတြင မညသညမမားက ၎တ႔၏ ဘရညမနးခကမားႏင အကကညဆးျဖစမညက နားလညသေဘာ

ေပါကရန ႀကးစားျခငးႏငအတ မမားက ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈအစအစဥ ပါဝငသည။ ဒတယအဆငတြင

ေဒသဆငရာ စနေခၚမႈမား၊ လအပခကမား၊ ရညမနးခကမားက လကရဥပေဒစညးမဥးမားႏင႔ အဝငမႈရေအာင

လပေဆာငမႈမားပါဝငသည။

ယခေလလာဆနးစစမႈ၏ ကနရေသာ အပငးသည အထကေဖာျပလပငနးစဥ၏ ပထမအဆငက ၿပးစးေအာင ကညလမ႔

မည ျဖစသည။ ဤအတြက ၿမနမာႏငင၏ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥက မညသည အေျခခ

မမားက လမးၫႊနေပးသငသနညးဆသညက စဥးစားရေပမည။ ထ႔အျပင မညမကယျပန႔သည ေျပာငးလမႈမားက ၎

ျဖစစဥအား လြယကေခာေမာေစမညနညးကလညး စဥးစားရမည။ ေနာကလာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးတြင ဦးတညခက

ေျပာငးလကာ ျမနမာႏငင၏ လကရအပခပမႈစနစအတြငး လႊမးမးေနေသာ မမားက တးတကေစႏငမည အငစတကးရငး

ဆငရာ ဖြ႕စညးပမားက ေလလာသြားမည ျဖစသည။

အစးရက မၾကာေသးမက ထတျပနေသာ စးပြားေရးျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး အစအစဥသည ထသ႔ေသာ လမးျပအေျခခမမား

က ေဆြးေႏြးရနအတြက အေထာကအကျပျဖစေပသည။ အစးရအေနၿဖင႔ ႏငငေတာစးပြားေရးမ0ါဒ၏ ပထမ ေဒါကတင

အား အေကာငထညေဖာလကရရာ အားလး ပါဝငခြငရေစေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးလပငနးစဥသည အစးရအတြက

ယငးမဝါဒသေဘာအေလာက လပေဆာငရန ျဖစလာသည ေနာကထပေျခလမးတစခပင ျဖစသည။ ႏငငေတာစးပြားေရး

မဝါဒ၏ ပထမဆးအခကတြင “ပြငလငးျမငသာၿပး ေကာငးမြနေတာငတငးသည ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေရး စမခန႔ခြမႈစနစျဖင႔

6 Lakin and Nyagaka, “Deliberating Budgets,” 17.7 Brian Wampler, “Participatory Budgeting: Core principles and Key Impacts,” Journal of Public Deliberation, 2.


- 8 -

မတဆင ဘ႑ာေရးအရငးအၿမစမား တးတကပြားမားလာေအာင ေဆာငရြကရန” ဆၿပး တကတြနးထားသည။ ျမနမာ

ႏငငတြင ႏငငေရး အသြင ကးေျပာငးမႈ စတငၿပးေနာကပငး အခနတ အတြငး ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးအဆင ျပညသ႔

ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ ခြမႈအတြက စြမးေဆာငရညတညေဆာကျခငးအပါအဝင ၎လပငနးစဥစတငရန အဆငမားက လပ

ေဆာငႏငၿပးသား ျဖစသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည အဆပါစြမးေဆာငရညတညေဆာက

မႈက ထငသာျမငသာသည႔ေျခလမးအျဖစ အသြငေျပာငးရန ကညႏငေပသည။ ထေျခလမးက မၾကာမက အာဏာ ေျဖေလာ

ေပးကာ လပပငခြင႔အာဏာတးေပးခ႔ေသာ အစးရအလႊာအမးမးအား ၎တ႔နယေျမအတြငး ေနထငသမားအေပၚ ပမ

တာဝနယေစလမမည။ ထ႔အျပင ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ေအာကအဆငအစးရမား မညမအေရးပါသညကလညး ေပၚလြင

ေစလမ႔မည။ ယငးသ႔ လပေဆာငရာတြင အစးရႏင ႏငငသားမားအၾကား ပမတရားဝငေသာ၊ စတခရေသာ မၾကာခဏ

ဆကသြယေဆာငရြကမႈက ျဖညဆညးေပးမည အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစသည လမးေၾကာငးမားက ဖနတးျခငးျဖင လပေဆာင

သည။ သ႔ရာတြင ၎မတငမ အစးရ၏ ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေငြ စမခန႔ခြမႈက ပမႀကးၾကပႏငေစမည ပထမဆးအဆငအေနျဖင႔

မရမျဖစ လအပေသာ အစးရ၏ ဘတဂကလပထးလပနညး အေျခခအခကအလကမားက ျဖန႔ ျဖးျခငးအားျဖင အစးရ

ႏင လထအၾကား အခကအလကမကကညမႈက အဆးသတရမည ျဖစသည။ ဤအဆငမားသည တစႏငငလး ျပညသ႔

ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈ အားေကာငးခငမာေရးတြင အဓကအပငးတစချဖစေသာ လကရ ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရးလပငနး

စဥတြင ဆးျဖတခကခမတမႈႏင တာဝနခမႈ ႏစမးစလးအတြက တရားဝငမႈႏင ခငမာမႈတ႔က ေပးႏငသည။

“ အစးရက မၾကာေသးမက ထတျပနေသာ စးပြားေရးျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး အစအစဥသည ထသ႔ေသာ လမးျပအေျခခမမားက ေဆြးေႏြးရနအတြက

အေထာကအကျပျဖစေပသည။ ”

ထ႔အျပင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည လကရစးပြားေရးမဝါဒ၏ ဒတယေဒါကတငက ကည

ျဖညဆညးေပးသည။ မဝါဒမာ “ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးအားလး၏ ဟနခကညေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈအတြက စးပြား

ေရးအခြငအလမးမား ဖနတးေရး” ျဖစသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစသည လပငနးစဥမားသည အသငးအဝငးတြင အေရး

တႀကး အလအပဆးဟ ရႈျမငၾကသည စးပြားေရး အခြငအလမးမားက ဦးစားေပးရနႏင လထႏင ဆငေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးေရး

ရညမနးခကမားက ကညသတမတရနအတြက ႏငငသားမားႏင ၎တ႔၏ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးကယစားလယမားက

လပပငခြငမား ေပးႏငသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင အားလးပါဝငလာေစႏငမႈအတြက ျပညေထာငစအဆငေအာက ဖရမမားသည

ႏငငသားမား၊ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးႏင ၎တ႔၏ ျပညနယႏင တငးေဒသႀကးအစးရမားအၾကား ဆကသြယႏငသည

တရားဝငေနရာမား ျဖစေစႏငသည။

ႏငငသားမားအား ၎တ႔၏ ျပညနယမား၊ တငးေဒသႀကးမားႏင ရပရြာမားအတြငး ၎တ႔ႏငဆငသည ဖြ႕ၿဖးေရး ဦးစား

ေပးကစၥမားက ပေဖာရန အခြငအေရးေပးျခငးသည ဒမကေရစေဖာေဆာငေရးလပငနးစဥက ဆကလက တရားဝငေအာင

လပေဆာငေပးႏငသည။ ၎သည ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကေရး အခြငအလမးမားက ဒမကေရစလပငနးစဥမားမ ထြကေပၚလာ

ေသာ လအပခကမားႏင အဝငေအာင ညႇေပးသည။ အဆးစြနအားျဖင ဤသဟဇာတျဖစမႈသည အစးရအား ယၾကညမႈ

8 ျပညေထာငစသမၼတ ျမနမာႏငငေတာ၊ အမးသားစးပြားေရးမဝါဒ၊ ၂ဝ၁၆ ဇလငလ ၂၉ ရက။9 ၄ငး


- 9 -

တညေဆာကေပးျခငးျဖင တငးျပည၏ အမးသား ျပနလညသငျမတမႈ လြယကေခာေမြ႕ေအာင ေသးငယေသာ အစတ

အပငးမ ပါဝငႏငသည။ အထးသျဖင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥသည သမငးေၾကာငးအရ ေျပာေရး

ဆခြငမရေသာ ခြျခားဆကဆခရေသာ လနညးစမားပါဝငေရးက ဦးတညျခငးေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ ယငးလပေဆာငမႈသည

စဥဆကမျပတ ျပနလညသငျမတမႈ၏ အဓကအစတအပငးျဖစသည တရားဝငလပငနးစဥမားမတဆင အစးရ ဆးျဖတ

ခကမားထသ႔ ရႈေဒါငအျမငမား ပမပါဝငေစသည မရမျဖစ လပငနးစဥမားစြာအနကမ ေသးငယေသာ အဆငတစခ ျဖစ

သည။

အစးရ၏ စးပြားေရး ဦးစားေပးအစအစဥမားတြင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးႏငဆငသည မမား ခမတ

ျခငး သည ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာခေရး၊ ဖြ႔ၿဖးတးတကေရး၊ ဒမကေရစေဖာေဆာငေရး ရညမနးခကမားတြင အဆပါျပျပင

ေျပာငးလမႈမားက မညသ႔ ပါဝငကညႏငမညက ေဖာျပေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။ ထ႔အျပင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငး

လမႈမားက အသးျပ၍ အစးရ၏ စးပြားေရးဥးစားေပးမားက အေကာငအထညေဖာမႈအေပၚ အမားျပညသထမ ျပနလာေသာ

ထငျမငခကမားသည ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈက ဒမကေရစ နညးကေစရန ကညေပးၿပး လကရလပေဆာငေနေသာ ဗဟခပ

ကငမႈ ေလာခေရးလပငနးစဥက ဆကလက၍ တရားဝငေစျခငးအားျဖင ပမႀကးမားေသာ အပငးက အေထာကအကျပမည

ျဖစသည။

zdvpfykdif - tajccHrlrsm;ukd r[mAsL[mwpfckjzpfvmatmif tokH;csjcif;

အျငငးပြားဖြယရေသာ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမား၏ အျပညစဆးဟဆရမည ပစ

သည ဖလစပငတြင ၂0၁0 မ ၂0၁၆ အထ သမၼတ အကြႏလကထကတြင ျဖစေပၚခသည။ ၎၏ အစးရသည အဂတလကစားမႈ

မားက ေလာခရနအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည႔ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက အသးျပရန ဦးစားေပးချခငး ျဖစသည။ ဤျပျပင

ေျပာငးလမႈသည ၎၏ ေရြးေကာကပြ မဆြယသည အစအစဥႏင အာဏာရသညအခန ျပျပငေျပာငးလသည အစအစဥ ႏစမး

စလးအတြက အဓကအေျချပရာျဖစၿပး အကြႏသည အဂတလကစားမႈ ရပတန႔ေရးႏင ဆငးရမြေတမႈ တကဖကေရးက ခတဆက

ထားကာ အဂတလကစားမႈက စစစရနႏင ကန႔သတရန နညးလမးအျဖစ အသးျပခသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည စနစ

မားက ရငးလငးေသာ အေရးႀကးသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမအနညးငယႏင ခတဆကျခငးသည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည

ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥအတြက ခငမာ၍ ေအာငျမငေသာ မဟာဗဟာတစရပ ဖြ႕စညးရန အေအာငျမငဆးနညးလမးျဖစေၾကာငး

ဖလစပငတ႔က သကေသျပခသည။

အခနတအတြငး တထြငဆနးသစေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားစြာက စတငလပေဆာငရာတြင ဖလစပငသည ျမနမာတ႔အတြက

အေရးႀကးသည ေလလာစရာနမနာတစခ ျဖစသည။ ဖလစပငသည ဘတဂကဆငရာ ပြငလငးျမငသာမႈ၊ အားလးပါဝငႏငမႈ၊ ႀကး

ၾကပမႈတ႔တြင ေဒသတြငး၌ အားအေကာငးဆး ဖြ႕ၿဖးဆႏငငျဖစသညဟ ၂0၁၅ တြင International Budget Partnership က အဆင

သတမတခသည။ ဖလစပငတ႔သည ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ေအာကအဆင ႏစမးစလးတြင ခငမာေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးညလမႈ

မားက စနစတက ဖြ႕စညးလပေဆာငခၾကသည။ ထသ႔ ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ေအာကအဆငတ႔ အဝငေအာင ၫႇႏႈငးမႈသည

ျမနမာႏငငအတြက နမနာေလလာရန လအပသည ေနာကထပအေၾကာငးရငးတစခ ျဖစသည။ တစခနထတြင ၂0၁၆ ဇြနလက

အာဏာရလာေသာ ဖလစပငအစးရသစသည ေရ႕မ အစးရအဆကဆက၏ အားထတမႈမားရခ႔ေသာလညး အစးရ၏ ပြငလငး

ျမငသာေရးႏင တာဝနယမႈရေရးတ႔တြင ျမနဆနစြာ ရလဒထြကေပၚမႈအား အႏရာယေပးလာခသည။ သ႔ျဖစရာ ထေရာကေသာ

ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈအစအစဥတြင ေအာငျမငမႈ ရရေရးအတြက လအပေသာ အေျခအေနတစခအေနျဖင႔ အားေကာငးၿပး တသမတ

တညးရမည ႏငငေရး သဓဌာနႏင႔ စနစကေသာ ေရရည အငစတကးတညေဆာကမႈလပငနးမား လအပသည။

ျမနမာႏငငသည ဖလစပငက ပတကးမညအစား ႏစႏငငအၾကား ကြျပားျခားနားမႈမား၊ အထးသျဖင အဖြ႕အစညးဆငရာ စြမးေဆာင


- 10 -

10 ျပညေထာငစအဆငေအာက အစးရမား၏ လကရတးတကမႈမား၊ ၎တ႔၏ တးတကေနဆ အဖြ႕အစညးစြမးရညတ႔ရၿပး ျဖစရာ ၎တ႔မာ ျပညေထာင

စအဆင ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးက ေမာငးႏငမည အဆျပမႈႏစခ ျဖစသည။ ရးရငးေသာ ေျခလမးမားကပငလင ဆးျဖတခကခသည လပငနးစဥမားတြင

ျပညသထမ ျပနလာေသာ အသမားက ထညသြငးရန အစးရ၏ အေလးအနကဆႏၵျပငးပမႈက ခကျခငးျပသႏငသည။

a&SUvmrnfh bwf*suftwGuf ueOD; jyKjyifajymif;vJrI vkyf&ef a½G;cs,fp&mrsm;

ေနာကထပလာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးတြင ေရတ၊ ေရလတႏင႔ ေရရညျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက ေရြးခယစရာမားက

ကယျပန႔စြာ ခြျခမးသးသပထားမႈမား၊ ျမနမာႏငငအတြက လမးၫႊနမမားက အသြငေျပာငးေပးရန မေဘာင၊ အျခားႏငင

မားမ သငခနးစာယ၍ ေရးဆြထားေသာ ေၾကာငးကးဆေလာသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး မဟာဗဟာတ႔က ထညသြငး

ေဆြးေႏြးထားမညဆေသာလညး ေရ႕လာမည ဘတဂကအတြက ခကျခငးစဥးစားသငသည ကနဥးေျပာငးလမႈ ႏစခ ရပါ

သည။

ပထမဆးအေနျဖင႔ အစးရသည ဘတဂကအႀက ထတျပနခက (Pre-budget statement) (PBS) က ပထမဆး ေျခလမး

အျဖစ လပေဆာငသင႔သည။ ႏငငအမားစသည ေရ႕ႏစဘတဂကအေပၚ ကယကယျပန႔ ျပန႔ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား ထြကေပၚ

လာရန အားေပးသညအေနျဖင႔ PBS က ထတျပနရန ေရြးခယေလရသည။ PBS သည ေရ႕ႏစ ဘတဂကအတြက ဥးစား

ေပးမားက ရးရငးၿပး စကားလးအနညးငယသာ အသးျပထားသည လြယကစြာ နားလညေအာင လပထားေသာ တငျပ

ခကတစခ ျဖစသည။ ၎သည ဘတဂကလာထားခကတြင ထညသြငးထားေသာ အဓကကေသာ မဝါဒေျပာငးလမႈမား

က ထငဟပပါသည။ PBS တြင ပငမအသးစရတဥးစားေပးမား၊ ဝငေငြရေအာင လပေဆာငမည မေဘာငမား၊ အစးရ၏

စးပြားေရးခန႔မနးခကမားက ထညသြငးထားရသည။ အဆပါ စးပြားေရးခန႔မနးခကမားတြင အစးရ၏ အလယအလတ

ကာလ စးပြားေရးရညမနးခကမား ပါဝငသငသည။ ထခန႔မနးခကမားသည ပမကယျပန႔ေသာ စးပြားေရးလမးေၾကာငးမား

ႏင႔ ေရရညမဝါရညမနးခကမားႏင႔ ခန႔မနးခကမားက ဘတဂကတြင ေျပာငးလထားမႈမားႏင႔ အဝငေအာင လပေဆာင

ရည၊ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ၏ ရညမနးခကမား၊ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ အငအား အစရေသာ

ကစၥမားက ဦးစြာ စဥးစားသးသပရန လအပသည။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင အသအမတျပသငေသာ၊ ေသခာထညသြငး စဥးစားသငေသာ

ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမား ျဖစေပၚေနေသာလညး ဖလစပငတ႔၏ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ စစဥတက လပေဆာငပနညးလမးမားက ဦးစြာ

ေလလာသငသည။ ယငးသ႔ ေလလာမႈသည ျမနမာႏငငတြင ျဖစေပၚေနေသာ အျခားေျပာငးလမႈမားႏင ကကညမႈရေသာ

(ျပညေထာငစအဆငႏင ေအာကအဆင ႏစမးစလးပါဝငသည) ကယျပန႔သည မဟာဗဟာ၏ အေရးႀကးဆးအပငး ျဖစလမ

မည။ ဤနညးအားျဖင ျမနမာႏငင၏ ရညမနးခကႀကးေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအစအစဥသည လကေတြ႕အမနတကယ ရငသန

လာႏငသည။ ျမနမာႏငငအေနႏင ထညသြငးစဥးစားႏငေသာ အျခားႏငငမားတြင အသးျပခသည (အမားစမာ ေကာငးမြနပ ရ

ေသာ) ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ အေျမာကအမားရသညအေလာက ၎တ႔၏ ျဖစႏငေျခႏင ပတသကသည ဆကလကေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား

က အေျခအေနလက၍ ဂရတစကထညသြငးသငသည။ အဖြ႕အစညးစြမးေဆာငရညႏင ကကညမည ဦးစားေပးကစၥရပမား

သတမတျခငး၊ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက အစအစဥချခငးတ႔သည ျမနမာႏငငအေနႏင ဖလစပငအပါအဝင အျခားႏငငမားႏင

ႏႈငးယဥေလလာရာမ သငယႏငမည အေရးႀကးဆးအရာျဖစသည။ ဤအခကသည ရငးလငးတကေသာ ရညမနးခကမားက

ေအာငျမငရနအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက စစညးထားသည ျပညစေသာ မဟာဗဟာတစရပက

စဥးစားသညအခါ သကဆငသမားက ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားက စတငသငသည ေနရာပငျဖစသည။

Francisco A. Magno, “Public Participation and Fiscal Transparency in the Philippines,” 35. Global Initiative for Fiscal Transparency, May 2015.

International Budget Partnership, “Open Budget Survey 2015.”


- 11 -

ရန ျဖစသည။ ထသ႔လပေဆာငျခငးသည အစးရက ေရ႕လာမည ဘတဂကသ႔ ထညသြငးထားသည အလယအလတ

ကာလႏင႔ ေရရညက ေမာမနးထားသည ျဖစႏငေသာ မဝါဒျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက ေဖာျပခြငရေစသည။

PBS က အသးျပ၍ ပမအေရးပါေသာ ပါဝငမႈမားက အားေပးႏငရန PBS က ထတျပနသည အခနသည အခနကကျဖစ

ရန လအပလပါသည။ PBS က ထတျပနရန အေကာငးဆးအခနမာ ဘ႑ာႏစမစတငမ အနညးဆး ေလးလ ႀကတင

ထတျပနသငၿပး ျပညသမားထမ ျပနလာေသာ အျမငမားက ရယႏငရန အစးရ၏ ဘတဂက အဆျပမႈ မတငမ တစလ

ႀကတင၍ ထတျပနသငသည။ ဆလသညမာ လႊတေတာသည ဇနနဝါရလတြင ဘတဂကက အဆးအျဖတေပးရန ေဆြးေႏြး

ၾကေသာေၾကာင႔ PBS က ဒဇငဘာလအေစာပငးတြင ထတျပနသငသည။ ဤအခနဇယားအတငးဆလင ျပညသမား

အေနျဖင႔ အစးရ၏ ဘတဂကအဆျပမႈက ထငျမငခကမားေပးရန လေလာကေသာ အခနရပါသည။ ဤလပေဆာငမႈ

သည အစးရအား လႊတေတာသ႔ ေနာကဆးဘတဂကအဆျပမႈမတငမ ျပညသမားထမ ထငျမငခကမားက အေျချပ

ကာ ျပနလညသးသပမႈမားျပလပရန အေထာကအက ျဖစပါသည။ ဤအခနဇယားသည လႊတေတာ ကယစားလယ

မားအတြကလညး ၎တ႔ လႊတေတာတြင ဘတဂကက အေျခအတငမေဆြးေႏြးမ အမားျပညသႏင လညးေကာငး၊ အရ

ပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမားႏငလညးေကာငး တငပငေဆြးေႏြးရန အခနရပါသည။

PBS ၏ ေအာငျမငမႈသည ၎၏ အခနကကထတျပနႏငမႈ တစခတညးအေပၚတြငသာ မတညေနသည မဟတေပ။

PBS တြင ပါဝငေသာ အခကမားသည အစးရက ဘတဂကဥပေဒက အသးျပရန ျပညျပညစစရရသကသ႔ ထေရာကစြာ

ေဖာျပထားႏငရနလညး လအပပါသည။ ထတျပနခကက ပႏပထတေဝကာ ကယျပန႔စြာ ျဖန႔ခ၍ လတငး လြယကစြာ

လကလမးမရမည။ ထ႔အျပင အစးရသည ထငျမငခကမားေပးရန အားေပးရာတြင လလလားလား ေတာငးခရပါမည။ ဤ

အခကမာ PBS ၏ ပထမႏစတြင အေရးႀကးပါသည။ အစးရအေနျဖင႔ အေရးပါေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမား စတငႏငကာ အစးရ

၏ ဆးျဖတခကခမတရာတြင အခကအခကမားေပးႏငရန ျဖစသည။ အမားျပညသပါဝငမႈက အျပေကာငးရ လပေဆာင

ျခငး မျဖစသင႔။

စမကနးႏင ဘ႑ာေရးဝနႀကးဌာနသည ၿပးခ႔သည ႏစမားက ဘတဂကႏင ပတသကေသာ ထတျပနခကက ျပငဆငခ

သည။ အဆအရ ၂0၁၆-၁၇ ဘတဂကအတြက ထတျပနခကက PBS အျဖစ ၂0၁၅ ဒဇငဘာလတြင လႊတေတာသ႔ ပ႔

ခေသာလညး ဘတဂကအတညျပၿပးသညအထ ျပညသသ႔ မထတျပနခ႔ဟ သရသည။ ၿပးခ႔ေသာ ႏစက ဘတဂကအတြက

ထတျပနခကသည ျပညသမားမ ထညဝငမႈႏင႔ အရပဖကအဖြ႕မားမ ကၽြမးကငမႈမား၏ ထငျမငခကက အားေပးရနႏင႔

အစးရ၏ တန႔ျပနေဆာငရြကမႈက ျပသရနတ႔က လပေဆာငျခငးမရပ ေရာငသြားခသည။ ျမနမာႏငငသည PBSအျဖစ

ထတျပနႏငေသာ ထတျပနခကက ေရးသားခသည အေတြ႕အႀကရၿပးျဖစရာ ျပညေထာငစအဆင႔ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ

တြင အမားျပညသပါဝငမႈအတြက ျမႇငတငေပးရန ေသးငယေသာ ေျခလမးအနညးငယသာ လမးရ ကနပါေတာသည။

ျပညသမားထမ ျပနလာေသာ ထငျမငခကမားက အေရးတယေပါငးထညစဥးစားေပးရန အစးရ၏ အေလးအနက ကတ

ျပမႈက ျပသရန ႏငငတကာ၏ စသတမတခကမားက လက၍ လပေဆာငျခငးျဖင႔ အလြယတက လပေဆာငႏငသည။

ဒတယအခကအားျဖင႔ စမကနးႏင ဘ႑ာေရးဝနႀကးဌာနႏင ျပညသ႔ေငြစာရငးဆငရာ လႊတေတာႏစရပ ပးတြေကာမတ

တ႔ကသ႔ေသာ သကဆငသည အဖြ႕မားသည အတတကြလပကငျခငးျဖင ကနဥးျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားႏင႔ ပမ ကယျပန႔

11 Vivek Ramkumar and Isaac Shapiro, “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports,” 9.

12 ၎သည OECD ႏင႔ IBP တ႔မ ညႊနျပေသာ PBS ထတျပနရန အေကာငးဆးလပထးလပနညးႏင႔ အဝငသည။

See, also, Ramkumar and Shapiro, “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports.”


- 12 -

ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမဟာဗဟာက ေဆြးေႏြးမႈ ဆကလပေပးႏငမည သကဆငရာ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား

ပါဝငေသာ အဖြ႕တစဖြ႕ဖြြ႕ၿပး လပပငခြငမား ေပးအပလာႏငပါသည။ ထအဖြြ႕သည ယခ ႏစဘတဂကလပငနးစဥတြင

အမားျပညသထမ ျပနလာေသာ အသမားအတြက ကနဥးလပေပးႏငသည အဖြ႕ျဖစကာ တဖကတြငလညး ပမျပညစေသာ

ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမားက ဆကလကေရးဆြေနရမည ျဖစသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမားသည ယခႏစ

PBS ႏင ပတသကၿပး အားလးပါဝငႏငသည ဖရမမား ကငးပေပးႏငကာ အမားျပညသ၏ ထငျမငခကမားက စေဆာငး

ေပးႏငသည။ ထျပညသ႔အသမားက အစးရထ ေပးပ႔ကာ ဘတဂကက ျပနလညသးသပ၍ လႊတေတာတြင အေျခအတင

ေဆြးေႏြးႏငသည။ ဤသ႔ လပေဆာငျခငးသည ဘတဂတဆးျဖတခကခမတသည ယဥေကးမႈက ေျပာငးလရန အစးရ

၏ ခငမာေသာ ကတကဝတက ျပသသည အဓပၸါယရေသာ PBS တစချဖစရနက ေသခာေစပါသည။ ထအဖြ႕သည အခက

အလကမားက စေဆာငးေပးသညအျပင လကရေရ႕ေျပးလပေဆာငေနသည အားလးပါဝငေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငး

လပငနးႏင ႏငငအဝမးမ ရပရြာဥးေဆာငေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးေရးစမကနးမားက ခတဆကဆကသြယေပးႏငသည။ ဤနညး

အားျဖင႔ ၎တ႔သည တစႏငငလး အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတငးတာက ျမႇငတငႏငမည နညးလမး

မားက စဥးစားျခငးမားအား ညႇႏႈငးေပးႏငမည ျဖစသည။ ထသ႔ေသာ အပစက ဘတဂကႏင ပတသကေသာ ပညာရပ

ဆငရာ သငတနးမားတကေစျခငးေၾကာင ၎တ႔သည ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥ၏ နညးပညာလကၡဏာမားက ပမနားလည

လာကာ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥက ေစာငၾကညႀကးၾကပရာတြင တကၾကြစြာ ပါဝငလာႏငသည။ ထ႔အျပင ၎တ႔သည ျပညသ

မားက ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥအေၾကာငး ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ ပညာေပးျခငးက စတငလပေဆာငရန တာဝနယလာႏငသည

ျပင အစးရအေနျဖင႔ ျပညသ႔ေငြစာရငးစမခန႔ခြမႈက ပြင႔လငးျမငသာစြာႏင႔ တာဝနခမႈရစြာ လပေဆာငရန တာဝနရမႈက

ျပညသမား သေအာင လပေပးလာနငသည။

တျဖညးျဖညးႏင ထအဖြ႕သည အနာဂတတြင အားေကာငးေသာ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ ပါဝငမႈလအပေသာ ပမ

ရႈပေထြးသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအတြက အဖြ႕မား၏ ဆခက ဗဟဌာနသဖြယ ျဖစလာႏငသည။ ထသ႔ေသာ ျပျပင

ေျပာငးလမႈမားတြင အရနဘတဂကတစစ (Alternative budget) ေရးဆြထားမႈ၊ လမႈေရး ဆငရာ စာရငးစစမႈ ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာ

မႈ၊ အစးရ၏ အသးစရတမားက တနဖးျဖတသည ရပ႔ကဒထတေပးျခငးမား ပါဝငလာသည။ ထပမရႈပေထြးသည ျပျပင

ေျပာငးလမႈအားလးက ေရ႕လာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးတြင အကယတဝင ေဆြးေႏြးရန ရပါသည။ ယခၾကားကာလတြင

သကဆငရာ အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ အၿမတမးကြနရကတစခက စတငျခငးသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈအေၾကာငးစ၍

ေဆြးေႏြးျခငးက ဥးတညႏငကာ အနာဂတတြင ထသ႔ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားက အေကာငအထညေဖာရန သဓဌာန

ခထားသည အရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညးအပစတစခရေနမႈက ေသခာေစပါသည။ အနာဂတတြင ထအရပဖကအဖြ႕အစညး

အပစအေနျဖင႔ ေလာကလမးႏငသည လမးေၾကာငးအမးမးရသည။ သ႔ေသာ ယခေလာေလာဆယတြငေတာ သကဆင

သည ပါဝငပတသကေနသမားပါဝငေသာ အပစတစခရရနမာ မရမျဖစ လအပပါသည။ ဤနညးလမးျဖင အနာဂတ အားလး

ပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမားအတြက နယပယႏင မဟာဗဟာက ဆးျဖတျခငးသည ေနာကပငးတြင အရပဖက

အဖြ႕မား၏ ေတာငးဆမႈ၊ လကရ စြမးေဆာငရညအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာမည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည လပငနးစဥ

ျဖစလာႏငပါသည။

a&SUvmrnfh tqifhrsm;

ဤအတြလကစာတမးမားတြင ေရ႕လာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈ စာတမးသည ျမနမာႏငငတြင လကရစးပြားေရးႏင႔ ႏငငေရး ျပျပင

ေျပာငးလေရးလပငနးစဥ၌ အဆငတစခ ေရာကေနၿပျဖစရာ အားလးက ပါဝငခြငေပးေသာ စနစသည ျမနမာႏငငႏင

ေကာငးစြာ အဝငသည ဆသညက ဆကလကသရပေဖာေပးမည ျဖစသည။ စာတမး၏ ပထမအပငးတြင သရပေဖာမႈအား


- 13 -

အားလးပါဝငႏငသည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမား၏

အကးအျမတရႏငမႈမား

အကးအျမတ

အစးရအေပၚယၾကညမႈတး

အရပဖကအဖြ႕မား

ဖြ႕ၿဖးလာမႈ

ျပညသပါဝငမႈ ယဥေကးမႈ

တးတက

ဟနခကညေသာ

တးတကမႈ ျမင႔တငရာတြင

လထအခနးက႑

ျပညေထာငစအဆင႔

ေအာကေဒသမား

ပါဝငမႈအတြက ဖရမမား

ျပညသ၊ CSO မားႏင႔

အစးရၾကား ျပညေထာငစ

အဆင႔ေအာက

ကြနရကမား ပရလာျခငး

အစးရတာဝနခမႈ

PFM ရလဒမားတးတက

အရပဖကအဖြ႕ႀကးၾကပသည အပစ

ႏင႔ ဘတဂကအေၾကာငး သငတနး

ျပညသပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမႈႏင႔

CSO ပါဝငမႈ

ျပညသပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမႈ-ေကးလကႏင႔

သမငးေၾကာငးအရ ဆငးရေသာ

ေဒသမားက ပစမတထားသးစြမႈ

Porto Alegre ေမာဒယအပါအဝင

ျပညေထာငစအဆင

ေအာကေဒသမား ပါဝငမႈ

ျပညေထာငစအဆင

ေအာက ေဒသမားမ

ျပညသမားပါဝငမႈ

လမႈေရးဆငရာ စာရငးစစေဆးမႈ

ကသ႔ေသာ ျပညသမား၏ ႀကးၾကပမႈ

ျပညသမား၏ ႀကးၾကပမႈ၊ PBS က႔သ႔

ေသာ သတငးထတျပနမႈ တးတက

စနစမား

ျပညသပါဝငဆြးေႏြးမႈ

13 ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက ထစနစမားက လာမည ေဆြးေႏြးမႈစာတမးတြင ေသးစတေဖာျပပါမည။

အျခားႏငငမားမ အေကာငးဆး အေလအထမားက

အေျခခ၍ ျပညေထာငစအဆငအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြင

ေပးေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြသည စနစမားအား ေရြးခယ

စရာမားႏင တငျပမည ျဖစသည။ စာတမး၏ ဒတယ

အပငးတြင အလားတ ႏႈငးယဥမႈမားျဖင ျပညေထာငစ

အဆငေအာကအတြက အားလးပါဝငခြငေပးေသာ ဘတ

ဂကေရးဆြသည စနစမားအား ေရြးခယစရာမားႏင တင

ျပပါမည။ ေရြးခယစရာအားလးက အားလးပါဝငခြငရ

ေသာ ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက ဤအႀကေဆြးေႏြးမႈ

မားတြင အစပးမတဆကေပးခေသာ အဓကအေၾကာငး

အရာမားက အေျခခ၍ တညေဆာကထားျခငး ျဖစသည။

ထျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမားမာ ပႀကးေသာ မဟာဗဟာ

၏ အေရးႀကးေသာ အစတအပငးဟ မတယႏငသည။

ပႀကးေသာ မဟာဗဟာဆသညမာ ဒမကေရစ ေဖာ

ေဆာငေရးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကေရးတ႔ အတတကြ လပ

ကငရာတြင တစခက တစခ တငးမာမႈျဖစေနျခငးထက

စာလင တစခႏင တစခ အေထာကအကျပသြားၾကေစ

ေရး ေသခာေစရန ျဖစသည။ ဤအေရးႀကးေသာ အခက

ႏစချဖစသည ဒမကေရစ ေဖာေဆာငေရးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးတး

တကေရးတ႔ ေျပာငးလလာမႈသည သဟဇာတျဖစလာ

ျခငးေၾကာင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေသာ ဘတဂကေရးဆြ

ျခငးသည ေနာကပငးတြင ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာ႔ချခငး

ကလညး တရားဝငလာေစႏငသည။ တတပပဆရေသာ

ပမေကာငးမြနသည ျပညသ႔ဘ႑ာေငြစမခန႔ခြမႈႏင ဟန

ခကညေသာ ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈတ႔က ျဖညဆညးေပး

ျခငးျဖင ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာ႔ချခငးက ပပးေပးႏငမည

ျဖစရာ ၎တ႔မာ ဤစာတမးတြင ေဖာျပထားေသာ

အားလးပါဝငခြငရေရး ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈအတြက လမးညႊနမႏစခ ျဖစသည။ ဤမႏစခက ဥးတညလပေဆာငေနရငး

အစးရအေပၚ ယၾကညမႈတးလာျခငးႏင အရပဖကလမႈအဖြ႕အစညးမားက အားေကာငးလာေစႏငျခငးကသ႔ေသာ ေဘး

ထြကအကးအျမတ အမားအျပား ရရႏငသည။

ဤရညမနးခကမားက အေျခခ၍ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမားက ေရးဆြၾကရာတြင ေသာ႔ခကက

ေသာ ကစၥရပမားအေၾကာငး ေဆြးေႏြးရာတြင သတငးအခကအလကေပးႏငသည စာအပမားႏင႔ ခြျခမးစတျဖာသးသပ

ထားမႈမား ရပါသည။ ျမနမာႏငင၏ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးအစအစဥႏင႔ ကကညေသာ အျခား

မမားလညး ရႏငရာ အျခားေသာ သကဆငသမားအေနျဖင အထကက ေဖာျပထားေသာ မႏစခသာမက အလားအလာ


- 14 -

အမးသားစးပြားေရး မဝါဒဥးစားေပးမားက အေျခခထားေသာ အထကက

ဆခသည မမားသည ထသ႔ေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားအတြက အစျပမႈအတြကသာ

ျဖစသငသည။ ဥပမာ Wampler (2012) သည အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည

ဘတဂကေရးဆြသည အစအစဥမားတြင ပါဝငေသာ “အသ၊ မ၊ လမႈေရးအရ

တရားမတမႈႏင ႀကးၾကပမႈ” ဆသည အဓကမေလးခက အႀကျပထားသည။

ထလကၡဏာမားသည အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစသည ဘတဂကေရးဆြမႈက

“ဒမကေရစနညးအရ တရားဝငေစမႈ၊ လမႈေရးအရ တရားမတမႈႏင အရပဖက

အဖြ႕အစညးမားတြင ေျပာငးလမႈမားမတဆင ပမႀကးမားေသာ လမႈေရးအရ

ေျပာငးလမႈမားက တငးတာႏငေရး” က ဥးတညေစေရး ေသခာေစရနအတြက

မရမျဖစ လအပသည။ ဤစာတမးသည မတေသာ မအမးမး ထြကလာေအာင

ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား ပမျပလပလာႏငေရးအတြက အငဂငႏႈးေပးလကသည သေဘာ

သာျဖစၿပး ထမတဆင ေဆြးေႏြးပြမ ရရလာေသာ အခကမားက ပမရညလား

သည ေဆြးေႏြးပြ စာတမးမားအတြက အသးျပႏငရန ျဖစသည။

ေရ႕ဆကရေသာ Renaissance Institute ၏ ခြျခမးစတျဖာသးသပခကသည

အျခားတငးျပညမား၏ အစအစဥအမးမးတြင အထကက ဆခသည အားလး

ပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရး၏ မရမျဖစ လကၡဏာမား ထညသြငး

ထားျခငး ရမရက ေလလာသြားမည ျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔ လပေဆာငျခငးျဖင ျမနမာ

ႏငငတြင အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရး၏ မလ ရညမနးခက

မားက ေဆြးေႏြးရနႏင အေျခအတငေဆြးေႏြးရနတ႔တြင အခကအလကမား

ေပးႏငလမမည ျဖစသည။ ထ႔ျပင အဆပါရညမနးခကမားသည ျမနမာႏငင

၏ သးသန႔အေျခအေနတြင အေထာကအကျဖစေအာင အငစတကးရငး

ရေသာ မအားလးက အျပငးအထနစဥးစားသင႔သည။ ထမမားအေပၚ ေနာက

ထပေဆြးေႏြးမႈမားႏင႔ အေျခအတင ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမား ျပလပျခငးသည ျမနမာ

ႏငငအေနျဖင အားလးပါဝငခြင႔ရေစမည ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငးအတြက စမခက

ခရာတြင ရငးလငးေသာ ရညမနးခကမားျဖင အေျခခႏငေရးက အေထာက

အကျပႏငပါသည။ သ႔မဟတပါက ဗဟခပကငမႈ ေလာ႔ချခငး၊ ဒမကေရစ

ေဖာေဆာငျခငးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးတးတကမႈတ႔အတြက စနေခၚမႈမားအားလးအေပၚ

ေသးေသးမႊားမႊားကစားမႈေလးမား ေပါငးစပထားေသာ အားလးပါဝငမႈရေစ

သည ဘတဂကေရးဆြျခငးမးသာ ျဖစလာႏငသည အႏ ရာယ ရပါသည။

ေရ႕လာမည ဘတဂကက ေကာလြန၍

ျပျပင ေျပာငးလေရးမဟာဗဟာေရးဆြျခငး

ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက

လမးညႊနမမားခမတျခငး

အလးစေျပာငးလမႈအတြက

အဖြ႕အစညးစြမးေဆာငရညက ဆးျဖတျခငး

အျခားျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးေမာဒယမားက

ႏႈငးယဥေလ႔လာျခငး

ေရတ၊ ေရလတ၊ ေရရညေျပာငးလမႈအတြက

အလးစပါဝငေသာ မဟာဗဟာေရးဆြျခငး

အစးရႏင႔ အရပဖကအဖြ႕မားက

ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးက အငစတကးရငး

တညေဆာကမႈမ တဆင

အေကာငအထညေဖာမည ဆသညက

တသမတတညး ျပသျခငး

ဆငရာ မေဘာငမားက ေသခာစြာ သးသပႏငရန အခကအလကမား ေပးႏငလမမည ျဖစသည။ အားလးပါဝငခြငရေစ

မည ဘတဂကေရးဆြေရးအတြက ရငးလငးသည မမားခမတၿပးပါက Renaissance Institute ၏ ေရ႕လာမည ခြျခမး

စတျဖာသးသပမႈသည အဆပါ ရညမနးခကမားက လကေတြ႕ေဖာေဆာငေပးႏငမည သးျခား အငစတကးရငး ေျပာငးလ

မႈမား လ၊ မလ စစစမႈက စတငလပေဆာငမည ျဖစသည။

14 Wampler, Participatory Budgeting: Core Principles and Key Impacts, 1.


- 15 -

သ႔ေသာ အေရးအႀကးဆးရဖ႔ လအပသည အခကမာ အစးရအေနျဖင ျပညသလထက ဆျဖတခကခမတသည လပငနး

စဥတြင ထညသြငးေပးေစ လသည ဆႏၵရေၾကာငး ျပသရန ျဖစသည။ ေနာကထပျပျပင ေျပာငးလမႈမားအတြက ကနဥး

အတျမစခႏငရန အစးရသည ဘတဂကအေၾကာငး အေျခခသတငးအခကအလကမားက PBS မ တဆင သတငးထတျပန

ေပးရမည။ ထ႔ေနာကတြငမ အမားျပညသမားအား ၎တ႔ ကယစားျပေသာ နယေျမမား၏ ဆႏၵမားက ေဖာျပသည ျပညသ႔

အျမငမား ထြကေပၚလာေအာင တကၾကြစြာ အားေပးရပါမည။

ထသ႔ လပေဆာငရန အရပဖကလမႈအဖြ႕အစညးမားသည ျပညသ႔ထမ ျပနလာေသာ အျမငမားက အစးရထ ပ႔ေဆာငေပး

မည အေရးပါလေသာ အခနးက႑မ ပါဝငႏငသည။ အစးရက လပပငခြငေပးထားေသာ ဘတဂကႏင ဆငေသာ အရပဖက

အဖြ႕တစခသည ဖရမမားကငးပေပးၿပး PBS က ေဆြးေႏြးေစျခငး၊ ျပညသမားအား ဘတဂကႏင႔ ဆငေသာ ေလကင

သငၾကားမႈေပးျခငး၊ ေရရညျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးအတြက လမးညႊနမမားႏင အေကာငအထညေဖာမည မဟာဗဟာမား

အေပၚ အျမငမားေပးျခငးမားျဖင အကအညမား ေပးႏငသည။ ဤကနဥးေျခလမးမားသည ေနာငအနာဂတတြင ေရးဆြမည

ပမရႈပေထြးသည လတငးပါဝငေစေအာင လပေဆာငေပးမည ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရးမားအတြက လအပသည မနကနေသာ

အေျခခအတျမစမား ခႏငလမမည ျဖစသည။

- 16 -

Participatory Reforms in the Budget Process

Crafting a Framework for Myanmar

This note provides the rationale for the development of a comprehensive reform strategy to

promote more stakeholder participation – namely amongst the public and civil society – in the

budget process. Currently, the budget process is most signifi cant at the Union level. Yet such

reforms, often referred to as participatory budgeting, can also complement the ongoing processes

of decentralization, which will empower subnational governments with more revenue mobilization

powers and more expenditure responsibilities. This introductory note explains the import of

reforms and potential principles to guide such changes at both the Union and subnational level. It

also suggests some initial reform opportunities for the next Union budget. Discussion from this

paper will be used to guide a comprehensive discussion paper that will use comparative study to

lay out a strategy for both Union and subnational reforms beyond the next budget.

- 17 -


The Renaissance Institute is a policy institute focused on supporting the reform of Myanmar’s

economy. Renaissance provides analytical support for policymaking, assists government capacity-

building and facilitates communication between Myanmar’s government and other relevant

stakeholders focused on revitalizing Myanmar’s economy. In particular, the Renaissance Institute

is supporting key policy priorities of the current government: Fiscal decentralization, and public

fi nancial management reform.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the various individuals that provided helpful feedback during the drafting

and revision of this note. These include Dr. Matthew Arnold and Bing Bonoan from The Asia

Foundation, Professor Robert Conrad from Duke University, Joel Friedman and Vivek Ramkumar

from the International Budget Partnership, Professor Brian Wampler from Boise State University

as well as Sudhanshu Sharma and Ian Porter from the International Growth Center. We would

also like to thank our colleagues at the Renaissance Institute, particularly U Myo Myint and U

Soe Win, for their guidance on this research. Everyone’s input has been valuable in shaping and

refi ning our ideas, yet any mistakes in the following are only our own.

- 18 -


Using participatory mechanisms to revitalize the budget process is a policy reform option at the

intersection of democratization and development. When properly structured, participatory reforms

can facilitate both processes of change. This is achieved by actively incorporating citizens and

civil society into budgetary processes traditionally reserved for government elites. Therefore, the

public is provided an opportunity to shape government decisions at various levels of governance.

Such empowerment of citizens can boost trust in government, strengthen civil society and

rejuvenate civic culture; all factors that political theorists argue are essential to democratization.

These processes do not only foster political change; they can also help infl uence development.

Participatory budgeting can help strengthen government institutions with new accountability

mechanisms, facilitate the ongoing process of fi scal decentralization, and direct government funds

to projects with high-demand. These institutional changes are essential, in the minds of political

economists, to promoting sustainable and inclusive economic growth.

That said, participatory budgeting is no panacea. It is a small part of a far broader set of policies

that can set into motion the positive feedback loops that beget sustained political and economic

change. For all of their potential, participatory processes can be captured by special interests,

or become a token policy change that serves as a façade for broader stagnancy in institutional

development. There is no one-size-fi ts-all template to assure success. Rather, clear mechanisms for

inclusive participation are absolutely essential to success, as is a staged, well-contextualized plan

for implementation that assures institutional reforms are commensurate to institutional capacity.

Given both these opportunities and challenges of participatory reforms, the Renaissance Institute is

launching this introductory paper to foster a conversation about the proper template for Myanmar;

one that will allow participatory reforms to fi t into and facilitate Myanmar’s broader reform

1 See, for example, Fukuyama, Trust, 1995 and Putnam, Making Democracy Work, 1993. Both provide arguments for

essential social characteristics – such as trust and civil culture – that lead to successful political and economic performance. 2 See, for example, North, Structure and Change in Economic History, 1981 and Kuran, The Long Divergence, 2010.

Both provide arguments for different characteristics of political and economic institutions that are conducive to sustained

economic development.3 Jason Lakin and Mokeira Nyagaka., “Deliberating Budgets: How Public Deliberation Can Move Us Beyond The Public

Participation Rhetoric.” 2016, 1.

Contextualizing Participatory Budgeting

Participatory Budgeting

Myanmar’s Major

Reforms

Democratization

Higher trust in government

Civil society development

Civic culture

Development

Public promotes balanced

development

Institutional accountability

Improved PFM outcomes

Decentralization

Clear forums for subnational

public participation

Networks between public,

CSOs & local institutions

- 19 -


4 Brian Wampler, Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series, 2007, 21.

agenda. This fi rst paper will lay the foundation for understanding participatory budgeting: what

it is, what opportunities it offers, and what challenges it presents. Given this, we then propose

guiding principles to help structure a participatory reform strategy for Myanmar. In line with these

principles, we also suggest some options for simple reforms that can immediately be considered

for the next budget. A subsequent discussion paper will explore a more comprehensive reform

strategy for Myanmar. In particular, the discussion paper will leverage lessons learned from other

countries and the guiding principles for reform raised in this brief to look at various reform options

for both the Union level and subnational levels of governance.

The top-down Union-level reforms, and bottom-up subnational options for participatory

budgeting can meet in the middle, therefore complementing broader strategies for democratizing

development, increasing trust in government and promoting more public-sector accountability.

Participatory budgeting cannot do it all, but when properly designed with clear principles in mind,

it can serve as a small but essential step towards broader goals of democratization, decentralization

and development.

What is participatory budgeting?

The World Bank defi nes participatory budgeting as “a decision-making process through which

citizens deliberate and negotiate over the distribution of public resources.” This is most often

relevant during the annual budgeting process, which includes both revenue mobilization and

government expenditure decisions. Given Myanmar’s relative inexperience with consultative

policymaking, there are many different ways to include more stakeholders in the budgetary process

that would provide citizens with new pathways to “deliberate and negotiate” over government

choices. Given Myanmar’s ongoing processes of decentralization, there are also many different

levels of government wherein participatory processes can be developed.

Participatory budgeting is most often associated with the model fi rst pioneered in Porto Alegre,

Brazil. Here, in a process that is now used in municipalities throughout the world, citizens are able

to provide input and directly vote on certain expenditure projects, most often for public works

spending. In Myanmar’s case, there are many other options that exist and might better facilitate

Myanmar’s reform goals given its current institutional capacity. Initial steps could be as simple as

the government providing more budget-related information to the public and actively encouraging

citizen participation.

Any complex change requires a foundation to build upon. There must, for instance, exist

suffi cient public demand for more participation, and trust amongst the public in the effi cacy of

their participation in the political process. Civil society and government institutions must also be

willing and able to facilitate broad participation. To do this, the public fi rst needs access to basic

budget-related information, an environment where they are able to safely engage in oversight

- 20 -


and basic literacy in the budget process.

These are the prerequisite, although not

exhaustive, foundations for any successful

participatory budgeting process. At once,

participatory processes can help boost

government institutions, civil society and

public trust – but it cannot do so from a

tabula rasa. There must be an existing

infrastructure if participatory reforms are

to be successful in achieving their aims;

participatory reforms can help accelerate

a feedback loop of political and economic

change, but past experiences demonstrate

that they cannot build a foundation of trust

and institutional capacity on their own.

Rather, when successful, participatory

reforms can add a new level of scaffolding.

Given Myanmar’s relatively weak

foundation, as is refl ected in the chart

documenting the results from the Open

Budget Survey, the mechanisms for

participation in budgeting will have to be

developed over time; starting small and

growing larger as institutions strengthen

and trust begets more demand for more

participation. Small fi rst steps, such as

information sharing, safe environments

for participation and basic budget literacy,

can build the foundation for more complex

reforms in the future. An initial commitment

to a few meaningful reforms that sincerely

engage new stakeholders in the decision-

making process is more important than a

commitment to myriad reforms all at once.

As such, the adoption of participatory

budgeting mechanisms must be tempered

by an understanding of the institutions that

Evaluating Myanmar’s Current Budget Process

Open Budget Survey

Score :

Transparency:

2/100

Legislative

oversight:

27/100

Public

participation

6/100

Auditor

oversight:

25/100

Comments from Renaissance

Institute:

In the past, Myanmar has seldom

shared data about any aspects

of the budget process. There

have been few institutionalized

processes for the government to

explain its fi nancial management

strategies to non-governmental

stakeholders.

Parliamentary reforms in

Myanmar are ongoing. Training

the legislature – at both the

Union and subnational level –

is an important starting-point,

since so many legislatures are

new to budgetary processes. As

the legislative bodies become

well-versed in the budget, they

can begin to facilitate public

feedback as well.

There are almost no

opportunities for public

participation in the budget

process. This is part of a long-

standing culture where the

public is discouraged from

participation; according to a

2015 UNDP survey, nearly 1/3

said they would be “careful to

whom they say what they think”

about the government and over

¼ said they do not “feel free at

all” to ”publicly express their

opinion.”

As the Supreme Audit Institution

builds capacity, there will be

different mechanisms for public

participation to be included in

their work. Many other nations

have recently piloted different

reforms on this very matter in

order to boost accountability and

good governance.

5 Alta Fölscher, Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and Accountability Series, 183.

- 21 -


currently exist to support participatory mechanisms. Reforms that are too broad, too sweeping, and

implemented too quickly, will ultimately be counterproductive. Rather, a roadmap to participatory

budgeting should be careful to make sure the fi rst mechanisms that are adapted are manageable,

and therefore substantive and truly participatory in their implementation.

For example, Kenya’s efforts to increase public participation in budgeting proved largely trivial

and tokenistic in the way Myanmar must work to avoid. Their reforms were codifi ed in law,

but often failed to bring about greater participation in reality. Kenya’s struggles reveal some of

the diffi culties in jumpstarting processes of participation. An analysis of the disconnect between

legalistic frameworks that compel “participation” and meaningful citizen input into budgetary

processes, calls for the creation of truly “deliberative” processes. This may seem a trivial difference,

but it imparts a higher burden of proof upon “the quality of reasons and the degree of deliberation

about the justifi cations given for decisions made.” Beginning with small and manageable reforms

can ensure they are deliberative; given the weak existing foundation in Myanmar, this will be

the proper beginning for the development of more comprehensive systems of participation in the

future.

Principles for Participatory Budgeting – Myanmar’s Reform Agenda

While there is great diversity across different nations’ approaches to participatory budgeting, there

is a consistent pattern in the creation of systems that are successful. A simple two-step pattern

tends to characterize the processes by which effi cacious mechanisms for participatory budgeting

are developed:

governments and civil society organizations interested in PB (Participatory Budgeting) would do

well to employ a staged learning and implementation process. The fi rst stage would consist of a

broader discussion of the principles, with an effort to understand which principles most strongly

align with their commons goals. The second stage would involve adapting existing rules to meet

local challenges, needs, and goals.

The rest of this analysis will help to complete the fi rst stage of the process: What principles should

guide participatory budgeting in Myanmar; what broader changes should it help to facilitate? The

follow-on discussion paper will then shift direction and look at the institutional arrangements that

can advance these overarching principles within the context of Myanmar’s current systems of

governance.

The recent economic reform agenda released by the government provides a helpful starting point

for discussing such guiding principles. Participatory budgeting, in fact, is a natural next step for

the government as it continues to implement the fi rst pillar of its economic policy, which calls

6 Lakin and Nyagaka, “Deliberating Budgets,” 17.7 Brian Wampler, “Participatory Budgeting: Core principles and Key Impacts,” Journal of Public Deliberation, 2.

- 22 -


for “fi scal prudence through transparent and strengthened public fi nancial management.” In the

short time since the nation’s political transition, steps have already been underway to begin this

process, including capacity building in public fi nancial management at the state and region level.

Participatory budgeting can help to transform this capacity building into a tangible step that allows

recently devolved and increasingly empowered levels of government to be more responsive to those

living within their polities. It can help to reaffi rm the importance of these emergent subnational

layers of government. It can do this, in part, by creating avenues for participation that provide

more frequent, formalized and reliable points of contact between the government and citizens.

Before that, though, reforms must end the information asymmetry between government and the

public by spreading basic information about the government’s budget practices, which is the

fi rst essential step in enabling more oversight of the government’s public fi nancial management.

These steps can lend legitimacy and substance, in both decision-making and accountability, to the

ongoing processes of decentralization, one key part of strengthening nationwide public fi nancial

management.

“The recent economic reform agenda released by the

government provides a helpful starting point for discussing

guiding principles for participatory budgeting.”

More so, participatory budgeting can contribute to the second pillar of the recent economic

policy: “Creating economic opportunities for balanced development of all states and regions.”

Participatory processes can empower citizens and their representatives in civil society to help

defi ne their own goals for “development” and prioritize the “economic opportunities” that they

view as most prescient and pressing in their community. For example, subnational forums for

participation can formalize points of contact between citizens, civil society and their state or

region government.

Providing citizens with the chance to shape their own development priorities within their own

states, regions and localities can further legitimize the process of decentralization. It will help

to synchronize the opportunities of development with the demands that emerge from democratic

processes. Ultimately, this harmonization can also play a small part in facilitating national

reconciliation in the country by building trust in the government – especially where participatory

budgeting mechanisms focus on incorporating historically voiceless and marginalized minorities.

It is one small step, of many necessary steps, to including more perspectives into government

decisions through formalized processes, which will be a necessary part of any sustainable

reconciliation.

8 Republic of the Union of Myanmar, National Economic Policy, 29 July, 2016.9 Ibid.

- 23 -


Grounding the principles for participatory reform in the government’s economic priorities situates

how such reforms can contribute to the overarching goals of decentralization, development

and democratization. More so, using participatory reforms to guide the implementation of the

government’s economic priorities with public feedback will help to democratize development, in

large part by further legitimizing the ongoing process of decentralization.

The Philippines – Leveraging Principles into Strategy

Arguably the most comprehensive set of participatory reforms in the budget process came under the Aquino

presidency in the Philippines from 2010 to 2016. His administration prioritized using participatory reforms

to diminish corruption. This was the central platform of both his election campaign and reform agenda

once in power; he linked stopping corruption to poverty alleviation and used participatory reforms as a

way to identify and limit corruption. The approach by the Philippines reaffi rms that linking participatory

mechanisms to a few clear underlying reform principles is the most successful way to establish a cogent

and successful strategy for participatory budgeting.

The Philippines, in initiating many innovative reforms in a short period, should be an important case-

study for Myanmar. In 2015, the International Budget Partnership rated them as the strongest developing

country in the region for budget transparency, public participation and budget oversight. They have

instituted strong reforms on both the national and subnational level. This synchronization of national

and subnational change is yet another rationale for using it as a signifi cant case study for Myanmar. At

the same time, the new government, which came to power in June 2016, has imperiled the rapid gains

in government transparency and accountability, in spite of their predecessors’ efforts. Thus the country

should also be studied for how an effective reform agenda requires strong and persistent political will, as

well as measures for long-term institutionalization, as a precondition for success.

Instead of mimicry, it is important that Myanmar fi rst considers some of the differences between the two

countries, especially in terms of institutional capacity, goals for participatory budgeting and strength of

civil society. While many of the reforms are laudable and deserve serious consideration in Myanmar, fi rst

Myanmar must study the way the Philippines sequenced their reforms. This will be the most important

part of developing a comprehensive, yet feasible strategy – especially one that includes both Union and

subnational level reforms – that is compatible with the many other ongoing changes in Myanmar. In this

way, an ambitious reform agenda can live up to its reality. Given the many reforms used by other nations

that are available for Myanmar to consider, many of which sound good, further discussion about their

feasibility must be carefully grounded in context. Clarifying priorities and sequencing reforms to match

institutional capacity is arguably the most important thing Myanmar can learn from a comparative study

with the Philippines and other countries. This is where future stakeholder discussions should begin when

considering a comprehensive strategy that combines a number of the participatory reforms to achieve clear

goals.

Francisco A. Magno, “Public Participation and Fiscal Transparency in the Philippines,” 35. Global Initiative for

Fiscal Transparency, May 2015.

International Budget Partnership, “Open Budget Survey 2015.”

- 24 -


Initial reform options for the next budget

While the subsequent discussion paper will provide an extensive analysis of options for short,

medium and long-term reform, as well as a framework for transforming guiding principles for

Myanmar and lessons learned from other countries into a coherent reform strategy, there are two

initial changes that should immediately be considered for the next budget.

First, the government should take immediate steps to release a pre-budget statement (PBS).

The PBS is an option used by many nations to facilitate broad-based discussion about the next

budget. A PBS is a simple, succinct and easy-to-understand presentation of priorities for the next

budget. It refl ects the major policy changes that are incorporated into the budget proposal. In

particular, the PBS lays out the core expenditure priorities, revenue mobilization framework, and

economic projections of the government. These economic projections should consist, in part, of

the government’s medium-term economic estimates in order to contextualize the budget changes

with broader economic trends and longer-term policy goals and forecasts. This will allow the

government to demonstrate the feasibility of policy reforms incorporated into the next budget over

the medium to long term.

The timing of releasing the PBS is essential in using the document to facilitate more substantive

participation. Best practice is for a PBS to be released at least four months before the beginning of

the fi scal year and one month before the Executive’s Budget Proposal in order to actively facilitate

feedback. This means that the PBS should be released by early December, as the Parliament

deliberates over the budget in January. With this timeline, there is suffi cient time for the public to

respond to the executive’s proposal. This can help the executive make revisions based on public

feedback before it submits the fi nal budget proposal to the Hluttaw. This timing will also allow

parliamentarians to consult with the public and civil society suffi ciently before they debate and

amend the budget.

The success of the PBS is not only based on its release date. The document is ultimately only

as effective as the way it is used by the government. The statement must be published, widely

circulated, and easily accessible. More so, the government must be proactive in encouraging

feedback. This is particularly important in the fi rst year of the PBS, where the government must

demonstrate that it is meant to jumpstart substantive discussion to inform government decision-

making rather than just act as a tokenistic gesture towards public participation.

10 Given the ongoing development of subnational governments, and their still growing institutional capacity, these are two

proposals geared at Union level reforms, where simple steps can immediately demonstrate serious government willingness

to include public feedback in its decision-making processes.11 Vivek Ramkumar and Isaac Shapiro, “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports,” 9.12 This fi ts best practice for the release of PBS as prescribed by the OECD and IBP.

See, also, Ramkumar and Shapiro, “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports.”

- 25 -


The Ministry of Planning and Finance has already prepared a budget statement in previous years.

That said, the statement for the 2016-17 budget was sent to parliament as a PBS in December

2015, but was not made public until after the enactment of the budget. Last year’s budget

statement circumvents one of the main reasons for such a document: To encourage feedback and

show government responsiveness to public input and civil society expertise. Myanmar is already

experienced with producing a document that could be released as a PBS; making it a document that

can facilitate public participation in the Union-level budget process will only require a few small

steps. Following international standards can be an easy change that shows serious government

commitment to incorporating public feedback.

Secondly, relevant government bodies, such as the Ministry of Planning and Finance and

Parliamentary Joint Public Accounts Committee, should work together to empower a group of

relevant civil-society stakeholders that can convene in order to help implement the initial reforms

and continue discussions about a broader reform strategy. This group can act as an outlet for public

feedback in this year’s budget process while more comprehensive reforms are being developed.

For instance, the civil society organizations could sponsor open forums about this year’s PBS,

help to gather public feedback, and then communicate such feedback to the government as it

revises the budget proposal and debates it in Parliament. This would ensure that the PBS is a

meaningful document demonstrating a strong government commitment to changing its decision-

making culture. This group should also help to assemble data and coordinate communication

between already ongoing pilot participatory budgeting and community-led development projects

in different parts of the country. This way, they can coordinate more thinking about the ways

in which participatory reforms can be scaled up throughout the country. Such a group should

also undergo budget literacy training, so they can understand the more technical aspects of the

budget process and therefore be active participants in overseeing the budget process. They should

then also be responsible for jumpstarting broader education efforts to teach the public about the

budget process, and about the obligations of the government to practice sound public fi nancial

management in a transparent and accountable way.

Eventually, such a group can also become an institutional hub for future, more complex reforms

that require strong civil society participation. Such reforms might include the formulation

of an Alternative Budget, the development of social audits, and the issuing of report cards to

evaluate government spending. All of these more complex reforms will be discussed at length

in the subsequent discussion paper. In the interim, starting a standing network of civil-society

stakeholders that can lead the conversation about reforms can also ensure that there is a group

of CSOs committed to implementing such reforms in the future. There will be many different

pathways that such a civil society group can take in the future. For now, though, it is essential that

such a group of relevant stakeholders exist. In this way, determining the scope and strategy for

participatory reforms in the future will also be a participatory process that can be developed based

on the demands of civil society and its current capacity.

- 26 -


Next steps

The subsequent discussion paper in this series will continue to demonstrate why participatory

mechanisms are well-suited for Myanmar given its current stage in the ongoing process of

economic and political reform. The fi rst part of the paper will do this by presenting options for

Union-level participatory budgeting mechanisms based on best practices from other nations.

The second part of the paper will use similar comparisons to put forth options for participatory

budgeting on the subnational level. All of these options will build upon the themes introduced

in this preliminary discussion of participatory reforms. These reforms can be thought of as an

important part of a larger strategy to assure that democratization and development work together

and build off of each other, rather than come into tension with each other. These two overarching

changes – democratization and development – will be harmonized, in part, by the ways that

participatory budgeting can further legitimize decentralization, namely by providing pathways

for sounder public fi nancial management and balanced development – the two guiding principles

for participatory reforms presented in this paper. Working towards these principles will also have

many spillover benefi ts such as increased trust in government and strengthened civil society.

Given these goals, there is much literature

and analysis that can inform discussion about

the key issues in formulating participatory

reforms. There are also other potential

principles that could be the focus of

Myanmar’s participatory budgeting programs

– other stakeholders should seriously consider

all potential principles that could guide

participatory budgeting, rather than just the

two presented above. Further discussion

and debate of these principles can help

Myanmar ground its plans for participatory

budgeting in clear goals, rather than risking

that participatory budgeting gets confl ated

as a catch-all remedy for all challenges

with decentralization, democratization and

development.

The above principles based on the national

economic policy priorities should only be a

starting point for such discussion. Wampler

(2012), for example, suggests four main tenets

Potential Benefi ts of Participatory Reforms

Benefi t

Increased trust in

government

Improved civic

culture

Government

accountability

Forums for

subnational

participation

More subnational

networks between

public, CSOs &

government

Public role in

promoting balanced

development

Improved PFM

outcomes

Mechanism

Public deliberation

Public deliberation and CSO

participation

Public oversight such as

social auditing

Subnational public

deliberation, including

Porto Alegre model

Subnational

public deliberation

with civil society

coordination

Public deliberation; targeted

spending in rural and

historically poor areas

Public oversight; increased

information disclosure such as

Pre-budget statement

13 These mechanisms for reform will be further explained in the subsequent discussion paper.

- 27 -


that all participatory budgeting programs include: “voice,

vote, social justice and oversight.” These characteristics are

essential in assuring participatory budgeting leads to “greater

social change as measured through changes in democratic

legitimacy, social justice, and civil society.” This paper is

meant to jumpstart more discussion about different principles,

which will then be used to help guide the longer discussion

paper.

Moving forward, the analysis of the Renaissance Institute

will look at how different programs in other countries have

and have not incorporated these essential characteristics of

participatory budgeting. This will allow for an informed

discussion and debate about the primary objectives of

participatory budgeting in Myanmar, and a careful analysis

of the institutional frameworks that will be necessary to

support these goals within the unique context of Myanmar.

Once clear principles for participatory budgeting are settled

upon, the future analysis of the Renaissance Institute will

begin examining the specifi c institutional changes that can

bring these aspirations to reality.

First, though, it is imperative that the government demonstrate

a willingness to incorporate the public into the decision-

making process. To build an initial foundation for further

reforms, the government must release basic information

about the budget through a PBS. They must then actively

encourage and facilitate public feedback to demonstrate a

new willingness to listen to their constituents.

In order to do this, civil society can also play a crucial role by

translating public feedback to the government. A group of civil

society stakeholders that is empowered by the government

can help to do this by convening forums to discuss the PBS,

training the public about the budget and providing feedback

on the guiding principles and implementing strategies for

longer-term reform. These initial steps can lay the proper

and necessary foundation for more complex participatory

reforms to be developed in the future.

14 Wampler, Participatory Budgeting: Core Principles and Key Impacts, 1.

Developing a reform strategy

beyond the next budget

Setting guiding principles for reform

Determining institutional capacity for comprehensive

changes

Comparative study of other reform models

Developing a comprehensive strategy with short, medium

and long term goals

Persistent demonstration of government and civil society

will to implement reforms through institutionalization

- 28 -


&nfnTef;ukd;um;csuf (Works Cited)

Fukuyama, Francis. Trust: The Social Virtues and The Creation of Prosperity. Free Press, 1995.

International Budget Partnership, “Open Budget Survey.” 2015.

Kuran, Timur. The Long Divergence. Princeton University Press, 2010.

Lakin, Jason, and Mokeira Nyagaka. “Deliberating Budgets: How Public Deliberation Can Move

Us Beyond The Public Participation Rhetoric.” International Budget Partnership, 2016.

Magno, Francisco A. “Public Participation and Fiscal Transparency in the Philippines.” Global

Initiative for Fiscal Transparency, May 2015.

North, Douglass. Structure and Change in Economic History. W.W. Norton & Company, 1981.

Putnam, Robert D. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton

University Press, 1993.

Ramkumar, Vivek, and Isaac Shapiro. “Guide to Transparency in Government Reports.”

Republic of the Union of Myanmar, Ministry of Planning and Finance. National Economic

Policy, 29 July 2016.

Shah, Anwar et al. Participatory Budgeting, World Bank: Public Sector Governance and

Accountability Series, 2007.

Wampler, Brian. “Participatory Budgeting: Core principles and Key Impacts.” Journal of Public

Deliberation, Vol. 8: Issue 2, Article 12, 2012.

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