UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 1
Slide 3
What is Information Infrastructure? How does it manifest in
large organizations? What about small organizations? Research
approach and methodology Case Studies conducted Underpinning theory
Data collection, analysis, findings and interpretation Conclusions
2 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 4
Various definitions from the literature 3 UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 5
CHUNG, BYRD, LEWIS & FORD (2005) CORDELLA (2005) The shared
IT resources of a technical component of hardware, software,
communication technologies, data, and core applications and a human
component of skills and competencies that provide a unique
technological foundation (1) for widespread communications
interchanges across an organisation and (2) for the design,
development, implementation and maintenance of present and future
business applications The output of the recursive dynamic
interaction between technology, people and content Information
Infrastructure is more than the sum of its different parts;
instead, it represents an interwoven interaction between
technology, people and content The output of the recursive dynamic
interaction between technology, people and content Information
Infrastructure is more than the sum of its different parts;
instead, it represents an interwoven interaction between
technology, people and content 4 UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 6
HANSETH (2004)CONSTANTINIDES & BARRETT (2004) More than
pure technology; rather, a socio-technical network Heterogeneous
concerning the qualities of its constituencies Include
technological components, humans, organizations, institutions, and
so on Connected and interrelated, constituting ecologies of
infrastructures Develops through extending and improving the
installed base More than pure technology; rather, a socio-technical
network Heterogeneous concerning the qualities of its
constituencies Include technological components, humans,
organizations, institutions, and so on Connected and interrelated,
constituting ecologies of infrastructures Develops through
extending and improving the installed base An ever-evolving socio-
technical ecology of people, institutions, artefacts, and practices
To understand the different layers of the information
infrastructure ecology, we need to acknowledge both the intentions
and meanings of different groups and individuals, and the dynamic
role of technological artefacts in mediating those meanings and
intentions An ever-evolving socio- technical ecology of people,
institutions, artefacts, and practices To understand the different
layers of the information infrastructure ecology, we need to
acknowledge both the intentions and meanings of different groups
and individuals, and the dynamic role of technological artefacts in
mediating those meanings and intentions 5 UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 7
6 Networks of Power Professional Kit of Tools and Techniques
Science and New Technologies Large Technical Infrastructures
IndividualsCommunitiesBody Politic Constantinides & Barrett
(2004)
Slide 8
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 7
Crossover refers to the exchange of properties among humans and
nonhumans in the process of their interaction to achieve different
goals Constantinides & Barrett (2004)
Slide 9
In 1987, John Zachman, author of the Zachman Framework for
Enterprise Architecture, wrote To keep the business from
disintegrating, the concept of information systems architecture is
becoming less of an option and more of a necessity. The Zachman
Framework for Enterprise Architecture has evolved and become the
model around which major organizations view and communicate their
enterprise information infrastructure. Enterprise Architecture
provides the blueprint, or architecture, for the organization's
information infrastructure. from www.zifa.com In 1987, John
Zachman, author of the Zachman Framework for Enterprise
Architecture, wrote To keep the business from disintegrating, the
concept of information systems architecture is becoming less of an
option and more of a necessity. The Zachman Framework for
Enterprise Architecture has evolved and become the model around
which major organizations view and communicate their enterprise
information infrastructure. Enterprise Architecture provides the
blueprint, or architecture, for the organization's information
infrastructure. from www.zifa.com 8 UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 10
The Zachman Framework Data What Function How Network Where
People Who Time When Motivation Why Business Managers ScopeList of
Things Important to the Business List of Processes the Business
Performs List of Locations in which the Business Operates List of
Organizations important to the Business List of Events significant
to the Business List of Business Goals/ Strategies Enterprise
ModelSemantic ModelBusiness Process Model Business Logistics System
Work Flow Model Master Schedule Business Plan IT Managers and
Developers System ModelLogical Data Model Application Architecture
Distributed System Architecture Human Interface Architecture
Processing Structure Business Rule Model Technological Model
Physical Data Model System DesignTechnology Architecture
Presentation Architecture Control Structure Rule Design Detailed
Representations Data DefinitionProgramNetwork Architecture Security
Architecture Timing Definition Rule Specification Functioning
Enterprise Actual Business Data Actual Application Code Actual
Physical Networks Actual Business Organization Actual Business
Schedule Actual Business Strategy UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007 9
Slide 11
The top level of the Zachman Framework is focused on the
concerns of senior executives (Scope) The second level focuses on
the slightly more detailed concerns of business managers
(Enterprise Model) The third level focuses on concerns that
business managers and IS managers often work on together (System
Model) Levels four to six focus on details that IS managers and
software developers are concerned with The top level of the Zachman
Framework is focused on the concerns of senior executives (Scope)
The second level focuses on the slightly more detailed concerns of
business managers (Enterprise Model) The third level focuses on
concerns that business managers and IS managers often work on
together (System Model) Levels four to six focus on details that IS
managers and software developers are concerned with 10 UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 12
The framework isnt meant to function simply as a way of
classifying the types of documentation an enterprise might create
There should be relationships between cells in the matrix
Applications should be associated with specific business processes
Business processes should have goals and measures that should, in
turn, be related upward to corporate goals and downward to
application and system goals The architecture stresses both
information and the relationships between information that should
be established and maintained The framework isnt meant to function
simply as a way of classifying the types of documentation an
enterprise might create There should be relationships between cells
in the matrix Applications should be associated with specific
business processes Business processes should have goals and
measures that should, in turn, be related upward to corporate goals
and downward to application and system goals The architecture
stresses both information and the relationships between information
that should be established and maintained 11 UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 13
An effective EA programme has two critical components The EA
Content Framework The EA Governance Framework The EA Content
Framework is the methodology for defining the various models that
will constitute the EA typically, this could be the Zachman
Framework An effective EA programme has two critical components The
EA Content Framework The EA Governance Framework The EA Content
Framework is the methodology for defining the various models that
will constitute the EA typically, this could be the Zachman
Framework 12 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October
2007
Slide 14
All approaches to EA content recognize a set of four models
that represent the enterprise: Business architecture Application
architecture Information architecture Technical architecture All
approaches to EA content recognize a set of four models that
represent the enterprise: Business architecture Application
architecture Information architecture Technical architecture 13 UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 15
14 AA defines the specification of technology enabled solutions
in support of the Business Architecture. Provides a view on how
services should be bundled to support business processes TA defines
the strategies and standards for technologies and methods used to
develop, execute and operate the Application Architecture. It
provides frameworks, technical patterns and services that support
application requirements IA identifies, documents and manages the
information needs of the enterprise, assigns ownership and
accountability for this information, and describes how data is
stored by and exchanged between stakeholders BA describes the
business strategy, models, processes, services and organization.
Provides the foundation upon which the other enterprise
architecture dimensions base their decisions Business Architecture
Information Architecture Application Architecture Technical
Architecture UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October
2007
Slide 16
Once the EA Content Framework is identified and customized for
the enterprise, it is critical to define an Enterprise Architecture
Governance Framework that ensures the successful development,
integration and management of this content in the context of the
enterprise 15 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October
2007
Slide 17
16 Business Architecture Information Architecture Application
Architecture Technical Architecture Enabling Tools
LeadershipInvestment Organizatio n Processes Policies &
Principles Measurement Disciplines of Enterprise Architecture
Dimensions of Enterprise Architecture Governance UCT Department of
IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 INFOSYS
Slide 18
Establishing an EA is an objective which not only promises vast
benefits, but is sure to induce some short-term pain ending quick-
and-dirty ad hoc solutions, enforcing some discipline on even
strategic projects, and taking effort to understand and adjust
guidelines This requires the alignment of the diverse interests of
a large number of stakeholders Establishing an EA is an objective
which not only promises vast benefits, but is sure to induce some
short-term pain ending quick- and-dirty ad hoc solutions, enforcing
some discipline on even strategic projects, and taking effort to
understand and adjust guidelines This requires the alignment of the
diverse interests of a large number of stakeholders 17 UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 19
To achieve such alignment of interests requires a strong and
attractive idea of the goal an almost tangible picture of the
future and its benefits Establishing such a shared vision is the
major challenge of leading an EA initiative Usually such vision
emanates from the CIO or a person in his/her immediate environment
To achieve such alignment of interests requires a strong and
attractive idea of the goal an almost tangible picture of the
future and its benefits Establishing such a shared vision is the
major challenge of leading an EA initiative Usually such vision
emanates from the CIO or a person in his/her immediate environment
18 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 20
This person has to problematize the situation and offer the
establishment of an EA as the solution If there is enough buy-in
and interest in the proffered solution, then the following
practices for establishing leadership for an EA function have been
found to be effective: This person has to problematize the
situation and offer the establishment of an EA as the solution If
there is enough buy-in and interest in the proffered solution, then
the following practices for establishing leadership for an EA
function have been found to be effective: 19 UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 21
Establish an EA Steering Committee involving all senior
business and technology leaders to ensure senior leadership
sponsorship, involvement of all business units and a process for
arbitration Appoint a Chief Architect who understands and
identifies with business, but also has a sound understanding of
technology Obtain buy-in from three constituent groups Senior
line-of-business (LOB) leaders Middle management Distributed
technical staff and IT power users Establish an EA Steering
Committee involving all senior business and technology leaders to
ensure senior leadership sponsorship, involvement of all business
units and a process for arbitration Appoint a Chief Architect who
understands and identifies with business, but also has a sound
understanding of technology Obtain buy-in from three constituent
groups Senior line-of-business (LOB) leaders Middle management
Distributed technical staff and IT power users 20 UCT Department of
IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 22
Small organizations do not have the required resources to build
and maintain formal Information Infrastructures and many are
unaware of its importance Nevertheless, there is always some form
of informal Information Infrastructure already integrated into
their business practices (Constantinides & Barrett refer to the
already existing ecology of...) What do we know about this? Small
organizations do not have the required resources to build and
maintain formal Information Infrastructures and many are unaware of
its importance Nevertheless, there is always some form of informal
Information Infrastructure already integrated into their business
practices (Constantinides & Barrett refer to the already
existing ecology of...) What do we know about this? UCT Department
of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 21
Slide 23
Chester and Skok (2000) developed the concept of a roadmap for
small organizations that identifies four different stages in the
development and use of ICT by small organizations Inactive Basic
ICT user Substantial user Advanced/sophisticated user Chester and
Skok (2000) developed the concept of a roadmap for small
organizations that identifies four different stages in the
development and use of ICT by small organizations Inactive Basic
ICT user Substantial user Advanced/sophisticated user UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 22
Slide 24
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 23 We
dont know what we dont know Several applications, business
dependent Limited use of desktop packaged software Integrated
applications + differentiated services
InactiveBasicSubstantialSophisticate d ICT Support Roadmap (Chester
& Skok, 2000)
Slide 25
Using the roadmap, they indicate the typical support services
that could be supplied to small organizations during the different
stages, or, to help them advance through the stages UCT Department
of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 24
Slide 26
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 25
Mentoring & Awareness InactiveBasicSubstantialSophisticate d
Support Services for SMEs (Chester & Skok, 2000) Learning and
Developmen t Advice & consultancy Best practices DIY &
outsourcing Centre of Excellence
Slide 27
There is little that can be faulted about the roadmap of
Chester & Skok Also, their proposed framework for providing
support services to small organizations is well intended and useful
However, most small organizations would not be able to afford such
support services The question therefore arises: how do they cope?
There is little that can be faulted about the roadmap of Chester
& Skok Also, their proposed framework for providing support
services to small organizations is well intended and useful
However, most small organizations would not be able to afford such
support services The question therefore arises: how do they cope?
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 26
Slide 28
The research investigated Information Infrastructures within
small organizations More precisely, it attempted to uncover the
views small organizations have on Information Infrastructure, the
way in which they utilize their Information Infrastructures and the
way they appropriate these into their business practices The
research investigated Information Infrastructures within small
organizations More precisely, it attempted to uncover the views
small organizations have on Information Infrastructure, the way in
which they utilize their Information Infrastructures and the way
they appropriate these into their business practices UCT Department
of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 27
Slide 29
The results of the research might provide pointers to how we
could prepare students who would end up in small organizations for
the role that they could play vis--vis the establishment of an
information infrastructure The assumption is that our current
educational programmes do not (adequately) prepare them for this
The results of the research might provide pointers to how we could
prepare students who would end up in small organizations for the
role that they could play vis--vis the establishment of an
information infrastructure The assumption is that our current
educational programmes do not (adequately) prepare them for this
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 28
Slide 30
Three-pronged approach: Interpretive Two Case Studies Using
Actor-Network Theory as underpinning theory 29 UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 31
At two small organizations XPress ConWork 30 UCT Department of
IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 32
Finance and Business Services Sector SizeEmployeesAnnual
Turnover Medium200R26 million Small50R13 million Very small20R3
million Micro5R0.2 million 31 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar
24 October 2007
Slide 33
XPress ( a pseudonym) is a relatively small organisation in
Stellenbosch with a headcount of less than 15 people Started in
2000, offering digital publication services to the open market By
2003 refocused on non-profit organizations and other small
organizations Early in 2006 started specializing in publishing
financial reports for organizations XPress ( a pseudonym) is a
relatively small organisation in Stellenbosch with a headcount of
less than 15 people Started in 2000, offering digital publication
services to the open market By 2003 refocused on non-profit
organizations and other small organizations Early in 2006 started
specializing in publishing financial reports for organizations UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 32
Slide 34
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 33
Managing Director Client Services/Sales 4 Project Managers Finance
Manager Reception -ist House- keeper Productio n Manager 2 Type-
setters 2 Designers 1 Proof Reader
Slide 35
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 34
Slide 36
ApplicationDescription MS Outlook, Word, Excel Adobe InDesign,
Quark ExpressDesigning and creating publications CHASEManaging
business processes; record and track jobs undertaken in the
production department; accurate recording of time and costs
associated with jobs; will ultimately be interfaced to the
accounting system. PastelAccounting; payroll UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 35
Slide 37
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 36
Slide 38
Started in 2000 as a partnership between the current Managing
Director and a previous business partner who left the business in
February 2004 Initial primary strategy: to leverage the advances in
digital publication which larger publishing houses were not taking
advantage of establish an online library of digitally stored
material that could be printed on demand Started in 2000 as a
partnership between the current Managing Director and a previous
business partner who left the business in February 2004 Initial
primary strategy: to leverage the advances in digital publication
which larger publishing houses were not taking advantage of
establish an online library of digitally stored material that could
be printed on demand UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24
October 2007 37
Slide 39
This attracted the interest of various publishing houses, some
of which had ulterior motives Sold 50% of equity; this provided
capital that could be used to fund the strategy The next four years
showed that the initial promise of smaller publishing runs was not
attractive to the mass market This attracted the interest of
various publishing houses, some of which had ulterior motives Sold
50% of equity; this provided capital that could be used to fund the
strategy The next four years showed that the initial promise of
smaller publishing runs was not attractive to the mass market UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 38
Slide 40
However, they uncovered a niche market with Non-Profit
Organisations Concentrated on this market at the expense of the
other less profitable work One of the founding partners wanted to
leave the business However, they uncovered a niche market with
Non-Profit Organisations Concentrated on this market at the expense
of the other less profitable work One of the founding partners
wanted to leave the business UCT Department of IS Research Seminar
24 October 2007 39
Slide 41
A deal was brokered by the remaining partner: a new investment
company bought out this founding partner and acquired the 50% from
the previous holding company The Managing Director was now a
minority (25%) shareholder with the new investment company holding
the remaining 75% A deal was brokered by the remaining partner: a
new investment company bought out this founding partner and
acquired the 50% from the previous holding company The Managing
Director was now a minority (25%) shareholder with the new
investment company holding the remaining 75% UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 40
Slide 42
A year after this change in ownership it was decided that in
order to grow the business into a larger more profitable venture it
was necessary to move away from primarily servicing NPOs into the
publishing of financial reports UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007 41
Slide 43
The Managing Director had reservations around pursuing this
strategy as the nature of publishing financial reports is
significantly different from the service they had been providing
XPress did not have the necessary expertise and had to source this
from outside Eventually identified a Johannesburg based company
that offered these services; persuaded the majority of the
employees to leave their existing employment and join XPress The
Managing Director had reservations around pursuing this strategy as
the nature of publishing financial reports is significantly
different from the service they had been providing XPress did not
have the necessary expertise and had to source this from outside
Eventually identified a Johannesburg based company that offered
these services; persuaded the majority of the employees to leave
their existing employment and join XPress UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 42
Slide 44
The new (permanent) employees now make up the majority of the
company previously XPress had used contractors This put added
pressure on the Managing Director to deliver the sales to support
these fixed costs Clients of the previous company had to be pitched
again in order to bring in the work to support the team New
hardware and software had to be acquired to support the studio
related processes The new (permanent) employees now make up the
majority of the company previously XPress had used contractors This
put added pressure on the Managing Director to deliver the sales to
support these fixed costs Clients of the previous company had to be
pitched again in order to bring in the work to support the team New
hardware and software had to be acquired to support the studio
related processes UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October
2007 43
Slide 45
The research was undertaken six months after this last change
at XPress It has been a good time from a research perspective as
many of the Information Infrastructure has been renewed as part of
the fundamental change to the company Investigating the motivation
behind these decisions provided a detailed contextual understanding
of how these were approached and taken The research was undertaken
six months after this last change at XPress It has been a good time
from a research perspective as many of the Information
Infrastructure has been renewed as part of the fundamental change
to the company Investigating the motivation behind these decisions
provided a detailed contextual understanding of how these were
approached and taken UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24
October 2007 44
Slide 46
ConWork (a pseudonym) has its head office in Bellville with one
branch in Isando Currently employs 23 permanent staff with an
annual turnover in excess of R10 million Started in 1996, the
company supplies blue- collar contract workers to organisations and
industry in the Western Cape and in Gauteng ConWork (a pseudonym)
has its head office in Bellville with one branch in Isando
Currently employs 23 permanent staff with an annual turnover in
excess of R10 million Started in 1996, the company supplies blue-
collar contract workers to organisations and industry in the
Western Cape and in Gauteng UCT Department of IS Research Seminar
24 October 2007 45
Slide 47
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 46 Isando
Branch Director HR Manager HR Clerk Operations Manager Site Manager
Operations Assistant Operations Clerk Marketing Manager
Administration Accountant Office Manager
Slide 48
Hardware Server plus 15 terminals (networked infrastructure) 7
Printers and 2 copier machines Siemens switchboard 3 Routers for
mobile phones Satellite tracking vehicle, route planning and 24 h
surveillance UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
47
Slide 49
ApplicationDescription Time Billing SystemUsed for invoicing
and timesheet generation purposes; bespoke software Payroll
VIPAccounting package used for payroll purposes HR ProUsed by
marketing people to draw CVs and run clients database; customized
for Manhunt Pastel MS Office 2000 + Windows XP + Windows SP3 on
server MS Exchange + mail routing system Fax to email system SMS
system (smart mail) ADSL in place UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007 48
Slide 50
In the early days, ConWorks core business was that of providing
drivers to transport companies on a contract basis The demand for
this type of service soared as the company became better known in
the marketplace ConWork expanded its core services to include other
blue-collar workers, such as labourers, assistants and
administrative clerks Also provided a number of additional services
such as the supply and management of staff on temporary and
permanent contracts In the early days, ConWorks core business was
that of providing drivers to transport companies on a contract
basis The demand for this type of service soared as the company
became better known in the marketplace ConWork expanded its core
services to include other blue-collar workers, such as labourers,
assistants and administrative clerks Also provided a number of
additional services such as the supply and management of staff on
temporary and permanent contracts UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007 49
Slide 51
When formed in 1996, the company had three owners, one of whom
acted as general manager, while the other two owners were never
involved in the operational side of things Around 2001, the
manager/owner resigned and was bought out by the other two owners
The organisation then went into a bad period financially and
operationally and there was even talk of shutting it down When
formed in 1996, the company had three owners, one of whom acted as
general manager, while the other two owners were never involved in
the operational side of things Around 2001, the manager/owner
resigned and was bought out by the other two owners The
organisation then went into a bad period financially and
operationally and there was even talk of shutting it down UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 50
Slide 52
However, they decided to appoint a general manager who had been
working for them as a financial manager with the mission to try and
rescue the organisation The owners still did not take an active
roll in the organisation. Instead they relied completely on the new
manager to turn the organisation around However, they decided to
appoint a general manager who had been working for them as a
financial manager with the mission to try and rescue the
organisation The owners still did not take an active roll in the
organisation. Instead they relied completely on the new manager to
turn the organisation around UCT Department of IS Research Seminar
24 October 2007 51
Slide 53
In the period that followed the latters appointment, there was
a gradual improvement in the business, operations and finances of
the organisation. The organisation grew rapidly and became
profitable. A branch was opened in Isando and more permanent staff
was employed. A marketing department was later introduced, as well
as more and better technology. By February 2006, the manager bought
out the company from the other two shareholders to become the sole
owner of ConWork In the period that followed the latters
appointment, there was a gradual improvement in the business,
operations and finances of the organisation. The organisation grew
rapidly and became profitable. A branch was opened in Isando and
more permanent staff was employed. A marketing department was later
introduced, as well as more and better technology. By February
2006, the manager bought out the company from the other two
shareholders to become the sole owner of ConWork UCT Department of
IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 52
Slide 54
Brief overview and motivation 53 UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 55
Actor-network theory (ANT) examines the motivation and actions
of actors (human and non-human) who form elements, linked by
associations, of heterogeneous networks of aligned interests A
major focus of the theory is to try to trace and explain the
processes whereby relatively stable networks of aligned interests
are created and maintained, or alternatively to examine why such
networks fail to establish themselves Successful networks of
aligned interests are created through the enrolment of a sufficient
body of allies, and the translation of their interests so that they
are willing to participate in particular ways of thinking and
acting that maintain the network Actor-network theory (ANT)
examines the motivation and actions of actors (human and non-human)
who form elements, linked by associations, of heterogeneous
networks of aligned interests A major focus of the theory is to try
to trace and explain the processes whereby relatively stable
networks of aligned interests are created and maintained, or
alternatively to examine why such networks fail to establish
themselves Successful networks of aligned interests are created
through the enrolment of a sufficient body of allies, and the
translation of their interests so that they are willing to
participate in particular ways of thinking and acting that maintain
the network 54 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October
2007
Slide 56
We saw earlier that the establishment of an information
infrastructure requires the leadership and drive of a person or
group who would problematize the situation and present a solution
the development of an information infrastructure ANT provides a way
to follow the actions of individuals in an organization involved in
such activities, and a terminology to describe what has taken place
The idea is not to show the existence of an actor- network in the
organization, but rather to use ANT as an instrument to gain a deep
understanding of the context of the organization We saw earlier
that the establishment of an information infrastructure requires
the leadership and drive of a person or group who would
problematize the situation and present a solution the development
of an information infrastructure ANT provides a way to follow the
actions of individuals in an organization involved in such
activities, and a terminology to describe what has taken place The
idea is not to show the existence of an actor- network in the
organization, but rather to use ANT as an instrument to gain a deep
understanding of the context of the organization UCT Department of
IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 55
Slide 57
Moments of translation Network growth and stability 56 UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 58
The Four Moments of Translation Problematization Building
interest Enrolment Mobilization 57 UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 59
Problematization relates to the process of becoming
indispensable by presenting a solution to a problem in terms of the
resources and means a person or a group owns. A focal actor defines
identities and interests of other actors which are consistent with
its own interests, and establishes a solution, thus rendering
itself indispensable. Initiators not only define the problems and
solution(s) but also establish roles and identities for other
actors in the network. Hence, the solution is a situation which has
to occur for all of the actors to be able to achieve their
interests, as defined by the focal actor Problematization relates
to the process of becoming indispensable by presenting a solution
to a problem in terms of the resources and means a person or a
group owns. A focal actor defines identities and interests of other
actors which are consistent with its own interests, and establishes
a solution, thus rendering itself indispensable. Initiators not
only define the problems and solution(s) but also establish roles
and identities for other actors in the network. Hence, the solution
is a situation which has to occur for all of the actors to be able
to achieve their interests, as defined by the focal actor 58 UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 60
Convincing other actors that the interests defined by the focal
actor are in fact their (the other actors') interests and creating
incentives for actors such that they are willing to overcome
obstacles in the way of achieving the proffered solution It
involves a variety of strategies and mechanisms by which initiators
attempt to enrol other entities Successful building of interest
validates the problematization and the alliances it implies
Convincing other actors that the interests defined by the focal
actor are in fact their (the other actors') interests and creating
incentives for actors such that they are willing to overcome
obstacles in the way of achieving the proffered solution It
involves a variety of strategies and mechanisms by which initiators
attempt to enrol other entities Successful building of interest
validates the problematization and the alliances it implies 59 UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 61
Successful networks of aligned interests are created through
the enrolment of a sufficient body of allies, and the translation
of their interests so that they are willing to participate in
particular ways of thinking and acting which maintain the network
The concept of enrolment highlights the idea that otherwise
divergent interests must be kept in line and that actors are
persuaded to accept the roles defined for them. Successful networks
of aligned interests are created through the enrolment of a
sufficient body of allies, and the translation of their interests
so that they are willing to participate in particular ways of
thinking and acting which maintain the network The concept of
enrolment highlights the idea that otherwise divergent interests
must be kept in line and that actors are persuaded to accept the
roles defined for them. 60 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24
October 2007
Slide 62
Actors choose to become legitimate spokespersons of the groups
they claim to represent using a set of methods advocated by the
focal actor or initiators to ensure their interests are not
betrayed Successful mobilization of allies stabilises the actor-
network The aligned interest of the actors becomes
institutionalised and is no longer controversial Actors choose to
become legitimate spokespersons of the groups they claim to
represent using a set of methods advocated by the focal actor or
initiators to ensure their interests are not betrayed Successful
mobilization of allies stabilises the actor- network The aligned
interest of the actors becomes institutionalised and is no longer
controversial 61 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October
2007
Slide 63
62 P P I I E E M M Network Growth Network Stability UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
Slide 64
Semi-structured interviews Analysis, findings and
interpretation 63 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October
2007
Slide 65
Use of underpinning theory to guide the process Interview
guidelines The lens of ANT provided the terminology to describe
many of the phenomena uncovered; difficulty of providing a holistic
picture using a single all encompassing Actor-Network Many actors
within one network may themselves be their own actor-networks Focus
on main Information Infrastructure networks Use of underpinning
theory to guide the process Interview guidelines The lens of ANT
provided the terminology to describe many of the phenomena
uncovered; difficulty of providing a holistic picture using a
single all encompassing Actor-Network Many actors within one
network may themselves be their own actor-networks Focus on main
Information Infrastructure networks UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007 64
Slide 66
Using ANT as a lens Identify actors Follow their actions
Describe how moments of translation were negotiated Investigate the
role of inscriptions Network mobilization and stabilization Using
ANT as a lens Identify actors Follow their actions Describe how
moments of translation were negotiated Investigate the role of
inscriptions Network mobilization and stabilization UCT Department
of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 65
Slide 67
Focus on main actor-networks XPress: CHASE Managing business
processes; record and track jobs undertaken in the production
department; accurate recording of time and costs associated with
jobs; ultimately to be interfaced to the accounting system ConWork:
Time Billing System Used for invoicing and timesheet generation
purposes; bespoke software Focus on main actor-networks XPress:
CHASE Managing business processes; record and track jobs undertaken
in the production department; accurate recording of time and costs
associated with jobs; ultimately to be interfaced to the accounting
system ConWork: Time Billing System Used for invoicing and
timesheet generation purposes; bespoke software UCT Department of
IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 66
Slide 68
Focal actor: Managing Director Responsible for all day-to-day
operational decisions Ultimate power to define all standards and
make all decisions relating to the Information Infrastructures. Not
only did he have the power, he also exercised it No evidence in the
interviews that he had delegated any of this authority to any other
actors in the network Focal actor: Managing Director Responsible
for all day-to-day operational decisions Ultimate power to define
all standards and make all decisions relating to the Information
Infrastructures. Not only did he have the power, he also exercised
it No evidence in the interviews that he had delegated any of this
authority to any other actors in the network UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 67
Slide 69
Problematization: How do we document and manage the business
processes associated with the provision of our services? OPP: The
use of CHASE throughout the business to handle the defined core
business processes All interviewees showed all the elements of
Interessement and Enrolment (using CHASE is required!) but not all
have progressed to Mobilization Production Manager alone shows
signs of Mobilization (it strengthens her position in the company
more power) Problematization: How do we document and manage the
business processes associated with the provision of our services?
OPP: The use of CHASE throughout the business to handle the defined
core business processes All interviewees showed all the elements of
Interessement and Enrolment (using CHASE is required!) but not all
have progressed to Mobilization Production Manager alone shows
signs of Mobilization (it strengthens her position in the company
more power) UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
68
Slide 70
Focal actor: senior administrative manager Problematized the
situation around time billing and proposed an OPP: a computerized
solution; drummed up support for proposed solution Enrolled
consultant Software developed, initial stable network emerged
Collapse of network through instability of the business Focal
actor: senior administrative manager Problematized the situation
around time billing and proposed an OPP: a computerized solution;
drummed up support for proposed solution Enrolled consultant
Software developed, initial stable network emerged Collapse of
network through instability of the business UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 69
Slide 71
New Managing Director assumed role of focal actor New
problematization: get the organisation back on its feet OPP: grow
the business through the effective use of technology New Managing
Director assumed role of focal actor New problematization: get the
organisation back on its feet OPP: grow the business through the
effective use of technology UCT Department of IS Research Seminar
24 October 2007 70
Slide 72
As the (new) network was evolving the bonds between the focal
actor, staff members, consultants, technology and the need for
innovation were constantly reinforced by the introduction of:
Younger more computer literate staff members Requests for software
that did not only service the core business functions Legislative
changes introduced by government, specifically for the labour
market Competitor movements in the market As the (new) network was
evolving the bonds between the focal actor, staff members,
consultants, technology and the need for innovation were constantly
reinforced by the introduction of: Younger more computer literate
staff members Requests for software that did not only service the
core business functions Legislative changes introduced by
government, specifically for the labour market Competitor movements
in the market UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
71
Slide 73
Eventually, the enrolment and mobilisation of the staff became
so widespread that they even found ways to domesticate the time
billing system and work around the inscriptions in the system to
use it in ways the consultant never intended The network reached a
point of stability where everyone in the organization uses the idea
of business growth being supported by technology as the main focus
for expanding the information infrastructure Eventually, the
enrolment and mobilisation of the staff became so widespread that
they even found ways to domesticate the time billing system and
work around the inscriptions in the system to use it in ways the
consultant never intended The network reached a point of stability
where everyone in the organization uses the idea of business growth
being supported by technology as the main focus for expanding the
information infrastructure UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24
October 2007 72
Slide 74
MD as focal actor in all problematizations Technically agile
organization constrained only by its human actors Management of
inter-personal relationships and power struggles within an SME are
as complex in many respects as the political difficulties of large
organizations Clear focus on costs associated with all things IT
related MD as focal actor in all problematizations Technically
agile organization constrained only by its human actors Management
of inter-personal relationships and power struggles within an SME
are as complex in many respects as the political difficulties of
large organizations Clear focus on costs associated with all things
IT related UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
73
Slide 75
The small structure of the organization makes the process of
Translation essentially a moment of Translation between Enrolment
and Mobilization. In many respects the organizational structure and
management process assure Enrolment for mandatory aspects of the
business process, but Mobilization was only seen where significant
benefits were on offer to the employee UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 74
Slide 76
Operates within a certain industry and due to its low level of
influence within this industry is required to conform to its
standards Flexibility in the use of software infrastructure The way
a system (its functionalities and applications) is used and
appropriated varies according to each individual: past experience
and knowledge of individuals Rules are applied informally Operates
within a certain industry and due to its low level of influence
within this industry is required to conform to its standards
Flexibility in the use of software infrastructure The way a system
(its functionalities and applications) is used and appropriated
varies according to each individual: past experience and knowledge
of individuals Rules are applied informally UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 75
Slide 77
Several years have passed since the start of the growth phase
of the business and the second evolution of the actor network. The
actor network itself seems to have reached a point of maturity
within the organisation New problematization of business growth led
to a culture of innovation replacing culture of complacency and
apathy Yet, their approach to information infrastructure is
reactive, rather than proactive Several years have passed since the
start of the growth phase of the business and the second evolution
of the actor network. The actor network itself seems to have
reached a point of maturity within the organisation New
problematization of business growth led to a culture of innovation
replacing culture of complacency and apathy Yet, their approach to
information infrastructure is reactive, rather than proactive UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 76
Slide 78
The evolution of the information infrastructure is typically
shaped by external factors and aimed at satisfying the external
influence e.g., importance given to competitors: their
infrastructural progress is tracked and the infrastructure upgraded
accordingly There is no forward thinking or strategic planning on
the part of the focal actor or management to grow business
efficiency and productivity or look for other innovative ways to
provide a better service to clients The evolution of the
information infrastructure is typically shaped by external factors
and aimed at satisfying the external influence e.g., importance
given to competitors: their infrastructural progress is tracked and
the infrastructure upgraded accordingly There is no forward
thinking or strategic planning on the part of the focal actor or
management to grow business efficiency and productivity or look for
other innovative ways to provide a better service to clients UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 77
Slide 79
There is also no view to use or build an information
infrastructure to provide a competitive advantage for the
organisation Infrastructure is heterogeneous with little
integration between the various components The inherent
efficiencies that integration could potentially provide for the
organisation remains an unrealised potential. This is attributed to
the lack of strategic thinking and planning for the organisations
information infrastructure There is also no view to use or build an
information infrastructure to provide a competitive advantage for
the organisation Infrastructure is heterogeneous with little
integration between the various components The inherent
efficiencies that integration could potentially provide for the
organisation remains an unrealised potential. This is attributed to
the lack of strategic thinking and planning for the organisations
information infrastructure UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24
October 2007 78
Slide 80
Guiding questions What is important in the findings? Why is it
important? What can be learned from it? Contextualize findings in
the literature So what? Guiding questions What is important in the
findings? Why is it important? What can be learned from it?
Contextualize findings in the literature So what? UCT Department of
IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 79
Slide 81
Human actors and interpersonal relations Financial and resource
constraints Industry standards and external factors Interaction
with technical infrastructure Organizational culture Reactive, not
proactive Competitors Lack of strategic planning Human actors and
interpersonal relations Financial and resource constraints Industry
standards and external factors Interaction with technical
infrastructure Organizational culture Reactive, not proactive
Competitors Lack of strategic planning UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 80
Slide 82
Confirmation of view of information infrastructure as an
already existing ecology of ubiquitous socio- technical relations
and their respective crossovers New elements in the multi-layered
view: competitors; constraints Adaptation of certain layers to the
SMME context Provides a way to present an SMME-oriented model
Confirmation of view of information infrastructure as an already
existing ecology of ubiquitous socio- technical relations and their
respective crossovers New elements in the multi-layered view:
competitors; constraints Adaptation of certain layers to the SMME
context Provides a way to present an SMME-oriented model UCT
Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 81
Slide 83
The context within which information infrastructure development
takes place in SMMEs How SMMEs approach, by doing what is
necessary, the development of information infrastructure Where and
why they have difficulties; where and why they need help How they
could be supported The context within which information
infrastructure development takes place in SMMEs How SMMEs approach,
by doing what is necessary, the development of information
infrastructure Where and why they have difficulties; where and why
they need help How they could be supported UCT Department of IS
Research Seminar 24 October 2007 82
Slide 84
The work of Hanseth, Cordella, Constantinides & Barrett:
confirmation Chester & Skoks framework: the findings provide a
basis for support services Adaptation and extension of the model of
Constantinides and Barrett See next slides The work of Hanseth,
Cordella, Constantinides & Barrett: confirmation Chester &
Skoks framework: the findings provide a basis for support services
Adaptation and extension of the model of Constantinides and Barrett
See next slides UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October
2007 83
Slide 85
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 84
Mentoring & Awareness InactiveBasicSubstantialSophisticate d
Support Services for SMEs (Chester & Skok, 2000) Learning and
Developmen t Advice & consultancy Best practices DIY &
outsourcing Centre of Excellence
Slide 86
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 85
Networks of Power Tools and Techniques New Technologies Technical
Infrastructures Competitors and market conditions Individuals User
Community Organizational culture of innovation Resource Constraints
Financial Constraints
Slide 87
See conclusions (next slides) UCT Department of IS Research
Seminar 24 October 2007 86
Slide 88
(Not just a summary!) 87 UCT Department of IS Research Seminar
24 October 2007
Slide 89
SMMEs can develop information infrastructures as building
blocks, not only to support their business activities, but indeed
to further them However, they typically need support Such support
services should always be provided within the context of and with a
deep understanding of the circumstances of the SMME The adapted and
modified model provides a basis for such understanding and for
structuring support services for SMMEs The model should not be used
normatively, but as a basis for planning interventions and support
SMMEs can develop information infrastructures as building blocks,
not only to support their business activities, but indeed to
further them However, they typically need support Such support
services should always be provided within the context of and with a
deep understanding of the circumstances of the SMME The adapted and
modified model provides a basis for such understanding and for
structuring support services for SMMEs The model should not be used
normatively, but as a basis for planning interventions and support
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 88
Slide 90
Students would not typically be able to adapt the formal
frameworks of information infrastructure development (for large
organizations) for SMMEs Information infrastructure development in
SMMEs should be addressed as a topic in its own right in an IS
curriculum The work presented here provides a basis for such a
component Students would not typically be able to adapt the formal
frameworks of information infrastructure development (for large
organizations) for SMMEs Information infrastructure development in
SMMEs should be addressed as a topic in its own right in an IS
curriculum The work presented here provides a basis for such a
component UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007
89
Slide 91
UCT Department of IS Research Seminar 24 October 2007 90
Phew... and thanks!