Burial Topography and the Power of the Church in Fifth- And Sixth-Century Rome

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Burial Topography and the Power of the Church in Fifth- and Sixth-Century RomeAuthor(s): Marios CostambeysSource: Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 69, Centenary Volume (2001), pp. 169-189Published by: British School at Rome

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BURIALTOPOGRAPHY AND THE POWER OF THE

CHURCH IN FIFTH- AND SIXTH-CENTURY ROME*

INTRODUCTION

'Nothings certainutdeath ndtaxes', enjaminranklinamouslypined.Historians averecognizedheaptness f hisdictum orthe aterRomanEmpire,1he tudyf which as often eenpreoccupiedith ne or other fthesefundamentals.he fateof thetaxation ystems symptomaticf aweakeningf hewhole tatepparatus, processhatnturnmpingednthe

treatmentfthedead as Christianrioritieseplaced oman egalrigidities,which lexed ndbuckled o givegreaterpaceto the deadwithin hecity.Antique ulture,n theone hand,had maintained carefulopographicaldistinctionetweenheplacesof the ivingnd those f thedead.From heCarolingianeriod nwards,n theother and, ndrightnto he wentiethcentury,egitimateurialswere ocatedwith imilaronsistencyxclusivelynchurchgraveyardsand sometimesn the churches hemselves).n theinterveningeriodburialpracticesbandoned heirformertabilityndmoved hrough varietyfsettingseforeettlinground hechurch. hismovementf burialsfrom utside o insidethe city, nd thence n to

consecratedround,s another

spectof thatdramaticransformationf

culturehatmarkshe assage romntiquityotheMiddleAges. t s the imof his aper oset ntohistoricalontexthis hangingatternfburialn oneofourbest-documentedocations,he ity fRome.

Like therest ftheEmpire,ateantiqueRomeexperiencedwomajortransformingevelopmentshat mpactedn thetreatmentf thedead:thedecline f imperialower nd theriseof theChristianhurch. othwerecenturies-longrocesses,ndneitherictatedhangesn burial racticesythemselves,ince nthis rea ndividuals,amiliesndsocialgroups etainedtheir rimarymportancehroughoutheperiod.For centuriesheChurch

* amvery ratefulotheBritish choolat Romefor RomeScholarshipn talianStudies.While tprovidedme withvaluablesupport ormyresearchntoreligiousnd socialchange nearlymedievaltaly, t also openednew ndcomplementaryvenues f nterest,neof which edto this rticle. owea considerable ebt to RobertCoates-Stephens'scuity nd encyclopaediccommand f Rome'stopography,ndto the dviceofAndreaAugenti, incenzoFiocchiNicolaiand BryanWard-Perkins,nd of Conrad Leyser and the othermembersof 'il gruppoManchester'. thankall of them.Responsibilityorthe viewsexpressedhere,and fortheremainingrrors,smine lone.

I claimno originalitynusing hequotationn this ontext.twasemployed, ith elerenceto taxes,byN. Baynes n his TheByzantine mpire Oxford,1925),and,morerecently, ithreferenceo death,byP. Brown nhispreface o É. Rebillard's n Hora Mortis.Evolution e lapastorale hrétiennee la morí ux IVe et Ve ièclesdans 'occidentatin BibliothèqueesÉcoles

Franfaises'Athènest de Rome

283) (Rome,1994),vii-xi.

169







170 COSTAMBEYS

offeredocomprehensive,reven oherent, odel ffuneralrcommemora-

tion,allowing raditionalituals nd Christian octrineso blendalmostorganically,ithin heframeworkrovided ythe aw andadministrationfthe tate.n such context,hristianity'sdeologicalorce,mbodiedntheattractiveower fthe aint, annot avebeen he oledeterminantfburialpractice.paces or hedeadbecameessuniform,nbothnaturend ocation,than hey ad been nantiquity.

Describinghisvariety,etaloneexplainingt,has proved ery ifficultuntil ecently,ecause he vidence asbeenfragmentedetween rittenndarchaeologicalourcesndbetweenhe arious egionsf he ormermpire.tis onlynowbecomingossible o movebeyondhe tage fmakingense fparticularssemblages,nd to use informationromndividualocationsoinformnterpretationsf others.2n this espect,ne ofRome's hief eculi-arities as ts heer ize. t offersrange fexamplesnmatchedy ny thersingle ity,llowingnternals well s externalomparisonso bedrawn. hereisnot pacefor he atter ere: he irstart fthis tudy illnarrowhe ocustotwo ocationssedfor urials ithinhe ity,emonstratinghe imitsfourtopographicalnowledgewhich oweveremains etter han hat falmostanyother ity). hefact hat ach ocation s centredn a churchssociatesthese iteswith heslowly merging,nd highlynfluential,iturgyf theRomanChurch. his,the focus fthesecondpartofthis tudy, as beenportrayeds another cene of the late antique nd earlymedieval rans-

formation.omehavedetectedntheRoman iturgyor hedeadanoptimismandflexibilityhat eflectsome's ulturalistinctivenessnthepost-imperialWest; or thers,nthe ontrary,ttypifieshe ense ffear nd sin hat heysee spervasivenfourth-ndfifth-centuryhristianity.3t snot, owever,heaimof thispaper o askwhat hebringingf thedead nto he paceofthelivingmay indicate bout changingttitudeso death.Rather, t is tocontextualizeurial otonly s one thrustntheChristianonquestfspace,but lso todemonstrateow heChurchame odominatehemanagementfthedead,throughtsgradualnsinuationnto uchresponsibilitiess grave-digging, hich ormerlyad belonged nlyto private amiliesnd to the

government.The state ccupies central,fnegative,ositionnmost ccounts fchangesnburial racticen lateantiquity,ecause n thatperiod hedeadbegan obe nterredithinities,uite ontraryothe aws hennforce. heprohibitionn burial nurbewas immenselyurable,ppearingirstn the

Forexample,G. CantinoWataghin, he ideology furbanburials', nG.P. Brogiolo ndB. Ward-Perkinseds), The Idea and Ideal of theTownbetween ate Antiquitynd theEarlyMiddleAges Leiden, 1999),147-80.

For example, ompare hecontrastingttitudes fF.S. Paxton,Christianizingeath: theCreationf RitualProcess nEarlyMedievalEurope Ithaca/London, 990), sp.pp. 78,91,113and

124-5, and Rebillard,n Hora Mortis above,n. 1), 167and 225-7.







BURIALTOPOGRAPHYAND CHURCH POWER 171

Twelve ables nd notfinallyeing epealed,nthe ast, ntil he eignfLeo

VI (886-912).4 inceby the latter ate urban cemeteries ad been well-establishedor enturies,t sdistinctlyossiblehat his awhad nfact ecomeredundant uch arlier, ithinheperiod nder onsiderationere. he egalparadigmas encouragedcholarso define rban pacesratheroo rigidlywhendiscussing hanges n burialtopography.he movement f burialgrounds as nfactustone featurefthe hangingspect fthewhole itynlate ntiquityndthe arlyMiddleAges.5

ForRome, lternativexplanationsroposedor hemovementfburialsinside hecitywalls rethegrowthf beliefnthedesirabilityfburial dsonetosnd thetrauma fshort-termolitical vents.n the 1950sDyggvesuggestedhatburials ad followedelics s the atterwere ranslatedrom

suburbanourban hurches.6e waspointingo a contemporaryentalitythat asbeenmuchxploredince, hichccordedalvificfficacyo the urialof thedeceased losetotherelics fsaints.7herewasclearly demand orrelicsobedeposited ithin ome: awswere assedproscribingheirmove-ment,8nd Pope Gregory madeeffortso discouragehedemand.9t isdifficult,owever,o dentifypecificrban hurcheseforehe ighthenturythatheldrelics nd aroundwhich urials lustereds a consequence.hepossiblexamplefSantaBibianawill e examinedelow, ut ngeneralhere

4The legislation,romheTwelveTablesto Leo VI, has beenreviewedyC. Lambert,

Le

sepolturenurbenellanorma nellaprassi tardaantichità altomedioevo)', n L. Pároli ed.),L'Italia centro-settentrionalen età longobardaFlorence,1997),285-93; see also R. Meneghiniand R. SantangeliValenzani,Sepolturentramuraneepaesaggiourbanoa Roma traV e VII

secolo', nP. Delogu andL. Pároli eds),La storia conomica iRomanell'altomedioevolla lucedei recenticaviarcheologiciFlorence,1993),89-111,at p. 89,n. 1. The final epeal s Leo VI,Novellae d CalcemCod. IustinianusIII.

5For a reassessmentfurbanburial, roblematizedcross hewholeofthe tormer) oman

Empire, eeCantinoWataghin,Theideology furbanburials' above,n.2), esp. pp. 149-50and157-8onthe pplicabilityndreliabilityfthe aws;seealso the ummaryfthe1995conferenceon earlymedieval urial n Italy,focused n northernities, yG.P. Brogiolo,Conclusioni',nG.P. Brogiolo ndG. CantinoWataghin, epolturera V e Vili secolo Mantua,1998),229-31.

bE. Dyggve,The origin furbanchurchyardsClassicaetMediaevalia.Kevueuanoise ae

Philologie t d'Histoire 3 (1952), 147-58; 'L'originedel cimiterontro a città',Attidell'VIII

congressonternazionalei studi izantini,alermo 951 Rome, 1953),138-41. See also CantinoWataghin,The ideology furbanburials' above,n. 2), 148,n. 2.

1On ad sanctos urial ngeneral, eethethorougnreatmenty i . uuvai, aupres aes samis

corps t àmes: 'inhumationad sanctos"dans a chrétienté'Orient td'Occident u IP au VIPsiede (Etudesaugustiniennes)Paris,1988),esp. pp. 51-129, which races generalmovementfrom he sixth enturyo bury n ornearchurchespp. 97-8). For a cogentrecent nalysis, eeE. Ivison, Burial and urbanism t late antiqueand ByzantineCorinth c. ad 400-700)', inN. Christiend S.T. Loseby eds),Townsn Transition. rban volutionn LateAntiquityndtheEarlyMiddleAges Aldershot, 996),99-125.

8CodexTheodosianus 17. and 9.17.7 (translated yC. Pharr,TheTheodosian ode andNovels ndthe irmondianonstitutionsPrinceton, 952),240); see also Lambert,Le sepolturein urbe' above, n. 4Ì. 287.

9Gregory, ialogues V.52 (editedbyA. de Vogüé {Sourceschrétiennes65) (Paris,1980),

172-4).







172 COSTAMBEYS

seems o be some truthn the statementf one inscription,hatburial d

sanctoswas whatmanydesire nd fewreceive'.10he comparativehron-ologies furbanburials nd translationsfrelics tronglyndicate hat hesaints ollowedhe ead, atherhan he ther ay round.While rban urialsproliferatedn the sixth entury,hefirst vidence or ranslationsfrelicscomes romhe eventh,nd themajor ransfersere nly ffectedyPaul(757-67), ome wo enturiesfter hefirst rban emeteriesppeared.11s aresponseo Dyggve,n 1984Osborne rgued hat twasin fact heGothicsieges fRome hat aused emeteriesobe ocatedwithinhewalls f he ity,in periodwhen he uburbanecropoliseserenaccessible.12he ynthesisfarchaeologicalata on urban urialnRomerecentlyompiledyMeneghiniandSantangelialenzani, owever,eveals rban urialsnsomenumbershat

pre-dateheGothicWars.13

THE PATTERN OF URBAN BURIALS

While he evidence orRoman burialpracticeollected y MeneghinindSantangeli alenzani onstitutes useful asis for furtheriscussion,ndreveals he onsiderablearietyfwaysnwhichheRoman ead nvadedhespaceofthe ivingn this eriod,t s notstraightforwardointerpret.n thefirstlace, t sonly snapshot:urrentnd futurexcavationsill dd tothenumbersf ites o be considered.14oreover,he atternf xcavatedurials

10'Quod multi cupiun(t) et rari accipiun(t)',in E. Diehl (ed.), Inscriptiones atinae

Christianae eteres, vols Berlin,1925-31), , no. 2, 148.Translations f relicshavebeen studiedbyJ.McCulloh,The cultofrelics n the etters

and Dialogues' ofPope GregoryheGreat: lexicographicaltudy', raditio 2 (1976), 145-84,and Fromantiquityo theMiddleAges:continuityndchange npapal relic olicy rom he6thto the8thcentury',n E. Dassmannand K. Suso Frank eds),Pietas: FestschriftürBernhardKotting Munster,1980), 312-24; see now also F. Bauer, La frammentazioneiturgica ellachiesa romanadel primomedioevo',Rivistadi Archeologia ristiana 5 (1999), 385-446, atpp. 420-2. PopesTheodore 642-9) and Leo II (682-3) translatedelics o urbanchurches. aulFs activity s recorded n L. Duchesne (ed.), Le Liber Pontificalis. exte,introductiontcommentaire2nd edition), vols Paris, 1955-7) [hereafterPl I. 464.

J.Osborne, Death and burial n sixth-centuryome', Classical ViewsEchosduMonde

Classique)28, n.s. 3 (1984), 291-9; in part,Osborne was following .B. De Rossi,La Romasotterranea ristianadescritta illustrata, vols (Rome, 1864-77), III, 557. The suburbancemeteriesctually ontinued nuse inthe econdhalfofthe ixth entury:ee A. Silvagni ed.),Inscriptiones hristianaeUrbisRomae SéptimoSaeculo AntiquioreshereafterCUR] n.s. II(Rome, 1935),4794 and A. Ferma ed.), ICUR n.s.VII (VaticanCity, 980),1726 nd P. Testini,Le catacombe sii antichi imiteriristianinRoma ÍBoloena. 1996V91.

Meneghiniand SantangeliValenzani, 'Sepolture intramuranee'above, n. 4), andR. Meneghini nd R. SantangeliValenzani,SepolturentramuraneeRoma tra V e VII secoloD.C. - Aggiornamenti considerazioni', rcheologiaMedievale22 (1995), 283-90 [hereafter'Aggiornamenti considerazioni'],sp. p. 288,where t is notedthatrecent iscoveries isruptOsborne'stight hronologyinking urial ocationswith heGothicWars.

I have not included,forinstance, he burial area veryrecentlyxcavatedwithin heTemplumPacis complex n the Imperialfora. I am grateful o MassimilianoGhilardi for

providingme witha copyofthepaperreadbyhimself nd Margherita apponi at Ecclesiae








ishaphazard, avingeen ictatedargelyymodernonstructionork ather

thanby anyhistoricalr archaeologicalriteria.t is thereforeery ftendifficulto decidewhethergrave elongso a properlyonstitutedemetery,orto a smalleramilylot, r ssimplyrandomurial. venwhere clusterfgravesanbe abelled ith ome onfidences a cemetery,t s neverlearwhatproportionf that emeteryhe xcavatedinds epresent:hekind fspatialanalysispplied ogoodeffecto whole arlymedievalemeteriesxcavatednother arts fEuropes not eallyuitableor itesn Rome.A furtherroblemconcerns ating.n thefrequentbsenceof grave-goods,hestratigraphicinformationivenn manyreportsf finds, speciallyhosemadeduringconstructionork, ffersomore han hevery roadestndicationfdate.Thus ome lexibilityeeds oberead nto he bservationyMeneghinind

Santangeli alenzani hat,while omeurbangravesweredug in thefifthcentury,ndsome ven arlier,argeroncentrationsfburials, hichmaybeindicativefcemeteries,eem enerallyobelong othe ixthentury.15iventhese rovisos,t s still ossible o make ome ignificantbservations.irst,andmost bviously,he racticefurban urialwascertainlyorewidespreadthan xcavationas shown o far, r is ever ikely o reveal. econdly,salreadyoted,ll ntramuralurial ites fwhateverize ontravenedhe etterof Roman aw. Thirdly,here re somesalient eaturesn thevariegatedtopographyresentedythecurrentistributionap ofurbanburialsnRome.While xcavatedurialsre catteredhroughouthe ity,ome eem o

be associated ith articularypes fbuilding.wocategoriesreespeciallynoticeablemong heburial itesdentifieditherto:public' paces,ikebathcomplexesnd porticoes,nd churches.16he former ad retainedheiroriginalunctionsnto hefifthentury:hedepositionfthedeadtheres infact strongndicationhatthosefunctionsad ceased. It mayalso be

Urbis,Congressonternazionalei studi ullechiesediRoma IV-X secolo),Pontificiostituto i

Archeologia ristiana, -10 Sett.2000 (forthcomingublication ditedby F. Guidobaldi), nwhich this discoverywas announced.Andrea Augentihas rightlyikenedattempting osummarizeheRomanarchaeological ictureotryingostop moving rain:A. Augenti,lacerein Palatio.Le sepoltureltomedievali elPalatino', n G.P. Brogiolo ndG. CantinoWataghin

(eds),Sepolturera V e Vili secolo.7°seminarioultardo ntico l'altomedioevon talia centro

settentrionale,ardoneRivera, 4-26 ottobre 996 Mantua, 1998),115-22,at p. 115.15Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani, Sepolture ntramuranee'above,n. 4), 1U5,havedated thediffusionf thephenomenonf ntramuralurials' o themid-sixthentury,fter heGothicWars,though heevidence heyhave collected howsthat omesiteswere n use beforethat.Precisionof any kind is, of course, mpossible: t is worthnoting,however, hattheintramuralurialsnnorthtalian ities xamined yLambert,Le sepolturenurbe"above,n.4),eso. o. 290,showexactly hesamechronological attern.

16Of larger ites ten or moreexcavatedburials),those at churches re Meneghini nd

SantangeliValenzani'snos. 5 (Santi QuattroCoronati),11 (Sant'Eusebio),29 (Santa Maria

Antiqua),45 (San Saba), 64 (Santa Bibiana),74 (San GregorioMagno), plus Santa Susanna.'Public'spacesarenos. 6 (valley ftheColosseum),7 (Porticus iviae), 16 CastroPretorio), 7

(MausoleumofAugustus), 0 (VignaBarberini, alatine), 4 (BathsofCaracalla),47 (Bathsof

Decius), 55 (Domus Tiberiana,Palatine),68 (easternslopes of the Palatine),70 (Baths of

Diocletian).







174 COSTAMBEYS

significanthatmostwererelativelyiscrete,ounded reas- identifiable

compartmentsf he rbanpace.)Of hurches,orewill esaid hortly.ut tis also worth oting ere hat necategoryrom hich urials enerallyemainabsent s thatof placesofpower':palace complexesnd other entres fgovernmentnd administration.17urials avebeenfound,n somenumbers,on thePalatine,utmost fthese eem obe associated otwith hose alacebuildingshat emainednusebutwithhe hurchesn thehill;much he amecanbesaidoftheburialstSantaMariaAntiqua,t tsfoot.18his sonly obeexpected centresfgovernmentereivelylaces but tat east howsthat t Rome here ere imits o that reakdownetweenpacefor he ivingand that or hedead thathas so often een aid at thedoor of theChurch.Neither tatenorChurchan be the olepoint freferencenexplanationsf

the hangesnburial opographyhatRomeunquestionablynderwentnthisperiod.

Large rban raveyards,ike hosensome f he ath omplexes,ndicatethe egreeowhich he ntique abric f he ity adunravelledy he ate ifthcentury. lthoughheAurelianicWalls continued o be maintained,heydelineatedhe ityess ven han hey ad npreviousenturies.19nthe ourthcentury,fnotearlier,he ityhadspread eyondhewalls,with lustersfhabitationnd churchest the uburban emeterieslong hemajor oads.20Conversely,uchpacewithinhewalls adretained ruralspect,incetwasgivenver o aristocraticillae nd their arks, r horti}1nthis ontext,fall

inthepopulationf the ity,which ertainlyccurred rom hefifthenturyonwards,mayhave been less significanthanchanges n thedensityfhabitationnd n ts ocation.22s housing ecamemore hinlypread,arge

17For 'places ofpower'see A. Augenti, 1 potere la memoria. l Palatino tra V e Vilisecolo', n P. Pergola ed.), Roma dal IV all'VIII secolo:quale paesaggiourbano?Dati da scavirecenti. ttidellasedutadeiSeminari i archeologia ristiana, oma, 13marzo1997',Melangesde VÉcoleFrancaisedeRome,MovenAse 111il) (1999). 197-207.18On thePalatine n thisperiod, ee A. Augenti, /Palatino nelmedioevo.Archeologiatopografiasecoli VI-XIII) (Rome, 1996),withcurrent hinkingn Santa Maria Antiqua atp. 167;theburial ites reMeneghini nd SantangeliValenzani'snos. 29 (SantaMariaAntiqua)and 40, 41, 42, 43, 54, 55,68 (variousplaceson thePalatine).

See R. Coates-Stephens,The walls and aqueductsof Rome ad 500-1000', Journal fRomanStudies88 (1998), 166-78.CantinoWataghin,The ideology furbanburials' above,n. 2), 153-4.The relativeackof mportancefthewalls, nd theblurringftheurban/ruraloundary,

in theRoman mentalmap emerges rom heeloquentexamination y N. Purcell,Town incountry nd countryn town', n E. Blair Macdougall (ed.), AncientRoman Villa Gardens(DumbartonOaks Colloquium n theHistory fLandscapeArchitecture0) (Washington C,1987), 185-203. For the horti n Rome in general, ee P. Grimal,Les jardinsromainsthirdedition) Paris,1984).

B. Ward-Perkins,Continuitists,atastrophistsnd thetownsof post-RomannorthernItaly', Papers of theBritish chool at Rome 65 (1997), 157-76, esp. p. 167. Ward-Perkins'sobservationsre equally, fnot especially, elevant o Rome. On this urbanruralization'eeMeneghini nd SantangeliValenzani, Sepolture ntramuranee'above, n. 4), 90 and their

references.








areas withinhewallsmusthavedisplayedhesortofdispersedettlement

patternhatwasusualbeyondhem.nthis nvironment,he lacingfburialsinside hewallsmaynothavebeenquite s distinctn activityrom lacingthemutside s often as been ssumed;ndeed,pigraphicndarchaeologicalevidence emonstrateshatboth ntra-ndextramuralurialwere ractisedsimultaneouslyhroughoutost fthe ixth entury.23omemay hereforenothave een s differentromtherities oreven romuralettlementsas hasusually een upposed.

ROMAN HORTI AND CHRISTIAN CEMETERIES: THE CASESOF SANT'EUSEBIO AND SANTA BIBIANA

In seekingxplanationsfchangesnburial racticehat o notdepend nanotional istinctionetweenrbanndruralnvironments,t snaturalo ookat thehorti, here rban ndrural adalways lendedogether. numberfthe hurchesn andaroundwhich urials avebeen xcavatedreassociatedwith orti. urbest nformationoncernswo nthe astofthe ity, n theEsquiline:ant'EusebiondSantaBibianaFig.1). tisimportantobeclearboth bout henaturef heirssociation ith urialsndabout heirtatusschurches. eitherhurchwasnecessarilyhefocus fthegraves iscoveredround bout hem. hedensityfburials nearthednthenineteenthenturyclose o Sant'Eusebiossufficientowarranthe escriptioncemetery',ut he

naturef ny onnectionithhe hurchemainsnclear.24t s notpossibleoestablishithbsoluteertaintyhat heand hat ormedhe emeteryctuallybelongedo Sant'Eusebio as weshall ee,thererea numberfways f

interpretinghe elationship.hepatternfburial indshatmay eassociatedwith antaBibianasmore iffuse,onsistingf hreeistinctlustersfgraves:a group famphora-burialsearthe o-called empleofMinervaMedica',some cappuccinaurialswithin disused alneum,ndthreearcophaginfrontfthe hurchtself.25nly he atterresecurelyttachedothe hurch,andtheylearlyo not dduptoa 'cemetery'ythemselves.o what egreethe therurialselativelylose oSantaBibianawere ormallyssociated ith

the hurchsatheart questionfproperty,hetheregalownership,imple

23Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani, Sepolture ntramuranee'above,n. 4), 92-3 and

J.Osborne,The RomancatacombsntheMiddleAges',PapersoftheBritishchool tRome53

(1985),278-328,at pp. 281-6.24The cemeteryssociatedwithSant'Eusebiowas kvast7,xtending ormpernaps s iar asthebaths fDiocletian, ndthereforeovering,fpatchily,t leastthe ntire orthernalfoftheHortiTauriani:MeneghinindSantangeli alenzani,Sepolturentramuranee'above,n. 4),no.

11,p. 99.L. PaniErmini,Formaurbis renovadomurorumnetàteodericiana',nA. Carile ed.),Teoderico i GotitraOriente OccidenteRavenna,1995), 171-225,at pp. 204-5, has averredthat herewas a directinkbetween emeterynd church t Sant'Eusebio.

25Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani, Sepolture ntramuraneeabove, n. 4), no. ò4,

p. 105,and Aggiornamenticonsiderazioni'above,n. 13),284.







176 COSTAMBEYS

Fig. I. Theeastern ideofRome, howinghe ocation fSant'Eusebio, antaBibianaand somesurroundingopographical eatures.

possession,ormaldministrationr simplyometype f nformalrritualattachment.26nthe vailable videncet s impossibleodefinehe tatus fthese ravesn suchterms,ut, ince emeterieslways equiredand, heirdevelopmentust ebound pwithhehistoryf anded ropertynthe ity.

ThedifferentriginsfSant'Eusebiond ofSantaBibiana ndicatehatecclesiasticalropertyasnot singleegal ategorynthis eriod. heprecise

26On the egalstatus fchurches' ropertynthisperiod, eenowF. Marazzi,/PatrimoniaSanctaeRomanaeEcclesiaenelLazio {secoli V-X). Strutturamministrativaprassigestionali

{Nuovitudi torici

7) (Rome, 1998),25-46.








dates t which he wo hurches ere stablishedrenot ertain,houghoth

were ullynoperationytheendof thefifthentury.here s no archae-ologicalevidence or an earlyChristian uilding er se at the site ofSant'Eusebionowat thenortheastorner f Piazza Vittorio mmanuele),thoughemainsf a fourth-centuryomus re dentifiablenthe ubstructuresof thepresenthurch,ndbehind heapse.27tsfounders attestedythecommemorationf Eusebii itulionditoris'n 14Augustn theHieronymianMartyrology,roducedn thefirstalf f thefifthentury.28he church asthereforefthe itulus-type,rivatelyoundednddevelopingnto properly-constitutedlace fworship,ndthen lso nto place f ult,na processhatremainsar rom lear.The recordntheHieronymian artyrologyndicatesthattwasprobablynexistenceome ime efore74, hedateofthe arliest

epigraphicecordf he hurch.29riestsf he itulususebii at ttheRomansynodf499.30 oneof hisndicateshe ult f saint usebius,irstttestedonly ttheRoman ynod f595.31 here snosign frelics fEusebiust thechurch.32heGesta usebiilaimedhat usebiuswasa priest ho stablisheda churchn hisownhouse.33here s noproof fthis, ut heGestamay ear

27R. Krautheimer, orpusBasilicarumChristianarumomae [hereafter BCR], vol. I(Vatican City, 1937), 210-16, and G. Fusciello, 'La chiesa medievale di S. Eusebiosull'Esquilino',Quadernidell'Istituto i Storia dell'Architettura.s. 21 (1993), 15-29; alsoG. De Spirito,Titulus Eusebii', n E.M. Steinby ed.), LexiconTopographicumrbisRomae

[hereafterTUR] (Rome, 1993-2000), I, 239-40, thoughnote thathis interpretationf the

churchs to an extent oundup withhis nnovativend unproven iewson Santa Bibiana,seebelow,n. 32.The older hurchwasrestoredn theeighth entury: . Coates-Stephens,Dark agearchitecturen Rome',PapersoftheBritish choolat Rome65 (1997), 177-32,at p. 195. Thepresent asilicadatesfrom he welfthnd thirteenthenturies,nd wasreworkednthebaroqueperiod.28H. Delehayeand H. Quentineds),Martyrologiumieronymianum,ASS Nov. II, parsposteriorBrussels, 931),443. On the dateof themartyrology,ee J.Dubois, Les martyrologesdumoyenge latin Typologie essources umoyenge occidental 6) (Turnhout, 978),29-37.

29Silvagni,CUR (above,n. 12), n.s. II, 16002.Therehas been someconfusion ver theepigraphicvidence orSant'Eusebio:on thisparticularnscriptionee J.Wilpertn RomischeQuartalschrift2 (1908), 80; forother pigraphynd general nterpretations,. Huelsen,Lechiese iRoma nel medio vo:cataloghi d appuntiFlorence,1927),251withn. 4,Krautheimer,CBCR (above,n. 27) I, 210withn. 3, and De Spirito,TitulusEusebii' above,n. 27).

30T. Mommsen ed.), Acta SynhodiA. CCCCXCVIIII {MonumentaGermanaeHistórica.Auctores ntiquissimiII) (Berlin, 894),399-415,atpp. 412-15. On thisbasis,Pietri atedthefoundationo the secondhalfofthefifthentury,hough date in thefirst alf ooks ust aslikely: . Pietri,La Romacristiana',nL'età tardoantica. risi trasformazioniStoriadiRoma,4 vols n 7) III.l (Turin,1993),697-722, at p. 714.3 Acta ofthe ynod f595:D. Norberg ed.),Registrumpistolarumregorii agni CorpusChristianorum,eriesLatina 140 and 140A) (Turnhout, 982),V.57a (MonumentaGermaniaeHistórica. pistolae , 367): Donus presbyterituli anctiEusebii'.

3Despitetheevidence ftheHieronymianMartyrologyhattheanniversaryfEusebius

was celebratednurbenthefirstalf f thefifthentury,heresno claimofrelics here: . Pietri,RomaChristiana. echerchesur 'églisedeRome, onorganisation,a politique,onideologie eMiltiade Sixte II (311-440), 2 vols Paris,1976), , 494 and 630.

óiBibliotheca agiographica atina hereafterHL] 2740,Acta Sanctorum ug. Ill, lòò-/;

see also Acta Sanctorum ug. II, 116-17,A. Amore, Eusebius', in BibliotecaSanctorum ,







178 COSTAMBEYS

witness o theexistencefa cultof Eusebius n theearly ixth entury:ts

account fEusebius'smartyrdomt thehandsof theArianConstantiusI,supportedyPopeLiberius,its est nto contextnwhichnimosityowardsArianswasresurfacingmong oth ishop ndclergynRome: hats,duringtheGothicWars ndthe ontificatefVigilius.34hetext t east emonstratesthat here as no traditionfpapalor mperialnvolvementn the stablish-ment fSant'Eusebio.

Bycontrast,antaBibianawasassociated ith hepapacy rom he irst,being oundedrcompletedyPopeSimplicius468-83). 5It is importantonote hat implicius'soundation as a non-titularhurch,tspriestshereforelackingheformaltatusccorded otitularriestsike hose fSant'Eusebio,whobelongedo the piscopal lergy.ikemany ituli, owever,implicius'sSantaBibianawasadapted romrreused lder uildings,hetherdomus,hypogeum,n old cultbuilding, martyriumr an oratory.36he currentbuildingon Via Giolitti, ext o therailwayinesrunningut of Terministation) ates, robably,rom he hirteenthenturyremodellednthe even-teenth),ndseems o nclude otrace fany arliertructure.37t s,however,inclose lignmentith uildingemainsfRoman atebehind he pse ndon

260-1, andG.N. Verrando,Liberio-Felice', ivista i StoriadellaChiesa n talia 35 1989), esp.p. 53,n. 70.

34P. Amory, eopleandIdentitynOstrogothictaly,489-554 (Cambridge, 997),227-34

hasgiven fullyexturedndconvincing icture fthe volvingnimosityowards regimeanda heresy) ithwhich revious opeshadbeenrelativelyappy o do business; eepp. 196-227 forthe situationduringTheoderic'sreign. t is importanto note that t is onlytheGesta thatidentifiesusebiusas an anti- rian: hischurchhas no suchassociation. can findnothing osupportDe Spirito's uggestionhatSantaBibianawasthebase for Liberian/Ursinianaction(De Spirito, itulus Eusebii',LTUR (above,n. 27) II, 239-40).3 LP (above,n. 11) I, 249. H. Geertman,More Veterum.I LiberPontificalis gli edificiecclesiastici i Roma nella tardaantichità nell'altomedioevoGroningen, 975), 190-1, hassuggestedhat thad beenbegun by Simplicius's redecessor ilarus 461-8).

For a summary f variousviews on the preceding tructures,ee G. De Spirito,S.Bibiana', nLTUR (above,n. 27) I, 194-5. That twas an older ultbuilding edicatedwith hetranslationf Bibiana's relicswas proposed byJ.P.Kirsch, RòmischeMartyrerlegendenndaltchristlicheirchenRoms', in Festschrift eorgvonHer ing umSiebzigsten eburtstagem21. Aug 1913 (Kempten,1913), 56, and J.P.Kirsch, I santuaridomestici i martiri ei titoli

romani',AttidellaPontificia ccademiaRomanadiArcheologia.erie 3: Rendiconti (1923-4),43; Krautheimer,BCR (above,n. 27) I, 93,thought hypogaeum,emeteryr Romanedifice'was thebasis; for hehypothesisor speculation) hatthesurvivingemainsndicate Romandomus, ee S. Vasco Rocca, Santa Bibiana Rome, 1983),23 and 35. Even fprevious tructureshad been cemeterial ather hanresidentialand none of thediscovered urialsseem to datebefore he fifthentury:ee below), t s a speculativeeap to suggest hat nybodies thatwerefoundweretaken to be those ofmartyrs,s did A. Dufourcq,Étude sur les Gestamartyrumromains (Paris,1910),123-6,andP. Franchi e' Cavalieri,Noteagiogr ficheV {Studi testi 4)(Rome, 1912), 18, n. 1. On the architecturalriginsof titular hurches ee F. Guidobaldi,'L'ediliziaabitativa nifamiliareellaRoma tardoantica',n A. Giardina ed.), Società romanaimpero ardoanticoL Roma:politica, conomia, aesaggiourbanoRome/Bari, 986),165-237,esp. pp. 231-7.

LP (above,n. 11) I, 249: basilicam ntra rbeRoma, iuxtapalatiumLicinianum, eatae

martyrisibianae,ubi corpusrequiescit'.








its eftide; hese eem ohaveprovidedhebasesfor he hurch fSanPaolo

(orSanti implicio,austino Beatrice),oundedyLeo II in682-3, nd forthemonasteryt SantaBibiana,which bsorbed hededicationsfnotthebuildingsf he atterhurchnd was nexistencey807. 8SantaBibiana ndits mmediateicinity,hen, ere nall likelihoodapal propertyrom t eastthe atefifthentury.

While hechurcheshemselvesere stablishedn thefifthentury,heburial lustersntheir icinityavegenerallyeenheld, nthebasis ofnon-stratigraphicata,tobelong redominantlyo the ixth entury.39ompari-sonswith rchaeological aterialromther,more asily atable, emeterieswithinhewalls lsopoint o dates tthe eryndof he ifth,ndmore irmlyin thesixth,entury.he tile-roofed,cappuccina,rave ound n theVia

Mamiani n the area of Sant'Eusebios comparableo graves overedcappuccinatnearlyll the rban emeterieshat anbe showno datebetweenthe ate ifthnd eventhenturies:his ype fgrave-coveringasnotgenerallyinuse nRome fterhe eventhenturynany ase.40 hereusedarcophagiburiednfrontfthefa9ade f SantaBibiana reparalleledythat tSantaSusannana cemeteryhich tile tamp fTheodericllows stodate,nalllikelihood,othe ixthentury.41

Thegravestthe hresholdfSantaBibiana,while ertainlyxemplifyingthe esireffamiliesopositionhe odies f heir ead as close spossibleosaintlyelics,lsodemonstratehat he lergyould xert reciseontrolver

38LP (above,n. 11) I, 360 and II, 24,andseeG. Ferrari, arlyRomanMonasteriesVaticanCity,1957),68-73. Leo IPs churchdoes not appear in theEinsiedeln tinerary, hichdoes,however, efero Santa Bibiana: R. Valentini nd G. Zucchettieds), Codicetopograficoellacittàdi RomaII {Fonti er la storiad'Italia 88) (Rome, 1942), 189.The present hurch lmost

certainlyatesfrom hepontificatefHonorius II (1216-27). The currenttateofknowledgehas been summarized ully yKrautheimern CBCR (above, n. 27) I, 93, and now Coates-

Stephens,Dark age architecturenRome' (above,n. 27), 187.39PaniErmini,Forma rbis renovadomurorwrìabove,n. 24), 204withn. 45; seealso De

Rossi Rnma otterranearistianaabove, n. 12Ì. 507.40For example,most of the burials in the graveyard ext to the Colosseumwere a

cappuccina,nd aredatablebetween hefifthnd seventh enturies:Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani,Sepolturentramuranee'above,n. 4), no. 6,p. 98, and,formoredetail,R. Rea, 'II

Colosseoe la valleda Teodorico i Frangipane: otedi studio', n P. Delogu andL. Pároli eds),La storia conomica iRomanell'altomedioevolla luce deirecenticaviarcheologiciFlorence,1993), 71-88, esp. pp. 75-81. It is generally onsidered hata cappuccinaburialswerenot

employedn Rome laterthanthe seventh entury: ee Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani,'Sepolturentramuranee'above,n. 4), p. 96 withn. 65,butalso thequalificationsfAugenti,'lacere n Palatio' above,n. 14),118.Thegrave n theVia Mamiani s attestedn thenotebooksofG. Gatti,now in theArchivioCentraledello Stato,Arch.GattiR.IV, f. 19,and notedbyMeneghini nd SantangeliValenzani,Sepolturentramuranee'above,n. 4), no. 11,p. 99.

4rThedata on Santa Bibiana (Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani, Sepolturentramur-anee' (above,n. 4), no. 64,p. 105) firstppeared n NotiziedegliScavidiAntichità1880), 464,and is supplemented y information rawnfromunpublisheddocuments n the ArchivioCentraledello Stato, noticed in Meneghiniand SantangeliValenzani, 'Aggiornamenticonsiderazioni'above,n. 13), 284. For Santa Susanna,Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani,

'Sepolturentramuranee'above,n. 4), no. 23,pp. 100and 106.







180 COSTAMBEYS

this ctivity.tmaybe doubted hatBibiana'srelicswere ctually resentt the

church.Herpassio's claim that he was buried n herfamily ome,next o hermartyredmother nd sister s, of course,a topos, and the extant ext s noearlierthan the seventh entury,42ut the belief hat t held herbodywascurrentnthemid-sixthentury, hen heLiberPontificalis as written.43heestablishment f the cemeteryhereby thisdate shows that the notion ofad sonetosburial exerted strongernfluence hanany legalprohibition. heburial of the bodies closest to the church n sarcophagi,ratherthan inamphorae or a cappuccina graves, suggests hat social status- and, byextension,wealth helpedto determine urials'proximityo holyrelics.44However, fat Santa Bibiana wealthbought grave lose to thechurch, hemanycemeteriesn placeswhereno church tood ndicate hatneitherwealth

nor relicswerethe main determinantsf burialtopographyn sixth-centuryRome. Clues to theprocess by which urban cemeterieswere established ierathern theprevioushistory oth of thechurches fSant'Eusebio and SantaBibiana and ofthe ands around them.

As has beenmentioned, oth churches tood withinwhat had oncebeenhorti.These were not huge, continuous,monolithic states,but parklandsbrokenby independentmaller ropertiesnd buildings.A boundary-markeror cippusfound t Sant'Eusebio ndicates hatthechurch tood on whathadonce been the northernoundary f the HortiTauriani itrecords he borderbetween hose horti nd theHortiCalyclani,plausibly ocated furthero the

north).45t seems ikely hat heHortiTaurianihad been broken p inthefirstcentury,ndbytheearlyfourthentury nlyoneof tsputativeubdivisionss

42BHL (above, n. 33) 1,322-3 (see also Bibliotheca anctorumII, 177-81). The textknownnterchangeablys thePassiosanctaeBibianae, hePassiosanciiPi(g)meniind thePassiosanctorum austietPigmenii was analyzedbyH. Delehaye,Étude ur e legendieromain,essaintsdeNovembretdeDécembreSubsidiahagiographica3) (Brussels, 936),124-43,with neditionfrom heVatican ms lat. 1193 at pp. 259-63; another dition s in Cataloguscodicumhagiographicorumntiquiorumaeculo XVI, qui asservanturn bibliotheca ationaliParisiensi(Brussels,1889), , 520-3. Bibiana's feast on 2 December) appears first n theHieronymianMartyrologynly nan eighth-centuryopy,ms G (Paris,BN lat. 12048, heGelloneBreviary):Martyrologiumieronymianum,xx. The topos offamily ropertynd church oundation as

beenrefinedyC. Pietri,Donateurs tpieux tablissements'après e legendieromainVe-VIPs.)\inHagiographie,ulture tsociétés,Ve-XIesiècles.Actesducolloque rganise Nanterret àParis (2-5 mai 1979) (Paris,1981),435-53, reprintedn Christiana espublica. lements 'uneenquète ur e christianismentique I (Rome, 1997),1,187-205.^ LP (above,n. 11) I, 249; seefurther. Donckel, Studien berdenKultusderhi.Bibiana',RómischeQuartalschrift3 (1935), 23-33; 'Der Kultus der hi. Bibiana in Rom', RivistadiArcheologia ristiana14 (1937), 125-35; and Delehaye,Étudesur le legendieromainaboven. 42), 135.

Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani, Aggiornamenti considerazioni'above,n. 13)286.

45Grimal,Les jardins romains above, n. 21), 149-50 and 160; P. Grimal, Les HortiTaurianL tudetopographiqueur eregion e la PorteMajeure',Melangesde l'ÉcoleFrangaisedeRome,Antiquité3 1936),250-86; andnow E. Papi, HortiTauriani', nLTUR (above n.27)

111,85.







BURIAL TOPOGRAPHY AND CHURCH POWER 181

listedntheRegionary atalogues, heHortiPallantiani.46 he latter, owever,

probablyayto the outhoftheVia Tiburtina,n the rea where anta Bibianawas to be built,while ant'Eusebiooccupied and furtherorth, hatmayoncehave fallenwithin he horti stablished ytheemperorGallienus n the thirdcentury.47 hile thehortihad neverbeen solid blocks of land, they eem tohave broken ownfurthernthefourthentury, ith hoseon theEsquiline, selsewhere,pparently rovidingand for he domus f senatorial ristocrats.48At the same time, t has been proposed,the southern lopes of the hill,includingheplacethatbecame SantaBibiana,were ubsumed yConstantineinto a hugeSessorium omplex, tretchingrom heVia Tiburtina o thewallssouth f SantaCroce nGerusalemme, hichdidnot fall ompletelyutof useuntil heperiodofthe GothicWars.49

The coincidenceof the pontificate f Santa Bibiana's likelyfounderSimpliciuswith hedeposition fthe astwesternmperormplies ither hatthepopesomehow ppropriatedartof thismperial omplex orhischurch, rthat tpassedtohim hrough legitimateransfer.itherway, hepassagefromStatetoChurch ooksto havebeenfairly irect. ropertyransfersf this ortin the area can be tracedas farback as the Constantinian ra, sincePopeSylvester avea hortusdiaduo amantes', lausiblyocated n this egion, o thetitulusquitii,while heemperor imself aveto San Lorenzofuoriemura he

possessioMicinasAugusti, hichmayrecall heHortiMaecenatis hathad oncecovered wideareato thesouthoftheForumEsquilinum.50ant'Eusebio,on

theother and,hasentirelyrivate ssociations.t wasestablished ext oortotheprobable iteofa domus fthepagan senatorVettiusAgoriusPraetextatus

(praefectusrbi 67-8; ob. 384) and,as wehaveseen, radition ecords hat tsfounder as another rivatendividual fmeans.51 hefoundationf churchesonprivate states n theEsquilinewas byno meansunusual.Pope Simplicius,for instance,once again involvinghimself n property n the Esquiline,transformedhe basilica of JuniusBassus into the churchof Sant'AndreaCatabarbara.52 his aterbecame ssociatedwith hetoponymMassa Iuliana',

46For thepresumed

reakup f theHortiTauriani, ee the referencesnthepreviousnote,togetherwithD. Mancioli, Horti Epaphroditiani',n LTUR (above, n. 27) III, 60; 'HortiPallantiani', n LTUR (above,n. 27) III, 77. For theRegionaryCatalogues,R. Valentini ndG. Zucchettieds),CodicetopograficoellacittàdiRoma {Fonti er a storia 'Italia81) (Rome,1942),105 and 170.

4/F. Guidobaldi, II 'TempiodiMinervaMedica' e le strutturediacenti: ettore rivato elSessoriumostantiniano', ivista iArcheologia ristiana 4 (2) (1998),485-518, at pp. 496-7.

*°Guidobaldi, II 'Tempiodi MinervaMedica' (above,n. 4/j, du^-4.ACi - - - <■ ,- - ,- • -* -m m- ■» r "t t * / ■% A F^\ rf\f\ 1 ^yGuidobaldi, 11Tempiodi MinervaMedica ^aoove,n. 4/;, duu-iz.DVLP (above,n. 11), 171 and 182 (and see JDuchesnecomment n me iormer, . ios,

n. 12); C. Haüber, HortiMaecenatis\LTUR (above,n. 27) III, 70-4.JlA.H.M. Jones,J.R. Martindale nd J.Morris,Thefrosopograpnyj me i,aier tornan

Empire, . a.d. 260-395 [hereafterLRE\ (Cambridge,1971), sub nominePraetextatus ;F. Guidobaldi, Domus:VettiusAgoriusPraetextatus',TUR (above,n. 27) II, 164.

52LP (above,n. 11) I, 249; M. Cecchelh,S. Andreas7,TUR (above,n. II) 1,3y.







182 COSTAMBEYS

a name thatrecalls hatof several ristocratic omenof the fourth nd fifth

centuries,nd maythereforeointto the church's atrons t that ime.53 hetoponym eemsto have had broad applicabilitycross theEsquiline, ince twas also later ttached o the area of the former ortiMaecenatis, s well asotherplaces on theEsquiline.54 races ike these ndicate hetriangularela-tionship etween tate,Church nd privatendividuals hatgovernedRomanpropertymovementsand so muchelse) in thisperiod.The three verlappingentities ombinedn differentermutationsneachbuilding rplotof and. Butit would bewrong o see these elationshipsimplyn terms f the ontractsndtransactions f propertyaw. When it came to cemeteries,t least,practicalengagement,fnotcontrol,was ustas much matter f social status ndritual,and here heChurchhad an obviousadvantage.The treatmentf thedead saw

originally ivic rituals nd institutionsradually oalesce with those of theChurch.

THE ROMAN FUNERARY LITURGY IN THE FIFTH AND SIXTHCENTURIES

A basic coincidence uggests hatchanges n the ocation of burials n Romemaybe linked o thedevelopmentfthe iturgy:omplete uneraliturgiesreattested rom he ater ighthnd earlyninth enturies,t aboutthe ametimethatburialswere nvariably oming o be placedaround ifnot in) a church.

For theprecedingeriod here s no direct ndication f such close associationbetween rave ocation nd liturgy. evertheless,heearlier iturgicalvidenceattestsn increasingolefor heclergynfuneraryrocedure, hichmay mplyan increase n ecclesiastical owerover other spectsof the treatmentf thedead. Even nthefourthentury,hurch ndgravewerebeingphysicallyrawntogetherutside hecitywalls, s theabsorption ffamily ravesideommem-orations nto the Eucharistic eremonies erformedt martyr hrineshadpromoted heconstruction fchurches t thesuburban emeteries.55iturgythereforepensanotherwindowon theecclesiasticizationf burialpracticentheperiodbetween hefourth enturynd theCarolmgian ge of thechurch

graveyard.he evidence or formal

iturgyfburial n this

pre-Carolingian

53The toponymMassa Iuliana' is attached o what s almostcertainlyhischurch n theLiberPontificali^ donation-listf Leo III: LP (above,n. 11) II, 23. One candidatefor thetoponym' origin s AniciaTyrraniauliana,daughter fAniciusAucheniusBassus,praefectusurbi n 382: seePLRE (above,n. 51), subnomine.

54Haüber,HortiMaecenatis' above,n. 50); G.B. De Rossi, La basilicaprofana iGiunioBasso sull'Esquilinodedicatapoi a S. Andreaed appellatacatabarbarapatricia',Bullettino iArcheologia ristiana (2) (1871),5-30, at p. 28.

B. Kòtting,Die Tradition erGrabkirche',nK. Schmid nd J.Wollasch eds),Memoria.Der GeschichtlicheeugniswertesLiturgischenedenkensmMittelalterMunich,1984),69-78;A. Chavasse,La liturgiee la ville e Romedu Ve u VIIF siede (StudiaAnselmiana12) Rome,

1993),47-67, esp. pp. 50-1 and 56-7.








period svery canty, owever, artly ecauseburialritesweregenerallylaced

atthe nd ofservice ooks,where hey avebeenmoreprone o succumb othehazards of manuscript ransmission.56he gradual emergence f Christianburialrites an be traced ack atleastto thethird entury,heprobabledateofthe Didascalia Apostolorum, hich notes the custom of celebrating heEucharist tfunerals.57hefourth-centurypostolic onstitutionsecommendssinging t funerals, resumably f the psalms that are mentioned n thisconnectionn other ources,58nd both Jeromend Augustine escribed heburial ustoms fthe ate fourthnd early ifthenturies.59hristian unerals,itseems,wereoften penand noisy vents,with ittle olemnityr regulation:EmperorJulian's ensure f funeralshatwerepublicspectacleswas probablyespecially irectedgainstChristian ractice.60lthoughuchrituals etained

basicallyinformal haracter, t is neverthelesslear that the Churchwasbecomingnsinuatedntotheprocess fburial, ndRome s likely ohavebeenno differentrom nyotherChristian ommunityn thisrespect.

Direct vidence or nykindof iturgynuse atRome s,however,ackingbefore he atefifthenturyt theearliest.61t was then hat, ccording o theLiberPontificate,ope Gelasiuscomposedwith arefulwording, refacesnd

prayers orthesacraments'.62hismaycommemorate elasius's role in the

productionftheDeprecatio sually ttributedohim, he itany hat tRome

replacedthe traditionalOratio Fidelium.Unlike the latter, he Deprecatioincludeda petitionfor the Refrigeriumf faithful ouls.63Gelasius was

56See H.-R. Philippeau,Textes t rubriques es AgendaMortuorum\ rchivürLiturgie-wissenschaft(1955),52-72.D/R.H. Connolly ed.),DidascaliaApostolorumUxiora, lyzvj,¿di ^secuonxxvi;.

JOApostolicConstitutions.iU: see me reierencesn <jt. ^oweii,me niur^y uj ^ru^nun

Burial.An Introductoryurvey f theHistoricalDevelopmentf Christian urialRites AlcuinClubCollections9) (London, 1977),22; also F. Paxton,Christianizingeath: theCreation fa

RitualProcess nEarlyMedievalEurope Ithaca/London, 990),esp. p. 25.59Jerome,Epistolae 108.30 (edited by J.-P. Migne, PatrologiaLatina 22, col. 8/8).

Augustine, onfessions.12 (edited nd translatedyH. Chadwick Oxford, 991),174-6).60Rowell,TheLiturgyfChristian urial above,n. 58), 22-3; Codexmeoaosianusy.u.j

(translated yPharr above,n. 8), 240) (issuedat Antioch,12 February 63), compareCodex

Justinianus19. . .blIn general, ee C. Vogel,MedievalLiturgy. n introductiono me sourcestxeviscumu

translated yW.G. Storey nd N.K. Rasmussen) Washington, 986; originalFrenchpublica-tion, poleto,1981),37.Chavasse,La liturgiee a ville eRome above,n. 55),27-46 and47-68,is also useful, utnotethathisattempto reconstructheRomanlibellimissarumnwhich he

Old GelasianSacramentaryasbasedhavemetwith trong isagreement:or xample, . Hen,The liturgyf StWillibrord', nglo-Saxon ngland 6 (1997),41-62, at p. 49 withn. 45.

bZLP above,n. 11)I, 225: sacramentorumraelationestorationes,auio sermone uaus».R. Davis, TheBookofPontiffs'LiberPontificalisJLiverpool,1989),43.

63P. de Clerck,La 'Prièreuniverelle' dans es liturgiesnciennesLiturgiewissenscnajuicneQuellen ndForschungen2) (Münster, 977),170-2,gives he ext ftheDeprecatio.thasbeen

discussed lluminatinglynd withfullreferencesyG. Constable,The commemorationfthe

dead in theearlymiddle ges', in J.M.H. Smith ed.), EarlyMedievalRomeand theChristian

West Essays inHonourofDonald A. BulloughLeiden,2000), 169-95, at pp. 181-5.On the







184 COSTAMBEYS

probablylsoresponsibleor ntroducingheprayerMementotiam nto he

canon f heMass,perhapsaid nconjunctionithhe ecitationf henamesofthe ommemoratedead.64 ythe ime fPope Gregory, however,hesepetitionsad beenomittedromhedailyMass.An office or hedeadwasinstitutednstead,erhapsndernfluencerom aul.65 hat hiswasnot o berecitednSundaysndfeast-daysndicateshatGregory aswary fforgingtoo close nassociationetweenhe ommemorationfsaintsndthat fthedead.66hishalting evelopmentuts he ieto the rgumentfMarrou,nhisconservativeesponseo the iturgicaleformshat ollowed aticanI, whopromotedhenotion hat he iturgicalepertoiread beenfixedn Rome searly s thethird r fourthenturies,nd vaunted tseloquence.67n thecontrary,heRoman iturgyeems o haveundergone ajor hanges etweenthepontificatesf Gelasius nd Gregory,ot the east of whichwas theincorporationf ommemorationf he ead nto he iturgicaloutinef verychurch.

IftheRoman hurchmanaged o relocate ommemorationf thedeadfrom hegravesideo churchesandtherefore,t eastnmany ases, o withinthe ity),t s far essclearwhether,ndwhen,t effectedhe ame hange nthe itualsurroundingurialtself. cclesiasticalurial itualsmergenlynthe vidence or heRomanOrdines,heearliestompletedentifiablyomanburial ite n Andrieu's ollection fOrdines omanis OrdoXLIX,whichdates robablynly romhe eryate ighthr arly inthentury.68owever,

othermanuscriptsontainingrdinesor he eadfrom ome, atingromheeighthenturynd ater, ave lso been dentified,ndthese nclude prayertaken romheOldGelasian acramentary,hich tselfs ofseventh-century

disappearance f the Oratio Fidelium rom iturgical exts t the end of the fifthentury,eeChavasse,La liturgiee la villede Rome above,n. 55), 32-3 and 40-3.

The Memento tiamhas beenpublished n E. Moeller,J.M. Clement nd B.C. Wallant(eds),CorpusOrationum,0 vols CorpusChristianorum,eriesLatina160A-I) (Turnhout, 992-7),X, 85,no. 6272a. See also M. Andrieu,L'insertion uMemento es morts ans e canondelamesse',Revue des SciencesReligieuses (1921), 151-4; furthereferences avebeengivenbyConstable,The commemorationfthedead' (above,n. 63), 185,n. 57,and see p. 177for he

vexedquestion f therecitation f names n theMass.C. Callewaert,De officio efunctorum',acris Erudir: Fragmentaiturgica ollect amonachis ancii PetrideAldenburgonSteenbruggeepereantSteenbrugge, 940),169-77.

C. Leyser, he temptationsf cult:Romanmartyrietynthe geofGregoryheGreat',EarlyMedievalEurope (3) (2000). I amgratefuloConradLeyser or llowingmeto seea copyofthis rticlen advance ofpublication.

H.I. Marrou,Decadenceromaine u antiquitéardiveParis,1977),114,theshortcomingsof whoseviewhave beenpointed utbyP. Ariès,La liturgiencienne esfunérailles',nEnfacede la mortLa Maison-Dieu144) (Paris, 1980),49-57.

Ordo XLIX: M. Andrieu ed.), Les OrdinesRomanidu Haut Moyen Age IV (Louvain,1956),523-30. It is extant nly nan eleventh-centuryanuscript,utbears closeresemblanceto a sequenceofprayersnBerlin, eutscheStaatsbibliothek,hillippsms 1667,fols173v-174r,a copyof theGelasian Sacramentaryranscribed. 800,and printednH. Frank, Der àlteste

Ordo defunctorumerRòmischen iturgie',ArchivürLiturgiewissenschaft(1962), 363-4.








origin,nd ncorporatesven arlierlements.69t sthereforeossiblehat he

prayernquestionates romhe raof he emeteriesndernvestigationere.A liturgicallementnburial s of course o be expected,nthe ight fthegeneral, otspecificallyoman, vidence ited bove. What s not clear swhethern the atefifthndsixthenturieshis lement asalreadyufficientlystrongo directhe uneralrocessionoa churchntheway o the omb. heOrdineshow hatbytheend of theeighthenturyheritual omprisednuninterruptedycle, ithnObsequiumefore eath nd a continuousiturgyfrom heplaceof death ia a church o thegrave. hefragmentaryraces ftheirompositionnly int hat his rocedureas lreadymore han centuryoldwhen hemanuscriptsf theOrdines erewritten.

A littlemoreightanbe shed n the ixth-centuryituationfwebear n

mind hat numberftheurban emeteriesiscoveredhus ar re ssociatedwith o churcht all. Whateveruneraleremonyasperformedithinhewalls, herefore,tneednot, t this tage, avepassed hroughchurch.heevidenceor hecemeteriesround ant'EusebiondSantaBibiana, n theother and, uggestshat ome id.Ourvision ffifth-ndsixth-centuryurialpractice, hile lways oing o be opaque,thereforelsoneeds o bemulti-faceted. lerics videntlyttendedraves oth ttachedo churchesndfarfrom hem.Clericalnfluenceverritual annotbe taken s a categoricalindicationf similar ontrol verthe location f burials, hought maycertainlyeem o implyt.Other vidences relevantere:nparticularhat

which evealshepracticalitiesfselecting,cquiringnddigging grave.GRAVEDIGGERSNDBURIALEXPENSES

It cannot eassumed,implyecause llcitizensfRome andoftheEmpireas a whole)wereChristianythe atefifthentury,hat heChurchuto-maticallydministeredndcontrolledll cemeteries.70eforehe riumphfChristianity,here adbeenno a priorieasonwhy hristianshould ave eenburied n exclusivelyhristian raveyards.71ightly ontrolled hristiancemeteriesidnotexist: ather,lericalnfluenceas njectednlygradually

69D. Sicard,La liturgiee la mort ansVégliseatine esorigines la reformearolingienne(Munster, 978) has identifiedightmanuscriptsontaining rdines orthedead fromRome,which nclude prayer hat,he has demonstratedpp. 79-102), was that n theOld Gelasian

Sacramentary111.91). n excellentummaryfwork ntheOldGelasian, ncludingtsdate,hasbeenprovided y Vogel,MedievalLiturgyabove,n. 61), 66-9.

70On thewhole question, ee most recentlynd usefully: . Rebillard, Les tonnesdel'assistance unéraireansl'EmpireRomainet eur volution ans l'antiquité ardive',AntiquitéTardive7 (1999),269-82; Égliseetsepulture ansl'antiquité ardiveOccidentLatin3e-6e s.)',Annales.Histoire, ciencesSociales5 (1999), 1027-46.

Rebillard,Eglise et sepulture ans l'antiquité ardive' above, n. 70); see turther .L.

Willen,The Christianss theRomansSaw Them New Haven, 1984), 34-44 and K. Hopkins,

DeathandRenewalCambridge, 983),211-17.







186 COSTAMBEYS

and overa long period into traditional atterns nd practices.Burial had

generally een a private ffair, ithfamilies urchasing lotsfortheir ombsthatremained nalienable hereafter.72onstantine's rovision f burialfree fchargefor ll the nhabitants fConstantinople as exceptional; lsewhere heState generallyntervenednlyfor the burial of thepoor or of abandonedcorpses.73hepoorcould also turn o richpatrons oprovide urialplots, ndcollegia generally ook care of theirown members.The latter,however,increasinglyttracted hehostilityf theChurch,which,from heearlyfifthcentury, as designated ytheemperoroprovide or heburialofthepoor.74This official anction of the insinuation f clericalpower nto a previouslysecular overnmentctivitysmore oncreten the ase ofpauperburial han nthose, uch as the administrationf the dole inRome, nwhich t s only ver

inferred.75ventheevidence orpauperburial s notentirelyxplicit, owever.As with iturgy,uronly lear view s of theend of theprocess, ywhich imethe whole procedureof burial had become immersed n the ritual andadministrationf theChurch.All we can say of the earlierperiod s that tarrived t thisfinal ointonly lowly nd haltingly.

The profession f gravedigging,oo, was subjectto a similar nsidiousecclesiastical nfluence. rom an early date, Christianity ad accorded aparticular, rivileged, lace in itsthinkingo gravediggers.hose who burieddead bodies werepromised irst lace in theresurrectionytheapocryphalIEsdras,and thethird-centurypostolicTraditionistedgravediggers'ees s a

legitimate urialexpense.76 he evidencefor ate imperialRome offers wowordsforthosechargedwith the burial of thedead: copiataeandfossores.Rebillard ecentlyas proposed hat ossores, ather hanbeing general erm

72J.M.C.Toynbee,Death andBurial ntheRomanWorldLondon, 1971),74-8.73NovellaeXLIII and LIX: P. Kriiger ed.), Corpus uris Civilis II (Berlin,1954); see also

Codex ustinianus .2.18 P. Kriigered.), CorpusurisCivilis I. Codex ustinianusBerlin, 954)).Rebillard,Les formes e l'assistance unéraire'above,n. 70), 269-75, and n. 85 forConstan-tine'sdispensationn Constantinople,ontraP. Testini,Archeologiaristianasecondedition)(Bari, 1986),154,n. 1,whothoughthatConstantine ad been nspired ythe ossores t Rome(see below).

Rebillard,Les formes e l'assistancefunéraire'above,n. 70), 273, and see P. Brown,Power ndPersuasion nLate Antiquity.owards ChristianmpireMadison, 1992),71-117,whohas shownhowbishops ould accruepowerwithin heir ities,whether eliberatelyrnot,through aking areofthoseexcludedfrom hetraditionalmodelofcitizenry.

J.Durliat,De la ville ntique la ville yzantine.eproblème es ubsistancesParis/Rome,1990), esp. pp. 134-7, basinghisview on the workof K. Hannestad, specially 'evolution esressourcesgricoles e l'Italie du4èmeau 6ème iede denotre re Copenhagen,1962);see nowMarazzi,/Patrimonia anctaeRomanaeEcclesiae nelLazio (above,n. 26), 70-1 and n. 94.

II Esdras2.23. B. Botte ed.),Apostolic radition,h.34 Sources hrétiennes1bis) Paris,1968), 122-3. The attributionf this textto Hippolytus s contestedRebillard, Église etsepulture ans Pantiquité ardive' above,n. 70), 1035); tdoes notmention ites fburial,butstipulateshat hepoorshouldnotbecharged eavily, utshouldpaythegravediggerisfee ndmeetthecostoftilesfor hetomb.See furtherowell,TheLiturgyfChristian urial aboven.

58), 18-19.








for thoseofficiallyecognized ravediggers ho worked n the service f the

cities,were imply particularubset f thecopiatae.77 ythebeginningf thefifthentury,egaltexts ndicate he ssimilationf thesemenwith he lergy.78However,Guyonhas shown both thatcollegiacontinued o make their wnprovisionforburial and thatgravediggersetained measure of indepen-dence.79While the Churchoperated n the same orbit as the gravediggingcorporations,here eems o havebeen no definitiveakeover ftheir owers.Evenin the ate sixth enturyheir ositionmaystillhavebeen similar o thecustodesmentioned y Pope Gregory , who werechargedwiththe admin-istrationf ndividual hurchesand of burialswithin hem)but seemto havestood outsidethe formal anksof theclergy.80he impression f thegrave-

diggers'ontinued ndependence rom he clergy s onlystrengthenedf,as

Guyonhas suggested,hey etained heir eesfordigging raves, ather hanlettinghempass intoecclesiasticaloffers.

Gravediggers'eeswerenottheonly, r eventhemain,expense fdeath,however: urialplotsthemselvesftenhad to be purchased.The latter umsneedto be carefully istinguishedrom hefeespaid togravediggers.ormulaeinsurvivingnscriptionseveal hatbythe ndofthefifthentury aymentsorburialplotswerebeingreceived ypraepositind priests.81he attachmentfsomeofthesepriests o titularhurchesuggests modelfor heway n whichthe cemetery round Sant'Eusebio was administered.82 letterof PopeGregory indicates hat,bytheendofthesixth entury,hese umshad also

77Rebillard,Les formes e l'assistance unéraire'above,n. 70), 274,contraJ.-P.Waltzing,Étudehistoriqueur les corporationsrofessionelleshez les Romains, vols (Louvain, 1895-

1912), I, 130-2./8CodexTheodosianus3.1.1 translatedyPharr above,n. 8), 38S), ssueubyconstantius

in 356 'clericswho arecalledcopiatae9); 6.2.15 translatedyPharr above,n. 8),443), ssuedbyConstantiusnd Constans, 59/60'clerics nd thosepersonswhomrecent sagehas beguntocall copiatas"). or comment,ee Rebillard,Les formes e l'assistance unéraire'above,n. 70),275-6; notealso 7.20.12,of400, n whichArcadius ndHonoriuscomplained hatmenseekingto avoidmilitaryerviceookonthe loakofclerical tatus:they reprotectinghemselvesythetitle f cleric nd occupied nunholy bsequiesfor hedead'.

79J.Guyon, La ventedes tombes travers'epigraphie e la Rome chretiennelir-vir

siècles):e ròle

àcsfossores,mansionarii,raeposititprètres',Melangesde l'École Franpaise e

Rome,Antiquité6 1974),549-96; seealso E. CondeGuerri, osfossores eRomapaleocristiana(Estudio conografico,pigrafico social) (Studidi antichità ristiana 3) (Rome, 1979); Pietri,RomaChristianaabove,n. 32), I, 131-4 and 659-67; C. Pietri,Appendiceprosopographiquela Roma Christiana',Melangesde l'École Frangaise e Rome,Antiquité9 (1977), 371-415, at

pp. 398-406;andG. CantinoWataghinndC. Lambert,Sepolture città.L'Italia settentrionaletra V e Vili secolo', in Brogioloand CantinoWataghineds), Sepolture ra V e Vili secolo(above,n. 5), 89-114 at pp. 105-6.80

Gregory, ialogues V.54 (editedbyde Vogüé (above,n. 9), 178-81).51The evidence s listedby Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzam,Aggiornamenti con-

siderazioni'above,n. 13),288,n. 14.*zPriests fthe itularhurchesfSanCnsogonoandSantaF rasseaeappear n nscriptions.

Silvagnied.), ICUR n.s. II (above,n. 12),4279 and Ferma(ed.), ICUR n.s.VII (above,n. 12),19991respectively.ote,however,hatboth nscriptionseferothe aleofplots n the uburban

cemeteriesfSan Pancrazioand San Hippolytus.







188 COSTAMBEYS

acquired ther onnotations. ritingoBishop anuarius fCagliarin598,

Gregoryondemnedxcessivehargesor urial,but f tany ime ou llowanyoneo be buriednyour hurch,nd theparents,elationsrheirs f uchpersonshould f heirwn ccordwish o offeromethingorights, edo notforbidt to beaccepted'.83his ingleextuggestshe ssimilationy he ndofthe ixthenturyfthree ifferentypes fpayment:hegravediggers'ee,thepurchase rice f theburial lot, nd theeuergetismhat ftenccom-panied urial.Gregorympliedhat urialsna church thats,on ecclesiast-icalproperty didnotnecessarilyncur charge,utmight rofitheChurchanyway,hroughts bsorptionfthe uergetismraditionallyssociated ithburial.

CONCLUSION: BURIAL, PROPERTY AND THE POWER OFTHE CHURCH

Throughouthe former esternmpire, xpressionsf the status f thedeceased,ndofhisor her amily,nderwenttransformationsgrave-goods,inscriptionsndtombmonumentsaveway o formsf cclesiasticalatronagethatmaintainedtwin ocus nthe eceased's tatus efore eathndfate fterit.84 n thisrespect,ixth-centuryome was evidently city n transition.Goodsweretill eing epositedngravesnsome emeteries,s those ecentlyexcavatedntheVignaBarberininthe alatine emonstrate.85ut hesewere

notgenerallytems fgreat alue, ndthemonumentsnd nscriptionshat adadorned uburbanemeteriesre ltogetherbsent romhosewithinhe ity.86Funeraryxpenditureas directednstead owardshekinds fdonation fwhich regoryrote.nsome laces t east,herefore,andownersere ivingtheir ropertyo the hurch,rat least othe lergy,s part f thefuneraryritual. lthoughheres no evidencehat hese onationsncludedheburialplots hemselves,hey everthelessrovidedfurtherncentiveor he lergyotake ontrolf thewhole urial rocedure.

83D. Norberg ed), Registrumpistolarum regoriiMagni,VIII.35 {Monumenta ermaniae

Histórica, pistolae : Bk IX, no. 3); translatednRowell,TheLiturgy fChristianurial above,n. 58),25; alsoDialogues V.54 (edited ydeVogüé above,n.9),178) 'episcopus, cceptopretio,locumin ecclesiapraebuit,n quo sepeliridebuisset').Norberg nd Rowell differs to whatGregory onsidered o be an excessive ee:theformer ave 3 solidi, he atter100!Gregory'sparticular roblemswith hesenile nd eccentricanuarius,notedbyR. Markus,GregoryheGreat nd hisWorldCambridge, 997),110-1, do notdetract rom hegeneral alidity ftheassociation hathe positedbetween urialcharges nd euergetism.

For a penetratingxamination, ith mplications ellbeyondLombard taly, ee C. LaRocca, 'Segni di distinzione.Dai corredifunerari lle donazioni 'post obitum'nel regnolongobardo',nPároli ed.), L'Italia centro-settentrionalenetà longobardaabove,n. 4). 31-54

F. Villedieu,La VignaBarberiniPalatino):nuoveacquisizioni',Archeologia aziale 12(1) (1995), 33-9.

Meneghini nd SantangeliValenzani, Aggiornamenti considerazioni'above,n. 13),

286.








Strikinglybsentfrom his cenario re saints.Graves ometimes lustered

around churches though n onlya minority f cases), but those churchescannotbe said to have contained, r evento have been believed o contain,saintly elics.The occasionalpresence fhigher tatusburials n and aroundchurchesmay represent desirenot forproximityo a saint,butfor he mostdirect ossiblerelationship ith he Church.Suchgraves, fter ll, had to beboughtfrom heclergyeffectivelyfnot actually); therplotsneednot havebeen.Theformerhereforeuaranteed irect ponsorshipfprayer. his orderofprioritiesontinues o be evident enturiesater,whenchurchgraveyardswere ullystablishednd burialswere outinely ade nside hurches. he actsofthe CouncilofMainz of813, nprohibitingnyonefrom eingburied n achurchxcept he lergynd those idelesaiciwhohadmade donations o that

church,herebyonfirmhat he ocationof burialswas governeds muchbylevelsofpatronage s bythewidespread esireforproximityo theholy.87

It is inthis ight hatwe shouldview hefate f thehorti n theEsquiline.The evidence ndicates hattheyfragmenteduring hefourth entury, ithtractsbeing parcelledout to senatorialaristocrats. ome parts evidentlyremainedn thehandsoftheState, houghwhetherny uch ingle lockwas asextensives has been suggested orConstantine's essoriums hardto say.88Those areas thatbecamecemeterieswerethe subjectsnot so muchof legalpropertyransactionss ofchanges n function.Whetherransferredrappro-priated, hey ame nto thehandsofthosebestpositioned o exercise veryday

control here.The resultingnvironmentfferedo theRoman Churchtheopportunityraduallyogainpower verwhatmusthavebeenbroadstretchesofthecity-scape.

Theappearance furban emeteriesnRometherefore ust e seen s onedimensionfthedisputes ver cclesiastical ropertyhat onvulsed hecitynthe atefifthnd throughouthesixth enturies. hesedidnotconcern implythe claims of lay patronsto property hat theythemselves ad givento

churches,ut nvolved convoluted ombinationffamily,action, lergynd

bishop n a contest or ontrol fall thosepropertieshat heRomanChurch

held,orcouldaspire ohold.89 emeteriesonstitutedustsuchproperties,nd

the nsinuationfthe lergyntotherituals fburial ndtheelection fburial

plotswas a significantssertion, onsciousor not,ofcontrol vertheurban

space.Thegrowthfurban emeteries as oneepisode n theRomanChurch's

appropriationfthedisintegratingabric ftheState nRome.

Marios Costambeys

87A. Werminghoffed.), ConciliumMoguntinense. 813 (Monumenta ermaniae istórica,ConciliaAeviKarolini 1:1) Hanover,1906),272.88Guidobaldi,11Tempio di MinervaMedica' (above,n. 4/),MJU-iz.

*ySeenowK. Cooper,The martyr,hematronandthebishop:mematron ucina ana me

politics fmartyrult nfifth-ndsixth-centuryome',EarlyMedieval urope (3) (1999),297-

317.

Documents

Burial Topography and the Power of the Church in Fifth- And Sixth-Century Rome