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Building on the Sound System of Spanish: Insights from the Alphabetic Spellings of English-Language LearnersAuthor(s): Lori A. HelmanReviewed work(s):Source: The Reading Teacher, Vol. 57, No. 5 (Feb., 2004), pp. 452-460Published by: International Reading AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20205383 .
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LORI A. HELMAN
Building on the sound system of Spanish:
Insights from the alphabetic spellings
of English-language learners
The sound system of Spanish may influence
the beginning writing behaviors of English
language learners who come from Spanish
speaking backgrounds. Teachers who have
background knowledge about Spanish, as
well as the factors that influence students'
language and literacy development in
English, have more tools to effectively
scaffold instruction for Spanish-speaking
students.
In the year 2000, 15% of the population in the United States between the ages of 5 and 17 had
difficulty speaking English; ofthat group, 73%
spoke Spanish (United States Census Bureau,
2002). The most recent census also documented
that over half of the U.S. foreign-born population in 1999 originated from Latin America, and that,
demographically, more and more of the Hispanic
population has moved from larger cities into small
er cities and rural areas (Population Reference
Bureau, 2002). The Spanish-speaking population in the United States is projected to reach 51 mil
lion, or 18% of the total, by the year 2025 (United States Census Bureau, 1995). It is imperative for
educators who are concerned with meeting all their
students' instructional needs to consider how a
Spanish-language background may affect students'
progress. This article examines how the sound system
of Spanish may influence the pronunciations and, in turn, the beginning writing behaviors of English
language learners who come from a Spanish
speaking background. Why is it that Spanish
speaking students learning to read in English may write espoyo when trying to spell a word like spoill
Why might a word like sub be written sav, or the, da! As more students enter school with Spanish as
their primary language, linguistic information that
addresses these issues should prove helpful to un
derstanding the strengths, as well as the areas of
support needed, for this sizable linguistic commu
nity (Bear, Templeton, Helman, & Baren, 2002;
Invernizzi, Abouzeid, & Gill, 1994).
The importance of sounds Literacy learning has been characterized as the
internalization of ever more complex understand
ings about written language, or orthographic
knowledge (Ehri, 1997; Ellis, 1997; Henderson & Beers, 1980; Templeton & Morris, 2000). This de
velopment proceeds through a series of phases, or
stages, that describe students' understandings about
print at a given time. Ehri (1997) outlined devel
opment from prealphabetic to partial alphabetic, full alphabetic, and finally the consolidated alpha betic stage. Henderson and Beers (1980) described
five stages of spelling: preliterate, letter-name, within-word pattern, syllable juncture, and deriva
tional principles. These models delineate students'
progress along a continuum beginning with limited
print awareness and moving to an initial under
standing of the alphabetic principle. Development then expands to full phonemic awareness and the
representation in writing of all salient sounds; con
tinues to grow as spelling patterns that move
452 ? 2004 International Reading Association (pp. 452-460)
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beyond one-letter, one-sound approaches become
understood; and blossoms at the more advanced
levels where an understanding of the spelling
meaning connection is necessary to be successful
at literacy tasks. Henderson and his students have
outlined three layers of ever-deepening ortho
graphic knowledge?the sound, pattern, and mean
ing layers (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, &
Johnston, 2000; Henderson, 1981; Henderson &
Templeton, 1986; Morris, Nelson, & Perney, 1986;
Templeton & Bear, 1992). Students' fundamental
understandings about written language continue to
be refined as they assimilate their knowledge of the
sound, pattern, and meaning layers of written
language.
Beginning readers' knowledge about how
words are written may be best classified as
"spelling by sound." Students at this alphabetic
stage of spelling rely on hearing and articulating the sound features of words to support their devel
opmental writing (Bear et al., 2000; Bradley &
Bryant, 1983; Ehri, 1998; McBride-Chang, 1998; Read, 1971; Salgado, 1995). Students challenge themselves to hear as many sounds as possible in
a word, and to encode these sounds with letters
they believe represent them.
Comparing the sounds of Spanish and English helps us to clarify possible difficulties that learn
ers may have in distinguishing specific sounds in
English; being aware of these sounds and attach
ing letters to represent them are key aspects of the
alphabetic spelling that beginning readers do (Ehri,
1998). Alphabetic writing builds a foundation for the development of more complex levels of reading and writing, which is a primary mission of school
ing (Cronnell, 1985; Labov, 2003).
The sound systems of English and Spanish
In the sections that follow I compare several
key areas of the sound systems of English and
Spanish. First of all, I examine the similarities and
differences in consonant sounds between the two
languages. Next, I explore how the more complex
system of English vowels may cause confusion for
second-language learners. Finally, I look at the po sitions for the consonant sounds, consonant clus
ters, and vowels in each language. The permissible
combinations and placements vary between the
two languages and may also be responsible for dif
ficulties in pronunciation that can be reflected in
student writing.
Although many dialects and regional variations
of Spanish exist, the current discussion refers to the
sounds associated with "General American
Spanish" (Dalbor, 1997, p. 23). This is the principal dialect heard on radio and television and spoken by
Spanish speakers in the southwest United States
and Mexico, and by many urban residents in
Central and South America.
Consonant sounds
English and Spanish share many of the same
phonemes, yet they each also contain sounds that
are not recognized as distinct in the other language. What follows is an outline of consonant common
alities, distinctions, and possible areas of difficulty for Spanish speakers learning English.
Commonalities. English and Spanish share many of the same consonant sounds, although they may be spelled differently. The Figure on the following page shows the sounds that exist in both languages
(represented by their English letter symbol). The
graphic shows much phonemic commonality be
tween English and Spanish. These shared sounds
provide a base for working with an unfamiliar oral
language (C?rdenas, 1960; Goldstein, 2001; Nash,
1977). These letters also represent a good starting
place for teaching Spanish speakers letter-sound
correspondences in English. Similarities also exist between consonant clus
ters in Spanish and English. These shared conso
nant blends include pi, pr, bl, br, tr, dr, cl, cr, gl, gr,
fl, and/r (Goldstein, 2000). Although the M will be pronounced differently in English, the fact that
these clusters are used in both languages (e.g.,
grislgreen) offers some support to the English
language learner.
Distinctions. Spanish and English each contain
several consonant sounds that do not occur in the
other language (C?rdenas, 1960; Dalbor, 1997; Goldstein, 2001; Nash, 1977; Zuteil & Allen,
1988). Table 1 shows some examples of consonant
sounds that occur in English (but not Spanish) and
Building on the sound system of Spanish 453
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f \ English consonant sounds that also
exist in Spanish
/ P b t\
/ d k g m \ I
In f s w /
\ y ch I /
^_/
might therefore be tricky for English-language learners to say and, in turn, write.
Possible areas of difficulty for Spanish speakers
learning English. A sound that is not present in
one's native language will likely be difficult to hear
and, in turn, produce (Goldstein, 2000; Kress,
1993). The phonemes and blends that are present in
English but not present in Spanish are apt to cause
the most problems for Spanish speakers learning
English.
By examining Table 1 for features that are
present in English but not in Spanish, we can pro
ject possible phonemic difficulties for our Spanish
speaking students, as well as sounds that are close
and may be used as replacements. D as in den: The /d/ in Spanish has a sound
similar to the /th/ of then in English. Students are
likely to substitute this sound, or simply the III
sound. Students who are attempting to spell the
English l?l sound may also be tempted to use the
/r/, which has a similar flapped sound in Spanish. J as in juice: Spanish does not have this sound,
so it may be substituted with the /ch/ as in choke for
joke. R as in rope: This will be a difficult sound for
Spanish speakers, and they may try to compensate
by rolling the r as in the Spanish words rosa or car
ro. Students may also use a /w/ or /u/ to create a
glide, such as in waipen for ripen.
V, z, th (as in thick), sh, zh: These sounds may be difficult for Spanish speakers to recognize, pro
duce, and write. Students are likely to freely sub
stitute /b/ for /v/, producing words orally like berry for very. In writing, students may not know
whether /b/ or NI is correct in a given word that
they are sounding out. An example spelling of big
might be vig. Z may be said as /s/ {sue for zoo); th
as Ixl (tink for think); sh as /ch/ (chew for shoe); and
zh as /ch/ (treachure for treasure). Table 1 shows some expected pronunciation
errors for Spanish speakers learning English. The
student spellings noted in the third column show
examples of writing confusions that may result
from these distinctions.
Consonant blends. In addition to individual con
sonant sounds, there are also variations between
English and Spanish in relation to what consonant
clusters can occur in a language. English has many more possibilities for consonant blends than
Spanish. Table 2 shows consonant clusters that are
permissible in English, but not in Spanish, with
some example words. From Table 2 we see that the
main category of blends that are distinct in English are blends beginning with the letter s. Because
Spanish doesn't allow s- blends at the beginning of a word, students may try to change these words
slightly to make them sound more familiar. In
Spanish, spirit or structure would be esp?ritu or
estructura. Students may take other words that be
gin with s- blends and add an e to the beginning
(e.g., esmile for smile, esnake for snake). Another
possible approach to producing the unfamiliar con
sonant blends is to reduce them, such as substitut
ing tars for stars (Goldstein, 2001).
Vowel sounds
The Spanish system of vowel sounds is much
simpler than that of English (Foster, Altamiranda, & de Urioste, 1999). The English system, for a sec
ond-language learner, may at times seem over
whelming. The following subsections quickly outline common vowel sounds between the two
languages, what differences exist, and possible
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TABLE 1 Possible errors caused by distinct English sounds
Distinct English sound May be pronounced Example spelling error
/d/ as in den
/]/ as in joke
/r/ as in rope
/v/ as in van
111 as in zipper
/sh/ as in shell
/th/ as in thick
/zh/ as in treasure
then
choke
(rolled r) rope, wope ban
sipper c/iell
fick
treasure
dem (them)
gob (job)
waipen (ripen)
surbing (serving) sivalais (civilize)
ched (shed)
tenk (think)
chesher (treasure)
areas of difficulty for Spanish speakers learning the
English system.
Commonalities. Both English and Spanish have
the vowel sounds listed in Table 3, although they are at times spelled with different letters. Because
these vowels do exist orally in both languages, they should generally not cause problems being distin
guished or spoken. Where the letters used to rep resent the sounds differ between languages, however, confusion can arise. Table 3 outlines the
differences in how the two languages represent var
ious sounds. Column 3 shows some sample errors
that students have made as they use the Spanish code to write in English. For example, a Spanish
speaking student attempting to encode the long /a/
sound may revert to the Spanish Id, which stands
for a similar sound.
Distinctions. Spanish does not contain four of the
short-vowel sounds from English {man, pen, tip,
up), /--controlled vowels (e.g., her), the schwa
sound (e.g., away), or the vowel sounds in could
or caught (C?rdenas, 1960; Dalbor, 1997,
Goldstein, 2001; Nash, 1977). With approximate
ly double the number of vowel sounds, the English
system is much more complex than that of Spanish.
Possible areas of difficulty for Spanish speakers
learning English. Given that Spanish has only one sound per vowel, we can see that the addition
of the distinct vowel sounds of English must seem
quite complicated to the English-language learner.
The schwa sound (e.g., develop, aloof) is the most
common vowel sound in English and does not even
occur in Spanish. If the home language does not
have the specific English vowel sound, a student
may try to use the closest sounding vowel to sub
stitute (Goldstein, 2001). We might therefore find
oral, and possibly written, substitutions such as
those outlined in Table 4. Students at the alphabet ic stage of spelling are likely to spell words as they
pronounce them (Stage & Wagner, 1992). An ex
ample of spelling substitution that might be pre dicted from Table 4 is the use of a in place of the
short u (lamp for lump), or lui for r-controlled
vowels (sur for sir).
TABLE 2 English consonant blends not in Spanish
English consonant blend Sample word
st star
sp spirit
sk/sc scar
sm small
si sleep sn snack
sw swim
tw twice
qu (kw) quick scr scrap
spl splash
spr spray str straight
squ (skw) square
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TABLE 3 Vowel sounds common to English and Spanish
English vowels Similar vowel sound used in a Spanish word Example spelling error
a as in cake
e as in bean
i as in like
o as in hope o as in top u as in June
e as in hecho
i as in [do ai as in aire
o as in ocho
a as in ajo u as in Usted
shek (shake)
spic (speak) nait (night) flout (float)
jab (job) flut (flute)
Positioning of sounds
Each language has its own system of position
ing vowels and consonants in words. These "per missible placements" involve not only which
sounds can go together but also which sounds may
begin or end words and how sounds may change based on their position in a word. Spanish and
English share some commonalities and also have
distinctive rules about these positions.
Commonalities. Neither Spanish nor English has
many limits about what sounds may begin words.
All of the consonant phonemes in their respective sound systems, aside from the English /ng/, may
begin a word. All of the vowels in their respective sound systems may begin words as well.
Distinctions. Most consonants in English are per mitted to end words. The exception to this is the
sound of /hi, as heard in the Spanish word reloj
(Nash, 1977). In contrast, there are only five con
sonants that may appear in final position in Spanish
(/, r [flap], d, n, and s). The vowels take on opposite roles in these two languages. In Spanish, most
vowels may end a word. The exception to this is
/eu/. In contrast, there are five vowels in English that may not end words (short a, short e, short /,
short u, and ou/oo).
Possible areas of difficulty for Spanish speakers
learning English. Two key areas stand out as pos
sibly causing difficulty for Spanish speakers learn
ing English. First, there are many more consonants
that may end words in English. Some of these
sounds will be difficult for Spanish speakers to get used to and articulate at the end of words. For ex
ample, words that end with sounds that wouldn't be
permissible in Spanish such as crab (l-bl), sniff
(l-fl), beg (l-gl), or flop (l-pl) may cause problems. Consonant clusters that come at the end of words
will represent even more of a challenge (e.g., hard,
curl, best). Spanish speakers may respond to these
challenges by deleting sounds at the end of words
or substituting sounds with which they are more
comfortable. Table 5 gives some examples of pos sible substitutions a Spanish speaker might make
with English words that have unfamiliar endings. Table 5 provides some ideas for how Spanish
speakers might try to adapt English to align more
closely with their native language. These adapta tions help create what is currently described as
"Spanish-influenced English" (Goldstein, 2001).
Simplifying consonant clusters and substituting
permissible consonant and vowel endings in words
are logical actions in this process.
Implications for instruction The preceding discussion has brought out
many key points about similarities and differences
between the sound systems of Spanish and English, and how these may influence Spanish speakers'
pronunciation and developmental spelling in
English. The following ideas can guide us as we
look toward classroom implications.
Begin with commonalities There are numerous areas of commonality be
tween Spanish and English sounds on which to
base a transfer of skills for English-language learn
ers. It is helpful for second-language learners to
build on what is common between their home
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TABLE 4 Spanish speakers' possible vowel substitutions
Vowel sound, as in the following: Closest Spanish vowel sound May be pronounced
man
pen
tip
up
her
could
away
caught
A
E
I
A
U
U
A
A
"mahn" for man
"pain" for pen
"teep" for tip
"op"for up
"who" for her
"cooed" for could
"ahway" for away
"cot" for caught
language and the new one. For instance, Spanish and English are both alphabetic languages where
students match sounds to letter symbols. The
Figure illustrates the many common sounds be
tween the two languages. It may be helpful for stu
dents to begin learning English phonics with letters
in this graphic such as m, s, l,f, and p.
Use knowledge of Spanish to understand
students' developmental reading and writing
Before critiquing students' developmental writ
ing attempts, teachers might try to sound out the
words that have been spelled with a Spanish pro nunciation. For instance, da (sounded out /thah/) be
comes more easily understood as the. When it is
acknowledged that students' developmental spelling
attempts make sense, the alphabetic understand
ings they are trying to represent are validated. At
first, it is enough to praise the effort of having writ
ten da, "Yes! /th/, /ah/?the." As students refine
their sound-symbol correspondences, differences
between English and Spanish can be explicitly noted?"In English the sound at the beginning of
them is written with th, not the d like in Spanish." If teachers do not feel comfortable trying to sound
out writing using a Spanish pronunciation, they can
ask students to read their writing and listen for
matches between pronunciation and spelling. In the area of reading, teachers can pay atten
tion to sounding-out errors that may have a base in
Spanish phonology as well. A student who reads sit
as seat may either be applying the Spanish vowel
sound to the word (very possible if the student has
previous literacy experiences in Spanish), or the
student may be saying the closest vowel sound that
exists in Spanish (a pronunciation issue). In other
words, this error is not haphazard, and it gives a
teacher clues about what kind of help a student may need.
What should a teacher do with a pronunciation error in reading? It is always important to provide a
low-anxiety environment that encourages student
participation. Thus, at first, it is wise not to focus
on the error as long as meaning is being communi
cated. The data a teacher gathers in these informal
assessments can be noted, and guided practice can
be provided in supportive contexts at a later time.
Activities that encourage pronunciation practice in
a low-stress environment may include choral read
ing, echo reading, sound sorting of pictures, and
using poetry and music.
These examples show us that the more that
teachers know about students' home languages, the
more the specific errors of the students can tell us.
We can then use this information to clarify or pro vide extra support in our literacy instruction.
Identify areas of distinction and provide
explicit support Variations in consonant and vowel sounds be
tween Spanish and English may create possible confusion for second-language learners in their
speech and writing. After a foundation has been
built on the commonalities of the two languages, it
will be necessary to systematically outline how the
two languages differ and provide added support as
Building on the sound system of Spanish 457
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TABLE 5 Possible substitutions for difficult words
Example challenging sound Sample spelling error Logic of substitution
Final -rd
Final -st
Final -ng
Final -sk
Final -ng Final -z
Final -t
Final -oil
Final -mp
har (hard)
tos (toast)
sirvin (serving) as (ask)
chopen (shopping)
praes (prize) tha (that)
espolio (spoil)
lanpa (lump)
Simplifying the consonant cluster
Substituting for a permissible ending
Trying to get a vowel ending
needed for the parts that are different. Teachers
should plan on doing explicit lessons relating to the
sounds listed in Table 1. Venn diagrams can be used
to compare sounds or words in English and
Spanish. Student-made bilingual dictionaries or
bilingual classroom word walls can be visual sup
ports to the differences between the two languages. Teachers often find it helpful to color code the two
languages for easy reference.
Use developmental spelling tasks to assess students' learning
Second-language learners are likely to substi
tute a sound from Spanish for an unfamiliar
English consonant or vowel sound. The develop mental writing of Spanish speakers is a visual rep resentation of what is confusing to them as they learn English. A developmental spelling assess
ment (e.g., Bear et al., 2000) that includes words
that are likely to cause confusion or a dictation as
sessment (e.g., Clay, 2002) provides valuable in
formal data for teachers to use in planning phonics lessons that build on students' understandings of
letter-sound correspondences. Particular letter
sound correspondences that are of concern to
Spanish-speaking students (e.g., shell, thick, joke) can be inserted into these developmental writing tasks if they are not already present.
Ensure that students understand
foundational concepts
Learning to read in a new language while si
multaneously learning to speak it is a challenging
process (Garcia, 2000). It is critical that the input students receive makes sense to them, and that it
builds on their background knowledge. The com
plex vowel system of English may seem confusing for Spanish speakers who are trying to get a han
dle on sound-symbol correspondences. Care
should be taken that students are very comfortable
with the short-vowel system before beginning with
long vowels and other vowel patterns in their liter
acy instruction.
Include students in think-aloud processes
comparing Spanish and English We have seen that Spanish and English vary in
the way that vowels and consonants are used, and
in how sounds are positioned in words. Students
may attempt to make an English word more
"Spanish-like" because that feels more natural. The
kinds of substitutions students make have been il
lustrated throughout this article. What are some
ways that students can become more aware of the
commonalities and differences between English and Spanish so that they can apply this knowledge in their writing? While instructing small groups and the whole class, teachers can use real examples of Spanish-influenced spelling that come up in stu
dents' writing. Teachers may verbalize their think
ing in a modeled writing activity as they ponder which sounds they hear in a tricky word. They may even model being confused and self-correcting based on a Spanish sound. Students' writing sam
ples can also be typed on a word processor and then
analyzed anonymously with the whole class so that
458 The Reading Teacher Vol. 57, No. 5 February 2004
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all students can profit from examining the spellings
together. Students should have plenty of opportunities to
write for authentic purposes in a low-pressure en
vironment in the classroom. When given these op
portunities, students will provide many examples for us to notice, work with, and build upon as we
move to more advanced skills in English reading and writing.
Helping students build on similarities
In order to be successful readers and writers
in English, students must have a clear understand
ing of the sound-symbol correspondences of its al
phabetic system. The more that teachers know
about the similarities and differences between the
English and Spanish sound systems, the more they can support their students in overcoming chal
lenges in oral language development, and under
standing the phonics of English. Teacher
knowledge about how pronunciation influences
writing at the alphabetic stage of development is
crucial to providing effective literacy instruction.
Teachers should not assume that a variant pronun ciation reflects an articulation problem. These pro nunciations may be artifacts of Spanish-influenced
English. As we provide occasions for students to
share their growing knowledge of written English, we find out what native-language skills they are
bringing to the task. These teacher-student interac
tions make it possible to clarify students' under
standings of English sounds and letter knowledge. This article has outlined and compared the
sound systems of English and Spanish. Where
there are distinctions between the two languages,
speaking and writing tasks will be more challeng
ing for Spanish speakers learning English.
Knowing this, teachers would do well to begin their
work with students on letter-sound correspondences that are common to both languages, transferring
first-language knowledge to the target language. Once a foundation has been established, it is im
portant that distinct features are brought to stu
dents' attention and taught explicitly. Sounds that
are different or that are placed in unfamiliar posi tions in words can be given extra focus and study.
Teachers are likely to see phonemic under
standings (or misunderstandings) represented in
student writing. For example, a student who is in
terchanging b and v in oral language will probably do the same in his or her written language.
Correcting the spelling without discussing the mis
conception will not lead to long-term understand
ing and growth. Teachers are also likely to hear
reading errors that reflect Spanish sounds being transferred to English. A student who reads bed as
bade is applying a Spanish phoneme to the letter
e. A student who reads first as firs cat as ca, or mu
tual as moo-too-al is also using Spanish-influenced
phonology. Teachers can use assessment to help create instruction that best meets the linguistic needs of their students.
This article has focused on specific information
comparing the sound systems of English and
Spanish. The general principles outlined here can
be extended to work with students from many other
language backgrounds as well; only the specific commonalities and distinctions will vary. English
language learners bring many tools with them to the
classroom setting, including a home language and
knowledge about sounds and words. The more we
know about the relationship between sounds in their
first language and sounds in English, the more we
can help our students build on the similarities and
understand the differences as they become proficient
speakers, readers, and writers in a new language.
Helman teaches at the University of Nevada, Reno (Nevada Reading Excellence Act, College of Education/288, Reno, NV 89557, USA). E-mail to [email protected].
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