Bry Reviewer

8/4/2019 Bry Reviewer

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MEN BEHIND FIREARMSHORACE SMITH Founded the great firm SMITH and WESSON

and pioneered the making of breech loading rifles.DANIEL B. WESSON Associate of Smith in the manufacture of

new cartridges and revolvers.SAMUEL COLT Produced the first practical revolvers.JOHN M. BROWNING Wizard of modern firearms and

pioneered the first breech loading single shot rifles.ALEXANDER JOHN FORSYTH Father of percussion ignition.ELISHA KING ROOT Designed machinery for making coltfirearms.ELIPHALET REMINGTON One of the first rifle makers.

JOHN MAHLON MARTIN Founded the firearm company whichbears his name.

JAMES WOLFE RIPLY Stimulated the development of the 1855rifled Musket, the first firearm of its kind ever produced.HENRY DERRINGER He gave his name to whole class of

firearms.OLIVER F. WINCHESTER One of the earliest rifle and pistolmakers.JOHN T. THOMPSON Pioneered the making of ThompsonSubmachine gun.DAVID CARBINE WILLIAM Maker of the first known carbine.

JOHN C. GARAND Designed and invented the U.S. Rifle,Caliber .30 M1.

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY1313 The ages of gunpowder began with its use as a

propellant for projectile.1350 The first portable hand firearms were introduced. Theseguns were ignited by a hand held hot wire or lighted.1498 The first reference to rifled barrels appeared.1676 Paper cartridges combining both powder ball were

developed.1807 The discovery of Forsyth that certain compoundsdetonated by a blow could be used to ignite the charges in afirearm formed the basis for all later percussion and cartridgedevelopment.1836 Samuel Colt, patented the first practical revolver in

which the cylinder was rotated by cocking the hammer.


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1836 The pin fire cartridge developed by Le Faucheus, wasprobably, the first self exploding cartridge which resulted intogeneral use.1845 Flobert, a native of France, developed a bullet breech capwhich was in reality the first rim fire cartridge.1858 The Morse Cartridge marked the beginning of the rapiddevelopment of the center fire cartridge.1884 Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun utilizingthe recoil of the piece to load and fire the next charge.1886 Vielle of France developed the first satisfactorysmokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked thesmoke characteristics of black powder, but more powerful aswell.

DEFINITION OF TERMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICSACTION breech mechanism of a gun, by which it is loaded

and unloaded.AIRSPACE Space on a loaded cartridge case not occupied bypowder and bullet.

ANVIL Is a primer or cartridge case, a fixed point againstwhich the priming mixture is compressed and thereby detonatedby action of the firing pin.

ARMOR PIERCING A full patched bullet with steel core used

against light mechanized armored vehicles.BALL Earlier term for bullet and still used in some militaryterminologyBALLISTICS Science of projectile in motion.BARREL The part of a gun through which passes the bullet

from breech to muzzle.BASE WAD Compressed paper or other materials inside a shotshell varying in size and form.BATTERY CUP Type of shot shell ignition form, in which the

cap or primer is held.

BELTED CASE Cartridge case with a band or belt at base justahead of extractor groove, in which case position in chamber ofrifle.

BLACK POWDER A mixture of saltpeter, charcoal and sulfur.

BLANK CARTRIDGE A cartridge without a bullet.


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BORE The cylindrical passage of the barrel through which

the bullet or projectile travels.

BORE DIAMETER In rifled arms, the diametrical

measurement between tops of lands.

BOTTLE NECK CARTRIDGE A type cartridge designed toaccommodate more powder usually for high-powered guns.BREECH The rear end of the bore where the bullet enters.BREECH BOLT the part of the breech that resists the rearwardforce of the combustion that occurs when a cartridge isdischarged.BOAT TAIL Referring to the base taper given in a certain bulletto give greater efficiency at long range.BULLET The projectile only, (not to be applied to the

cartridge) which is sometimes called ball. That portion of acartridge, which is propelled from the firearm.CALIBER Bore diameter expressed I decimal of an inch,measured between two opposite land.CALIPER The measuring device used in the calibration ofbullets and gun bores.CANNELURES Circumferential grooves around the bullet orcartridge case.CAPLOCK Used by muzzle loading guns whose ignition

system employs percussion, a small thumb-like cap containing

a detonating mixture.CARTRIDGE A complete round of ammunition, made up simply of

cartridge case, primer, powder and bullet

CARTRIDGE CASE Commonly the brass copper envelope that

contains primer, powder and bullet (when ready for use).

CENTER FIRE Those ignited by means of a separate and replaceable

primer.

CHAMBER That part of the bore, at the breech to accept thecartridge.CHOKE The constriction of a shotgun bore at the muzzle atvarious ranges or degree, designed to control pellet charge atthe target.CHRONOGRAPH Instrument which measures the velocity of

the projectiles.COMPARISON CAMERA An optical instrument designed tomake simultaneous comparison of two specimens.


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CORDITE A nitroglycerine smokeless powder used mainly inEngland.CORROSION The chemical wears and tears of the inside

portion of the barrel of the gun due to rust or chemical action asa result of combustion after firing.CYLINDER In a revolver type firearm, cartridge container thatrotates around an axis parallel to and below the barrel.DIE In hand loading ammunition, any number of tools used tosized bullets and shells.DRILLING A three-barrel gun, popular in Europe, which

usually combined smooth bores and rifled bores.DOUBLE ACTION A weapon in which a pressure upon the

trigger both cocks and releases the hammer.EJECTOR Correctly, the device at the barrel breech within

which the action that knocks the fired cartridge case.ENERGY In bullets, the amount of work done, at a given range

expressed in foot-pounds.EROSION More or less gradual wearing away of rifling bycombustion gas, hot and bullet friction.EXTRACTOR The mechanism of a firearm by which thecartridge is withdrawn from the chamber.EXPERT WITNESS One who had acquired a special skill in a

particular branch of science.

EVERLASTING CASE Brass cartridge case from heavy stockintended for extended reloading life.EYEPIECE A part of the bullet comparison microscope wherethe examiner view the specimens.FIREARM An instrument used for the propulsion of a

projectile by the expansive force of gases from the burninggunpowder.FIRING PIN A part of action, activated by the trigger than hits

the primer and fires the cartridge.FOOT-POUND The amount of work required to raise one

pound one foot high against the force of gravity.FOOT-SECOND Velocity expressed in feet per second.

FOLLOWER A metal platform in a clip of magazine that pushesthe cartridge upward to the proper angle for feeding in thechamber.


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GAS CHECK A cup usually copper used on the base of a leadbullet to protect if from hot gasses.FOULING The accumulation of a deposit within the bore of a

firearm caused by solid products remaining after a cartridge isfired.GAUGE Unit of bore measurement in shotguns, determined

by the number of solid lead balls, of the bore diameterobtainable from a pound of lead.GILDING METAL A copper zinc alloy used as a bullet to spinas it travels down the barrel.GROOVES spiral cuts in a bore which cause the bullet to spin

as it travels from the barrel.GROOVE DIAMETER In rifled arms, the diameter measurementbetween bottom of grooves.

GROUP Number of shots fired into a target usually in onesighting set.HAMMER A part of action (in some guns) actuated by thetrigger, the hammer drives the firing pin against the primer, thusigniting the primer and further burns the propellant powder.HANG FIRE Cartridge which fire for as long as severalseconds after the firing pin strikes the primer.HOLLOW POINT A design features of some bullets.HEADSPACE For reamed cartridge, the distance from the face

of the breechblock to the barrel seat of the forward surface ofthe case rim. For rimless bottle neck cartridge, the distancefrom the face of the breechblock to the predetermined point onthe shoulder of the chamber. Belted cases had space on theforward edge of the belt.LANDS that portion of the bore remaining after the rifling ofgrooves have been cut.LEADING Lead deposited on the bore of the gun from the

bullet passing through it.LENS Optical instrument magnified used for laboratory

examination of microscopical specimens.MAGAZINE A reservoir to hold extra cartridge.

MAGNUM Firearms designed for extra power.MATCH LOCK An early form of firearm, in which primingcharge was ignited by a cord or match of a slow burningmaterials.


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METAL CASE A form of bullet completely covered forwardwith copper alloy (jacket).

MIDRANGE Usually used in connection with the trajectory,referring to a point midway between muzzle and target game.MISFIRE Cartridge, which do not fire when firing strikes thefiring pin.MUSHROOM The capacity of certain bullet to expand on afterimpact, also the term given to some soft point or hollow pointbullet.

MUZZLE End of barrel opposite breech point from which bulletor shots leaves barrel.MUZZLE LOADER Gun loaded through the front end (muzzle)

of the bore using loose powder and ball or shell or papercartridges.MUZZLE ENERGY (M.E.) The bullets capacity for hittingmeasured in foot pounds from the muzzle.MUZZLE VELOCITY (M.V.) Speed of the bullet from muzzle

point.NIPPLE In muzzle loading gun, the small metal cone at the rearof the barrel through which the frame from the percussion cup

passes to ignite the powder charge.

OGIVE The radius of the curve of the nose of the bulletusually expressed in caliber.OVER BOARD CAPACITY Condition in which the volume of acartridge case exceeds the amount of powder, which can bemost efficiently burnt.PARADOX Smooth bore gun in which the final few inches ofthe barrel are rifled to increase the efficiency of the round ball orslug.PARCHING CLOTH Use to form a gas seal around the

projectile of the muzzle of the loading gun.

PATTERN A pellet from a shotgun usually expressed as somany pellets within 30 circles at 40 yards.PERCUSSION CUP A small metallic cap containing fulminatingmaterial that explodes when struck by a guns hammer.PISTOL Any small concealable short barrel gun, generally notrevolver.


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PLATED BULLET A bullet covered with a thin coating of acopper alloy to prevent leading.POWDER CHARGE An amount of gunpowder in one load.PRESSURE The gas pressure generated in a cartridge on itsbeing fired, usually expressed in pound per square inch.PRIMER POCKET A portion of the base center of a cartridgecase designed to accommodate the primer (center fire).PRIMER In center fire cartridge cases, the small capcontaining a detonating mixture, which is similar mixture, foundin cartridge casesPROJECTILE One that is projected through the barrel and out

of the gun by the powder gases.PROPRIETORY CARTRIDGE One developed and exclusivelyby one establishment or factory.

RANGE The distance from gun muzzle to target.RAMROD Rod or wood used to force the bullet out of the bore

of the gun barrel.REBATED RIM Type of a cartridge case rim smaller than the

diameter of the cases at point just forward of the extractorgroove.RECOIL The backward thrust of a gun caused by the reactionof the powder gases pushing the bullet forward.REPEATER Any arm holing more than one round at a time.

REVOLVER A multi-shot handgun, using a revolving cylinderas a cartridge container.RICOCHET The deflections of the bullet from the normal path

after striking a resistant surface.RIFLE Types of weapons fired from the shoulder.

RIM FIRE A cartridge containing priming mixture in the rim,which struck by firing pin.RIMMED CARTRIDGE A cartridge having a flanged rim a little

wider in size the body of the case.RIMLESS CARTRIDGE A cartridge having the size of the case

in the same with the size of the body proper.RIFLING Spiral cuts into the bore of a rifled gun barrel toimpart a spin on the bullet assuring point in flight for betteraccuracy. The purpose of rifling is to gyroscopic stability of thebullet during its flight from the gun muzzle.RIM The projecting edge of a cartridge case.SEMI-AUTOMATIC Single shot for every press on the trigger.


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SHOT Lead or lead alloy spheres used as a projectile insmooth bore guns or shotguns.SHOTGUNS A smooth bore gun using cartridge loaded withshots.SINGLE ACTION A weapon in which pressure upon the triggerreleases the hammer which must be manually pulled.SMOKELESS POWDER Gunpowder which gives off almost nosmoke when burned.SMOOTHBORE A barrel without riflingsSOFT POINT (S.P.) term used for bullet with partial jacketing

having some portions of the bullet to expose at the front.TRACER BULLET A military type of bullet that contains achemical elements that burns while the bullet is in flight.TRAJECTORY The carved path of the bullet in flight or in a

parabola.TRIGGER The level operated by a shoulder which releases thefiring pin and allows it to discharge the cartridge.TRIGGER GUARD Bent strip of metal that protects the trigger

from accidental discharge.TWIST Angle of rifling relative to the axis of the bore. Usuallyuniform, expressed in turns or part turns in so many inches,less common the progressive or gain twist.UNDERSIZE BULLET Bullet slightly smaller than the actual

bore diameter of the gun barrel.VELOCITY A projectile speed, usually measure feet persecond.VENT Orifice through which the flame enters to burn the

powder charge.WAD A disc of paper, felt plastic or other materials used in

shells.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING Police, fireand jail operations demand the utmost skill and careful planningin order to insure the accomplishment of the police objectivesand mission. Planning may mean any of the following:

The process of combining all aspects of public safety activityand the realistic anticipation of the future problems; the analysis


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of strategy and the correlation of strategy to detail; The use ofrational design or pattern for all the public safety undertakings;and

Slide 4:The act of determining policies and guidelines for police/fire/jailactivities and operations and providing controls and safeguardsfor such activities and operation in the public safety services.

AIMS OF POLICE STRATEGY AND TACTICS:The attainment of police objectives with the maximum ofsuccess. The attainment of police design with minimum ofeffort. The lessening of risk in police operations. Thecoordination of various police elements in the undertaking of

joint task for operation.

Slide 6:The reduction of friction and misunderstanding between the

police and the public. The attainment of basic police purpose inthe enforcement of laws. The attainment of total policeeffectiveness through the integration of physical, scientific,technical and psychological processes.

IMPORTANCE OF POLICE STRATEGY :Controlling of mobs and crowds Handling of prisoners andsuspects Police raids on buildings and places The capture ofbarricaded criminal hideouts The quelling of prison riots Thehandling of parades and demonstration

Slide 8:Police actions in civil defense Responding to bank robberyalarm The technique of riot control Mobile and foot patrol

Actions during disasters and calamities The control and

regulations of traffic Protective securities to VIPs anddignitaries Action during labor strikes Surveillance andundercover works.

NATURE OF PLANNING :Planning is an important and never-ending process ofadministration; particularly in the concept of public safety. Its


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importance cannot be minimized even in the local policecommand, and a commander who ignores it, does so atsubstantial peril. In a very simple sense, planning is deciding inadvance on what is to be done and how it is to be accomplished.It is in essence, preparations for actions

Slide 10:In order to insure the accomplishment of the of the public safetyobjectives and mission, its components such as the police, fireand jail operations must adopt the utmost skill and careful

planning. Planning is the key to administrative process whichmay mean any of the following:

Slide 11:

The process of combining all aspects of the public safetyactivity and the realistic anticipation of the future problems, theanalysis of strategy and correlation of strategy to detail; The useof rational design or pattern for all the public safetyundertakings; and The act of determining policies andguidelines for police, fire and jail activities and operations and

providing controls and safeguards for such activities andoperations in the public safety services.

RESPONSIBILITY IN PLANNING :Broad policy planning shall be the responsibility of the Director-General of the PNP. The commander at each level or command,however, shall be responsible for establishing internaloperational policies to achieve the objectives and missions ofthe police in his/her own unit.

Slide 13:This requires a clear definition of work to be done; who will doit; and how well it is to be done. He/She shall be responsible for

PLANNING, ORGANIZING, DIRECTING, STAFFING,COORDINATING, CONTROLLING, REPORTING and BUDGETINGfor the aforementioned unit within existing policies andavailable resources.


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Slide 14:For maximum effectiveness, he/she shall be responsible for thetechnical operation of the unit and the management of its

personnel.

Slide 15:In effect, PLANNING as the key to administrative process, is aCOMMAND RESPONSIBILITY of all commanders concerned. Inthe concept of the PNP, Broad Policy Planning is the commandresponsibility of the Director-General, while in the localcommand planning is the command responsibility of therespective local commanders.

Slide 16:Specifically, the commander at each level or command shallhave the command responsibility of the following: 1.Establishing internal operational policies to achieve theobjectives and mission of his/her department in his/her

particular unit. This requires a clear definition of work to bedone, who are to do it, and how well it is to be done.

Slide 17:

2. Planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating,controlling, reporting and budgeting for the aforementioned unitwithin existing policies and available resources. 3. Formaximum effectiveness, he/she shall be responsible for thetechnical operation of the unit and the management of its

personnel.

TYPES OF PLANS :To formally achieve the administrative planning responsibilitywithin the unit, the commander shall develop plans relating to:

Policies or Procedures Tactics Operations Extra-office ActivitiesManagement

POLICY OR PROCEDURAL PLAN :Standard operating procedure shall be planned to guidemembers in routine field operations and in some specialoperations in accordance with the following procedures:


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Slide 20:Field Procedures. This is intended to be used in all situations ofall kinds, which shall be outlined to guide officers and men inthe field. This relate to reporting, dispatching to raids, arrests,stopping suspicious looking person, receiving complaints,touring beat, investigation of crimes and similar activities.

Slide 21:The use of physical force and clubs, restraining devices,firearms, teargas, and the like, in dealing with groups orindividual, shall also be outlined.

Slide 22:Headquarters Procedures. To be included in these proceduresare the duties of the dispatcher, jailer, matron, and other

personnel concerned, which may be reflected in the dutymanual. It also involves coordinated action on activity of severaloffices. However, it shall be established separately as in thecase of using telephone for local/long distance, the radioteletype, and other similar devices

Slide 23:Special Operating Procedures. Certain special operations alsonecessitate the preparation of procedures as guides.

TACTICAL PLANS :These are plans for operations of special divisions like the

patrol, detectives, traffic, fire and juvenile control divisions.Operational plans shall be prepared to accomplish each of the

primary police tasks. For example a patrol activity must beplanned; the force must be distributed among the shifts and

territorially among beats in proportion to the needs of theservice; special details must be planned to meet unexpectedneeds and so on.

Slide 25:Likewise, on crime prevention, and traffic, juvenile and vicecontrol, campaign must be planned and assignments be made


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to assure the accomplishment of the police purpose in meetingboth average and irregular needs. Plans for operations ofspecial division consist of two types, namely:

Slide 26:Those designed to meet everyday, year-round needs, which areregular operating program of the division. This is known asREGULAR OPERATING PROGRAM. The operating units shallhave specific plans to meet current needs. The manpower shallbe distributed throughout the hours of operation andthroughout the area of jurisdiction in proportion to need.

Slide 27:These plans shall also assure suitable supervision, which

becomes difficult when the regular assignment is interrupted todeal with these short time periodic needs.

Slide 28:Specialized assignment shall be worked out for the detectiveand juvenile divisions to provide approximately equal workloads, taking into consideration variations in the importance ofcases and the average time required to investigate them.

Assignment of officers and men to divisions shall be on the

need and on the basis of specialty and interest.

Slide 29:Special program shall be developed to meet particular needs ineach field of activity. For example, the traffic division needs

program of enforcement, public education and engineering. Thejuvenile division needs program designed to make bettercitizens of delinquent and pre-delinquent children, andoperational plans to eliminate certain delinquency-inducingfactors in the community.

Slide 30:Those designed to meet unusual needs, the result ofintermittent and usually unexpected variations in activities thatdemand attention. This is MEETING THE UNUSUAL NEEDS. Theunusual needs may arise in any field of police activity and are


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nearly always met in the detective, vice and juvenile divisions bytemporary readjustment of regular assignment.

Slide 31:For example, a sudden upsurge of robberies may result incaseload beyond the capacity of the detective assigned. Someof these cases may be assigned to other detectives less at work.

EXTRA OFFICE PLANS :The active interest and participation of individual citizen is sovital to the success of the integrated police programs that the

police shall continuously seek to motivate, promote andmaintain an active public concern in its affairs. Plans shall bemade to organize the community to assist in the

accomplishment of objectives in the field of traffic control,organized crime, and juvenile delinquency prevention.

Slide 33:The organizations may call safety councils for crime anddelinquency prevention. Organization and operating plans forcivil defense shall also be prepared or used in case ofemergency or war in coordination with the office of the CivilDefense.

MANAGEMENT PLANS :Plans of management shall map out in advance all operationsinvolved in the organization management or personnel andmaterial and in the procurement and disbursement of money,such as the following:

Slide 35:BUDGET PLANNING. Present and future money needs for

personnel, equipment and capital investments must be

estimated, and plans for supporting budget requests must bemade if needed appropriations are to be obtained.

Slide 36:ACCOUNTING PROCEDURES. Accounting procedures shall beestablished and expenditures reports shall also be provided to


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assist in making administrative decisions and in holdingexpenditures within the appropriations.

Slide 37:SPECIFICATION AND PURCHASING PROCEDURES.Specifications shall be drawn for equipment and supplies, and

purchasing procedures shall likewise be established to ensurethe checking of deliveries against specifications of orders.Plans and specifications shall be drafted for new buildings andfor remodeling old ones.

Slide 38:PERSONNEL. Procedures shall be established to assure thecarrying out of personnel program and allocation of personnel

among the component organizational units in proportion toneed.

Slide 39:ORGANIZATION. A basic plan of the command/unit shall bemade/posted for the guidance of the force. For the organizationto be meaningful, it shall be accompanied by a duty manual,which shall define relationship between the component units interms of specific responsibilities.

Slide 40:The duty manual shall incorporate rules and regulations andshall contain the following: definition of terms, organization ofrank, general duties of the various units, and the like, providedthe same shall not be in conflict with the manual.

STEPS IN PLANNING :The following steps provide an orderly means of development of

plans:

Slide 42:FRAME OF REFERENCE. This shall be based on a careful viewof the matters relating to the situation for which plans are beingdeveloped. Opinions or ideas of persons who may speak withauthority on the subject and views of the police commander,


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other government officials, and other professional shall beconsidered.

Slide 43:CLARIFYING THE PROBLEMS. This calls for the identification ofthe problem, understanding both its record and its possiblesolution. A situation must exist for which something must andcan be done.

Slide 44:COLLECTING ALL PERTINENT FACTS. No attempt shall bemade to develop a plan until all facts relating to it have beengathered. In the series of robberies, all cases on files shall be

carefully reviewed to determine the modus operandi, suspects,types of victims, and such other information as may benecessary. Facts relating to such matters as availability,deployment and use of personnel shall be gathered.

Slide 45:ANALYZING THE FACTS. After all data have been gathered acareful analysis and evaluation shall be made. This provides thebasis from which plan or plans are evolved. Only such facts as

may have relevance shall be considered.

Slide 46:DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVE PLANS. In the initial phases of

plan development, several alternative measures shall appear tobe logically comparable to the needs of the situation. As thealternative solutions are evaluated, one of the proposed plansshall usually prove more logical than the others.

Slide 47:

SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE ALTERNATIVES. Acareful consideration of all facts usually leads to the selection ofthe best of alternative proposals.

Slide 48:


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SELLING THE PLAN. A plan to be effectively carried out, mustbe accepted by the persons concerned at the appropriate levelof the plans development.

Slide 49:ARRANGING FOR THE EXECUTION OF THE PLAN. Theexecution of a plan requires the issuance of orders anddetectives to units and personnel concerned, the establishmentof a schedule, and the provisions of manpower and equipmentfor carrying out the plan.

Slide 50:

EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PLAN. The resultof the plan shall be determined. This is necessary in order toknow whether a correct alternative was chosen, whether or notthe plan was correct, which phase was poorly implemented, andwhether additional planning may be necessary.

Slide 51:Virtually, every problem in law enforcement and public safetyleads itself to a thorough and systematic analysis of the process

of planning. The said process of planning was clearly discussedin the STEPS IN PLANNING from Frame of Reference up toEvaluation of the Effectiveness of the Plan.

Slide 52:These aforementioned STEPS IN PLANNING would result in anorderly means for development of plans. The general emphasisof police planning therefore is identical, if not similar to, thatindustry whose ultimate objective is to improve efficiency andeffectiveness of the current operations in law enforcement and

public safety.

Slide 53:This is in consonance with the broad goals of RA 6975, which isto conserve manpower and budget and to provide better lawenforcement and public safety managerial efficiency has beenthe by-word.


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CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANS :Effective plans have certain identifiable characteristics such asthe following:

Slide 55:Clearly defined objective or goals Simplicity, directness andclarity Flexibility Possibility of attainment Provisions forstandards of operation Economy in terms of resources neededfor implementation, and Anticipated effect or effects on futureoperations.

Slide 56:

The identifiable characteristics of effective plans as enumeratedin this section serve only as guide post for a commander toadopt and develop. The success of any plan lies in the successof its implementation. A good plan poorly executed is asineffective as a poor plan.

Slide 57:The effectiveness of planning likewise depends to a degree of oron the timeliness of the plan and on strategy used for

implementation. Timeliness requires a commander to be able toexploit the sources involved in time to be of use to requiring hiscommand responsibility. Plans to be used must be timely.

Slide 58:EXECUTION OF PLANS. Once plans are made, same shall be putinto operation and the result thereof evaluated accordingly.Operations on the public safety force shall be directed by thechiefs or commander to attain the following objectives:

Slide 59:Protection of lives and property Preservation of the peace andorder Prevention of crimes Repression and suppression ofcriminality Apprehension of criminals

Slide 60:


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Enforcement of laws and ordinances and regulations of conductSafeguarding of public health and moral Prompt execution ofcriminal writs and processes of the court; and Coordination andcooperation with other law enforcement agencies

Slide 61:To achieve the foregoing objectives, the public safety servicestasks shall be specifically assigned and each member mustknow his particular duties and functions. Functions or Tasksshall be categorized into:

Slide 62:

Primary. The primary or line operation tasks shall include patrol,investigation, traffic, vice and juvenile control. Accomplishmentof these primary tasks shall achieve the main objective of thePNP.

Slide 63:Secondary. Auxiliary or service tasks shall include records,

property, jail, crime laboratory, transportation andcommunication. These tasks shall assist and effectively support

the primary task in the accomplishment of the objective.

Slide 64:Administrative. The administrative or managerial tasks shallinclude personnel, intelligence, inspection, planning, budgeting,training and public relations. These tasks shall assist andeffectively support both the primary and secondary tasks in theattainment of their objectives.

Slide 65:

FIELD OPERATIONS. Operations in the field shall be directed bythe police commander and the subordinate commanders andthe same shall be aimed at the accomplishment of the following

primary tasks effectively and economically. The following arethe PRIMARY OR LINE OPERATION TASKS.

Slide 66:


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PATROL. The patrol force shall accomplish the primaryresponsibility of safeguarding the community through the

protection of life and property, the preservation of peace, theprevention of crime, the suppression of criminal activities andapprehension of criminals, the enforcement of laws andordinances and regulations of conduct, and performingnecessary services and inspection.

Slide 67:Policing shall be considered a patrol service with specializedactivities developed as aids. A patrol force or unit is the nucleusof the police organization about which the special services aregrouped, and therefore, it shall not be subordinated to any other

police unit in force.

Slide 68:The proportional strength of the patrol force and the specialunits like investigation, traffic and vice and juvenile units, shalldepend on the services performed by each. The patrol forcebeing the backbone of the police service, shall be responsiblefor the accomplishment of the TOTAL POLICE JOB, and in small

police stations/sub-stations having no specialization, it shallperform all the primary, secondary and administrative tasks.

Slide 69:If a special unit is created, it must be decided which task shallbe taken from patrol, to be made the exclusive responsibility ofsaid special unit, which tasks shall remain in the exclusiveresponsibility of the patrol, and which task shall be assigned as

joint responsibility.

Slide 70:INVESTIGATION. The basic purpose of investigation of detective

bureau shall be to investigate certain designated serious crimesand clear them by the recovery of stolen property and the arrestand conviction of the perpetrators.

Slide 71:To this end, the investigation division shall supervise theinvestigation made by patrol officer and undertake additional


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investigations as may be necessary of all felonies, and all casesof murder, homicide, robbery, theft and other grave offenses,except those types that are assigned by department regulationsto the traffic, vice and juvenile units.

Slide 72:The investigation division shall also be responsible for theinvestigation of felonies and misdemeanors which have notbeen cleared by arrest or some other means and which comewithin their jurisdiction. It shall be responsible also for theinvestigation of non-criminal activities, including missing

person, and matters wherein an investigation would be

beneficial to the public welfare.

Slide 73:TRAFFIC CONTROL. Police control of streets or highwaysvehicles and peoples shall facilitate the safe and rapidmovements of vehicles and pedestrians. To this end, theinconvenience, dangers and economic losses that arise fromthese movement congestion, delays, stopping, and parking ofvehicles must be lessened. Control of traffic shall be

accomplished in three steps, they are:

Slide 74:Causes of accident and congestion shall be discovered, factsgathered and analyzed for this purpose. Causes shall beremedied; changes shall be made in physical conditions thatcreate hazards; and legislation shall be enacted to regulatedrivers and pedestrians.

Slide 75:

The public shall be educated in the provisions of traffic andordinances; motorists and pedestrians shall be trained insatisfactory movement habits; and compliance with regulationshall be obtained if need be, by enforcement. The police shallinitiate action and coordinate the efforts of the agencies that arealso concerned in these activities.


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Slide 76:The PNP have three tools to aid them in traffic control.Summarily, the above-mentioned are the: 1. Traffic Engineering2. Traffic Education; and 3. Traffic Enforcement

Slide 77:VICE CONTROL. It shall determine stand of the police service inthe control of vices, to treat vice offenses as they shall do to anyviolation, and exert efforts to eliminate them, as they attempt toeliminate robbery, theft and public disturbance. Control of viceshall be based on law rather than on moral precept, andintensive operations shall be directed toward their elimination.

Slide 78:A primary interest in vice control results from the closecoordination between vice and criminal activities. Constantraids of known vice dens shall be undertaken.

Slide 79:JUVENILE DELINQUENCY CONTROL. Effective crime controlnecessitates preventing the development of individual as

criminals. The police commander shall recognize a need forpreventing crime or correcting conditions that induce criminalityand by rehabilitating the delinquent.

Slide 80:In determining the role which the police shall play in thisendeavor, the commander shall study the causes of delinquencyand the means of their elimination or correction, to inventoryand evaluate community social-welfare activities directly orindirectly related to the prevention of criminality, and to

discover by analysis delinquency prevention tasks that are bestsuited to perform.

Slide 81:In carrying out this program, the police shall obtain support andassistance by harnessing all community resources to the taskssuch as the facilities of health and guidance clinics, the


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professional skills of physicians, psychiatrist and psychologist,and the help of teachers, ministers and laymen.

Slide 82:The police shall enlist the aid, focus the attention, andcoordinate the activities of every agency and ground in thecommunity which services may assist in the accomplishment ofthe delinquency prevention program.

Slide 83:

AUXILIARY AND ADMINISTRATIVE TASKS. In order for policeoperations to succeed, the resources of the PNP such asmanpower, money, materials, methods and machines, shall be

properly marshaled, utilized, coordinated and controlled. Fieldunits shall be amply and ably supported by the auxiliary andadministrative bureaus in their operations.

Slide 84:The SECONDARY AND AUXILIARY or service police tasks such

as records, property, jail, crime laboratory, transportation andcommunication must be made to support the line units. In likemanner, the managerial tasks of personnel staffing, budgeting,intelligence, inspection, planning, training, and public relationsmust likewise support the line units.

Slide 85:In a sense, Section 10 enumerates the resources of thePhilippine National Police (PNP), otherwise known as the 5Ms ofPolice Management. The following are to wit: 1. Manpower, 2.

Money, 3. Materials, 4. Methods, and 5. Machine

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED INPOLICE PLANNING :

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED INPOLICE PLANNING POLICE OPERATION the act of carryingout pre-conceived measure in a regular movement by managing


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people in a situation to the advantage of a given mission inparticular and of the good of the community in general.

Slide 87:POLICE STRATEGY AND TACTICS consists of plans and

procedures adopted by the police for the attainment ofoperational objectives, aims, purposes, or situation and theiraccomplishment which involves leadership, initiatives, groupaction, coordination and integration.

Slide 88:STRATEGY a plan, device or scheme for the purpose ofcarrying out some design or purpose of gaining someadvantage in a conflict for police operation.

Slide 89:TACTICS the method or procedure adopted to carry out a planto attain a police purpose.

Slide 90:MOB defined as an active and hostile crowd. A MOBscharacteristic is its hostile activity.

Slide 91:WEDGE FORMATION a formation composed of a squad or

platoon. It is the normal offensive formation with diagonalprimarily adjunct thereto. This is used when the crowd is smallenough which do not require more than a squad. This iscommonly used in splitting the crowd in order to apprehend the

ring leader.

Slide 92:SQUAD DIAGONAL used in dealing with small groups. The

purpose of this movement is to move away the crowd from awall or a building, or to sweep the street with crowd. In the event


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the crowd is large, wedge diagonal is more appropriate. Squaddiagonal may be formed by a platoon or by a unit of any size.

Slide 93:DEPLOYED LINE strictly a defensive formation and will beused in cases the police have drawn fire or gained the objectiveand wish to hold it. The reserves who are not engage in anysquad or section movement should be drawn up in a skirmishline in the immediate rear of the action. This action may be

formed by a unit of any size.

Slide 94:CIVIL DEFENSE the joint endeavor of the civilian population ofthe country to survive the effect of war. While the armed forcesare engaged in fighting the enemy in the field, it is theresponsibility of every person in the country to prevent andminimize the damage which the enemy can cause upon civilian

population.

Slide 95:Republic Act 1190 known as the CIVIL DEFENSE Law whichtook effect on August 18, 1954. This is the law that provide forthe creation of a Central National Defense Administration in thecountry.

Slide 96:FRAGMENTATION BOMB are intended against military

personnel in the battle field.

Slide 97:GENERAL PURPOSE BOMB are intended against ordinarybuildings, civilian concentration and common targets.

Slide 98:


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DEMOLITION BOMB are intended for special target of greatsize and strength like massive bridges, canal docks, dams andlarge concrete buildings. Demolition Bombs are also known as

ARMOUR PIERCING BOMBS as they are constructed as topenetrate battle ditch, combat tanks and reinforced concrete orsteel buildings.

Slide 99:NAPALM (Liquid) designed for use of a fighter plane and

produces fire only.

Slide 100:

TEAR GAS Affects the eyes alone, and are therefore nonepersistent. It is not popular gas as warfare weapon.

Slide 101:RESPIRATORY IRRITANT GAS are made from arseniccompound and produce pain in the nose through respiratory

passages followed by nausea and vomiting. This is a non-fatalgas, but very effective in causing panic because it causes thevictim to vomit and to be more exposed to vulnerability.

Slide 102:LUNG INJURANT GAS attacks the lungs and cause a burningsensation in the nose and throat followed by injury of the lungsresulting in possible death of the victim.

Slide 103:BLISTERING GASES the most effective chemical weaponbecause they can be delivered as sprays over large areas andevaporated very slowly into a deadly weapon, and the liquid

form causes terrible burns and blisters on the skin penetratingordinary clothing even leather jackets and shoes.

Slide 104:SYSTEMATIC TOXIC GAS has the capacity of penetrating theskin and the lining of the lungs exerting a direct action uponnervous system of the body. It is considered the most deadly


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among gases. It passes through the blood stream and performssystematic action resulting in the paralysis of the nervoussystem.

Slide 105:STATE OF EMERGENCY State of Emergency may be

proclaimed by the president of the Philippines with theconcurrence of the majority members of the Congress inaccordance with Article VII, Section 18 of the New Constitution

for a certain period of time.

Slide 106:RAID a sudden attack or invasion of a building or smalllocality to effect an arrest, to secure evidence of illegal activity,or recover stolen property as necessary material in the

prosecution of an offense.

Types of Mobs :

Types of Mobs AGGRESSIVE MOB active crowd where themain action is to escape all one sided, aimed at the destructionof persons or property.

Slide 108:ESCAPE OR PANIC MOB one where the main objective is toescape for fear or safety.

Slide 109:ACQUISITIVE MOB one whose goal is to acquire some objects,

like food, money or other personal property.

Slide 110:EXPRESSIVE MOB one whose activity, although incidentallydestructive, is aimed principally at the expression or emotion orattitude, like political crowd or religious meeting.


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Personality Types of Mobs :Personality Types of Mobs IMPULSIVE INDIVIDUAL thatmember of restive crowd that has not yet erupted into a mobwho initiates the first impulsive or violent act which sets offsufficient crowds participation to form a mob.

Slide 112:CAUTIOUS INDIVIDUAL that person who is not impulsiveenough to initiate violence but is completely susceptible toinfluence by the violent acts of the impulsive individual.

Slide 113:YIELDING INDIVIDUAL that person who requires morestimulation than merely his own normal tendencies to violence.He does not become participant until he perceived theremaining sufficiently anonymous and until a certain impressionof universality is present.

Slide 114:SUPPORTING INDIVIDUAL that person who supports or

follows what others do or tell him to do.

Presentation TranscriptReview Notes in Police Photography :Review Notes in Police Photography By MELCON S. LAPINA,MSCrim 4th Place, Criminologists Board Exams, October 1996,Manila melcon s. lapina, mscrim

VIPs of Photography :

VIPs of Photography Joseph Nicphore Nipce was able toobtain camera images on papers sensitized with silver chloridesolution in 1816. He invented a photographic process which hecalled heliography, meaning writing of the sun. melcon s.lapina, mscrim

VIPs of Photography cont :


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Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre invented daguerreotype.Daguerreotype is an early photograph produced on a silver or asilver-covered copper plate; also: the process of producingsuch photographs. It formed an image directly on the silversurface of a metal plate. It was a positive process, thus it yieldedone-of-a kind images. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

William Henry Fox Talbot invented a process called calotype (aphotographic process by which a large number of prints couldbe produced from a paper negative; also: a positive print somade.) Calotype used paper with surface fibers impregnatedwith light sensitive compounds. VIPs of Photography contmelcon s. lapina, mscrim

VIPs of Photography cont :Note: Calotype vs Daguerreotype Fixation in calotype was only

partial while images in daguerreotype were made permanentwith the use of hypo (short for hyposulfite thiosulfate: sodiumthiosulfate or a solution of sodium thiosulfate). Sodiumthiosulfate or hypo is a hygroscopic (readily taken up andretaining moisture) crystalline salt used esp. as a photographicfixing agent and a reducing or bleaching agent. VIPs of

Photography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim

VIPs of Photography cont :John Frederick William Herschel coined the term photographyand applied the terms negative and positive to photography.VIPs of Photography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim

VIPs of Photography cont :He made improvements in photographic processes, particularlyin inventing the cyanotype process and variations (such as the

chrysotype), the precursors of the modern blueprint process.VIPs of Photography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim

VIPs of Photography cont :He discovered sodium thiosulfate to be a solvent of silverhalides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of hisdiscovery that this "hyposulphite of soda" ("hypo") could be


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used as a photographic fixer, to "fix" pictures and make thempermanent, after experimentally applying it thus in 1839. VIPs ofPhotography cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 9:VIPs of Photography cont Frederick Scott Archer invented the

photographic collodion process which preceded the moderngelatin emulsion. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 10:VIPs of Photography cont Collodion is a wound-dressingmaterial made of nitrated cotton dissolved in ether and alcohol,and other chemicals on sheets of glass. melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Slide 11:VIPs of Photography cont Richard Leach Maddox was anEnglish photographer and physician who invented lightweightgelatin negative plates for photography in 1871. melcon s.lapina, mscrim

Slide 12:VIPs of Photography cont George Eastman founded the

Eastman Kodak Company and invented roll film, helping tobring photography to the mainstream. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 13:Definition of Terms Photography Literal Definition: To write withlight. From 2 Greek words: phos light and graphia write.Modern Definition: It is an art or science which deals with thereproduction of images through the action of light, uponsensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and itsaccessories, and the chemical processes involved therein.

melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 14:Definition of Terms cont Photography Technical/LegalDefinition: It is any means for chemical, thermal, electrical orelectronic recording of the images of scenes, or objects formedby some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-rays,


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ultra-violet rays, visible light and infrared rays. melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Slide 15:Definition of Terms cont Photography Technical/LegalDefinition: This definition is broad enough to include not onlythe conventional methods of photography but almost any new

process that may be developed. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 16:Definition of Terms cont Police Photography An art orscience which deals with the study of the principles of

photography, the reproduction of photographic evidence, andits application to police work. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 17:Definition of Terms cont Forensic Photography The art orscience of photographically documenting a crime scene andevidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposesof court trial. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 18:Aims & Purposes of Photography in LE Work Take photographs

of the following: melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 19:Aims & Purposes of Photography in LE Work Conductcomparative examination and analysis of questioned

photographs or pictures to the known photographs. Processcolor and black and white film, print, reduce and enlarge picture.Reproduce picture and other printed matters. Compose portraitby means of portrait composition. Provides photographicintrusion detection devices. Maintain Rogues Gallery (a

collection of pictures of persons arrested as criminals.) melcons. lapina, mscrim

Slide 20:Care and Handling of Camera Must be carried using a portablebag or built-in container to avoid dust and dirt. Must be kept dryand avoided contact with water and other liquid substances.


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Must be repaired only by qualified technician. Must not becleaned by oil. Must not be fixed without proper equipment andtools to avoid serious damage on it. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 21:Basic Camera Parts and Functions Camera is a light-tight box;with a lens to form an image with a shutter and diaphragm tocontrol the entry of the image; a means of holding a film torecord the image/and a viewer or viewfinder to show the

photographer what the image is. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 22:Basic Camera Parts and Functions Camera originated from theterm camera obscura. Camera obscura (Latin veiled chamber) isan optical device used, for example, in drawing or forentertainment. It is one of the inventions leading to

photography. The principle can be demonstrated with a box witha hole in one side (the box may be room-sized, or hangar sized).Light from a scene passes through the hole and strikes a

surface where it is reproduced, in color, and upside-down. Theimage's perspective is accurate. The image can be projectedonto paper, which when traced can produce a highly accuraterepresentation. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 23:Basic Camera Parts and Functions melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 24:Basic Camera Parts and Functions A freestanding room-sized

camera obscura at the University of North Carolina at ChapelHill. One of the pinholes can be seen in the panel to the left ofthe door. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 25:Basic Camera Parts and Functions melcon s. lapina, mscrim


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Slide 26:Basic Camera Parts and Functions A freestanding room-sizedcamera obscura in the shape of a camera located in SanFrancisco at the Cliff House in Ocean Beach (San Francisco)melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 27:Basic Camera Parts and Functions Light Tight Box. This part ofthe camera is very essential because of its capability to excludeall unwanted light that may expose the sensitized materials orfilm. It is an enclosure that is devoid of light. melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Slide 28:Basic Camera Parts and Functions Lens. The lens is the onlyresponsible in focusing the rays of light coming from thesubject. It is one of the most important parts of camera becausewithout lens, it is impossible to form a sharp image of the film.melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 29:

Basic Camera Parts and Functions Film Holder. The film holderholds the film firmly inside the camera. It is always located atthe opposite side of the lens of the camera. Shutter. The shutterserved as the barriers of the rays of light that will enter andeffect the film inside the camera. It is usually placed at the pathof the light passing thru the lens melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 30:Other Parts of the Camera Viewing system Film advancerShutter speed Lens aperture Focusing mechanism melcon s.

lapina, mscrim

Slide 31:Major Types of Camera Viewfinder type. Single Lens Reflex.Twin Lens Reflex Type. View or Press Type. Special Cameras.melcon s. lapina, mscrim


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Viewfinder Type :Major Types of Camera cont The smallest and simplest type ofcamera. This is also known as instamatic camera. Viewfindercamera suffers parallax error. Viewfinder Type melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Single-Lens Reflex Type :Major Types of Camera cont Single-Lens Reflex Type Cross-section view of SLR system:1) Lens2) Mirror3) Shutter4) Film orsensor5) Focusing screen6) Condensing lens7) Pentaprism8)Eyepiece SLR Cross Section melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 34:Major Types of Camera cont SLR Cross Section The best wayto determine the entire coverage of the camera is to look behindthe lens of the camera. In this manner, the object can be framed

properly and recorded on the film. This type of cameraeliminates the problem on parallax error. melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Slide 35:

Major Types of Camera cont Twin Lens Reflex Camera 2lenses: 1. for viewing & focusing of the subject, & 2. for takinglens. In this type of camera, the image to be photographed isseen as flat surface as the image is reflected by the mirrorbehind the viewing lens. This suffers also parallax error. melcons. lapina, mscrim

Slide 36:Major Types of Camera cont Parallax The difference betweenwhat the viewfinder on a point-and-shoot camera sees and what

the lens sees (and thus records on film). At close shootingdistances, this difference can cause you to crop off the top of asubjects head. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 37:


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Major Types of Camera cont Parallax error The image yousee through the viewfinder is different from the image the lenswill capture. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 38:Major Types of Camera cont Parallax error The image yousee through the viewfinder is different from the image the lenswill capture. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 39:Major Types of Camera cont 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lens Plane FrontStandard Lens Axis Base Film Holder/Ground Glass RearStandard Film Plane VIEW OR PRESS TYPE melcon s. lapina,

mscrim

Slide 40:Major Types of Camera cont VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA.The biggest and most sophisticated among the different type ofcamera. This type of camera is practically useless for candidand action photography. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 41:

Major Types of Camera cont SPECIAL CAMERAS. These arecameras that have been devised that offer unique advantage orserve special purposes. Among the special cameras are: a.

polaroid, b. panoramic cameras, c. aerial cameras, d. miniatureand ultra-miniature cameras e. digital cameras (using computer

processing) melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 42:Control of Cameras Knowing the controls on camera isnecessary to produce a sharp and normal image and negatives

after photographing. There are three important controls in acamera to be manipulated and adjusted to its proper setting.Focusing control Diaphragm/Aperture control Shutter speedmelcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 43:


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Control of Cameras cont FOCUSING CONTROL. The cameralens bends light rays to form an image or likeness of the object.

Adjusting the lens to form the clearest possible image is calledfocusing. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 44:Control of Cameras cont Focusing is defined as the setting ofthe proper distance in order to form a sharp image. melcon s.lapina, mscrim

Slide 45:Control of Cameras cont Three Types of FocusingRangefinder Type (e.g. viewfinder, instamatic camera and 35mm

cameras) Ground Glass Type (e.g. twin-lens reflex camera anddigital camera) Scale Bed Type (e.g. press and view camera, andPolaroid Evidence Camera) melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 46:Control of Cameras cont Rangefinder Type The rangefindertype is classified into two: Coincidence type the object to be

photographed looks double when the focusing control is not inproper distance, and by moving this control, one of the objects

will move and coincide with the other object to make as one andbecome accurate appearance of an object. melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Slide 47:Control of Cameras cont Coincidence Type Out of Focus InFocus melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 48:Control of Cameras cont Rangefinder Type cont Split Type

Splits the objects to be photographed into two. While movingthe focusing control, the split image will move and unite to forman undivided appearance and therefore the focus is accurateand perfect. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 49:


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Control of Cameras cont Split Type Out of Focus In Focusmelcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 50:Control of Cameras cont Ground Glass Type Ground glasstype focusing mechanism clearly indicates whether the objectdistance and the camera is out of focus or not. If the object isnot well focused, the object to be photographed will appearblurred. To make it clear and accurate the focusing ring of thecamera is adjusted on clockwise or counter clockwise to get thedesired clearness of the object. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 51:Control of Cameras cont Scale-Bed or Focusing Scale In the

scale or bed type focusing mechanism, the distance of theobject to be photographed is calculated by means of feet ormeter. There are cameras where estimated distance from thecamera to objects is being indicated in the focusing ring.melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 52:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrimDIAPHRAGM CONTROL (lens opening) A device called a

diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls theaperture. The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eyeit controls the effective diameter of the lens opening.Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, whichdescribes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than orfarther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus.

Slide 53:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 54:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Apertureand shutter speed are the fundamental controls available to theSLR user: Varying one or other of these opens up a myriad ofcreative possibilities. Both also control how much light reachesthe film so if you make the hole through which the light passes


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into the camera (the aperture) smaller; you must keep this holeopen for longer (the shutter speed) to compensate.

Slide 55:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrimFortunately, on most cameras this adjustment is madeautomatically. The size of the aperture is measured usingf/numbers (or f/stops). Confusingly, as f/numbers representfractions, the larger the f/number the smaller the aperture. Thewidest aperture on a lens might be f/2, whilst the smallestaperture available may be f/22.


Slide 57:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Minimumaperture In this shot, the aperture being used is f/22 thesmallest opening available on a 100mm lens. As this lets in onlya small amount of light, the aperture was opened for longer thanwhen the opening used was wider. On this occasion, a shutter

speed of 1/30 sec was needed so that the film received enoughlight to give correct exposure.

Slide 58:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Midaperture With each stop that the lens is opened, twice as muchlight is let in as the one before. Here the aperture used was f/8 3 stops wider than the f/22 used above. So the f/8 setting means8 times more light reaches the film than with the shot above. Toget the same exposure, the shutter has to be open for just 1/8 of

the time it was before in this case, just 1/250 sec.

Slide 59:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Maximumaperture Opening the lens a further 2 stops to f/4 lets in 4times more light. The shutter needs only to be open for a quarterof the time compared to the previous shot so a shutter speed


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of 1/1000 sec, the fastest on many cameras, was used. Noticehow changing the aperture in the 3 shots has affected howmany of the cups are in focus. This is known as depth of field.

Slide 60:Control of Cameras cont SHUTTER SPEED. Shutter is a devicethat allows light to pass for a determined period of time, for the

purpose of exposing photographic film or a light-sensitiveelectronic sensor to light to capture a permanent image of ascene. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 61:Control of Cameras cont Types of Shutter (as to position)Central shutters Focal-plane melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 62:Control of Cameras cont Central Shutters Central shutters aremounted within a lens assembly, or more rarely behind or evenin front of a lens, and shut off the beam of light where it isnarrow. A leaf mechanism is usually used. melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Slide 63:

Control of Cameras cont Focal Plane Shutter In cameradesign, a focal-plane shutter is a type of photographic shutterthat is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of thecamera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or imagesensor. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 64:Control of Cameras cont A focal-plane shutter. The plasticcurtains travel vertically. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 65:Control of Cameras cont Types of Shutter (as to mechanism)Focal-Plane Shutters Leaf Shutters Diaphragm Shutters CentralShutters melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 66:


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Control of Cameras cont Focal-Plane Shutters (as tomechanism) Focal-plane shutters are usually implemented as a

pair of cloth, metal, or plastic curtains which shield the film fromlight. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 67:Control of Cameras cont Leaf Shutters A leaf shutter is a typeof camera shutter consisting of a mechanism with one or more

pivoting metal leaves which normally does not allow lightthrough the lens onto the film, but which when triggered opensthe shutter by moving the leaves to uncover the lens for therequired time to make an exposure, then shuts. melcon s.lapina, mscrim

Slide 68:Control of Cameras cont Leaf Shutters Simple leaf shutter1.Shutter plate2. Aperture covered by leaf shutter3. Apertureduring exposure4. Leaf blade5. Catch mechanism6. Butterflyspring melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 69:Control of Cameras cont Diaphragm Shutters A diaphragm

shutter is a type of leaf shutter consisting of a number of thinblades which briefly uncover the camera aperture to make theexposure. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 70:Control of Cameras cont Diaphragm Shutter melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Slide 71:Control of Cameras cont Central Shutters A central shutter is

a camera shutter normally located within the lens assemblywhere a relatively small opening allows light to cover the entireimage. The term is also used for shutters behind, but near to,the lens. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 72:


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Control of Cameras cont Central Shutters contInterchangeable lens cameras with a central shutter within thelens body require that each lens has a shutter built into it. In

practice most cameras with interchangeable lenses use a singlefocal plane shutter in the camera body for all lenses, whilecameras with a fixed lens use a central shutter. melcon s. lapina,mscrim

Slide 73:Control of Cameras cont In photography, shutter speed is acommon term used to discuss exposure time, the effectivelength of time a shutter is open; the total exposure is

proportional to this exposure time, or duration of light reachingthe film or image sensor. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 74Control of Cameras cont There are many factors to beconsidered in using this control. Some of these factors are: Thelight sensitivity of the film, which are determined through itsISO; The lighting condition; The motion of the subjects ondifferent angles; and The purpose of the photographs to betaken, etc. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 75:Control of Cameras cont The different shutter speeds are: 1, 2or 1/2 sec, 4 or 1/4 sec, 8 or 1/8 sec, 15 or 1/15 sec, 30 or 1/30sec, 60 or 1/60 sec, 125 or 1/125 sec, 250 or 1/250, 500 or 1/500sec, 1000 or 1/1000, 2000 or 1/2000. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 76:Control of Cameras cont Camera shutters often include one ortwo other settings for making very long exposures: B (for bulb)

keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held. T(for time) keep the shutter open until the shutter release is

pressed again. melcon s. lapina, mscrim

Slide 77:Control of Cameras cont Avoiding Camera Shake Unless youare using a tripod, the first thing you should ensure when


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choosing the shutter speed is that it is fast enough to avoidcamera shake. However tightly you hold your camera, it willalways move slightly as you fire. If you use too slow a shutterspeed this will mean blurred pictures. The speed you usedepends on the focal length of lens you are doing. melcon s.lapina, mscrim

Slide 78:Control of Cameras cont How to Hold Your Camera To be ableto use the slowest possible handheld speeds, you must hold thecamera correctly to avoid as much vibration as possible. melcons. lapina, mscrim


Slide 80:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Low-levelshooting you dont always want to take your pictures fromnormal eye level. This kneeling position allows you to take shots

at waist level.

Slide 81:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Minimumshutter speeds for handheld shots

Slide 82:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim When toUse Slow Shutter Speeds By using a tripod, or other camerasupport, photographers can use slower shutter speeds than

usual. These allow you to use apertures that would nototherwise be possible when using a handheld camera and toshoot in the lowest light. Slow shutter speeds can also be usedfor creative effect, as moving subjects will become artisticallyblurred.

Slide 83:


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Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim MaximizingSharpness In this shot, the aperture used is the smallestavailable (f/22 on 35-70mm zoom) to ensure that as much of the

picture as possible was sharp. This meant using a shutter speedof 1/15 sec which if used handheld would not have been fastenough to avoid camera shake, therefore a tripod was used tohold the camera steady.

Slide 84:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrimNightscapes With a solid tripod exposures lasting severalseconds or even minutes are possible. This means that youcan shoot pictures throughout the night. For this cityscape, theexposure used is 4 sec.

Slide 85:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim When toUse Fast Shutter Speeds Moving subjects require you toconsider using a faster shutter speed than that needed to avoidcamera shake. Some blur may be welcome with action subjects,but often we want to freeze the action. Selecting the rightshutter speed depends not only on the velocity of the subject,

but also on the direction in which it is traveling.

Slide 86:Control of Cameras cont melcon s. lapina, mscrim Frozen inMid-Air It is not just for sport pictures that you need fastshutter speeds. There is movement in practically everything wesee and sometimes this needs to be frozen crisply. In this shotthe boy jumped on the photographers command, and theshutter speed used was 1/1000 sec.


Slide 88:melcon s. lapina, mscrim A lens is an optical device with perfector approximate axial symmetry which transmits and refractslight, converging or diverging the beam. The Lens


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Slide 89:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens lens

Slide 90:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens Lenses can be used to focuslight.

Slide 91:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens Types of Lenses 1. Biconvex2. Biconcave 3. Plano-convex/plano-concave 4. Convex-concaveor meniscus 5. Positive or converging lens 6. Negative ordiverging lens

Slide 92:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens

Slide 93:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens BICONVEX A lens isbiconvex (or double convex, or just convex) if both surfaces areconvex.

Slide 94:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens BICONCAVE A lens with twoconcave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave).

Slide 95:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens PLANO-CONVEX or PLANO-CONCAVE If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convexor plano-concave depending on the curvature of the othersurface.

Slide 96:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens MENISCUS A lens with oneconvex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus. Itis this type of lens that is most commonly used in correctivelenses.


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Slide 97:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens POSITIVE OR CONVERGINGLENS If the lens is biconvex or plano-convex, a collimated or

parallel beam of light traveling parallel to the lens axis andpassing through the lens will be converged (or focused) to aspot on the axis, at a certain distance behind the lens (known asthe focal length). In this case, the lens is called a positive orconverging lens.

Slide 98:melcon s. lapina, mscrim POSITIVE OR CONVERGING LENSThis lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides.Light passing through it is bended toward each other on theother side of the lens meeting at a point. It produces a real

image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is comingfrom. The Lens cont

Slide 99:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont


Slide 101:melcon s. lapina, mscrim NEGATIVE OR DIVERGING LENS If thelens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam of light

passing through the lens is diverged (spread); the lens is thuscalled a negative or diverging lens. The beam after passingthrough the lens appears to be emanating from a particular

point on the axis in front of the lens; the distance from this pointto the lens is also known as the focal length, although it isnegative with respect to the focal length of a converging lens.The Lens cont

Slide 102:melcon s. lapina, mscrim NEGATIVE OR DIVERGING LENS Thislens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides.Light passing through it is bended away from each other as ifcoming from a point. It produces a virtual image on the sameside of the lens or where light is coming from. The Lens cont


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Slide 105:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Inherent Lens Defects or Aberrations1. Spherical Aberration 2. Coma 3. Curvature of Field 4.Distortion 5. Chromatic Aberration 6. Astigmatism 7. ChromaticDifference of Magnification The Lens cont

Slide 106:melcon s. lapina, mscrim SPHERICAL ABERRATION When light

passing through near the central part of a converging lens isbended more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thusthe rays coming from the edges are focused on a plane nearerthe lens than those coming from the central part. The Lenscont




Slide 110:melcon s. lapina, mscrim COMA This is another form ofspherical aberration but is concerned with the light raysentering the lens obliquely. The defect is noticeable only on theouter edges and not on the central part of the lens. The Lenscont


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Slide 111:melcon s. lapina, mscrim COMA cont If a lens has coma,circular objects reproduced at the corners of the negative arecomet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is reducedby combinations of lenses of different curvatures. The Lenscont



Slide 114:melcon s. lapina, mscrim CURVATURE OF FIELD This is a kindof defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a sharperfocus in curved surface than a flat surface. The correction ofthis defect is similar to spherical aberration and coma. The Lenscont


Slide 116:melcon s. lapina, mscrim DISTORTION A lens with distortion isincapable of rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontalor vertical lines in an object. This is caused by the placement ofthe diaphragm. If the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens,straight lines near the edges of the object tends to bulge

outside. This is known as the barrel distortion. The Lens cont


Slide 118:


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melcon s. lapina, mscrim DISTORTION cont If the diaphragmis placed behind the lens, straight lines near the edges tends tobend inward. This is known as the pincushion distortion.Distortion is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between thelens component and the two opposite distortions will neutralizeeach other. The Lens cont



Slide 121:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim CHROMATIC ABERRATION Thisdefect is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays ofdifferent wavelengths to the same focus. Ultraviolet rays arebent the most while infrared rays are bent to the least when they

pass through the lens. This defect is reduced by utilizingcompound lenses made up of single lens made up of glass ofdifferent curvatures. The Lens cont

Slide 122:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont


Slide 124:melcon s. lapina, mscrim ASTIGMATISM This defect is presentwhen the size of image produced by photographic rays of onewavelength is different from the size produced by another. Sizeof the image increases as the wavelength of the rays decreases.

The Lens cont

Slide 125:melcon s. lapina, mscrim ASTIGMATISM cont In color

photography it produces a rainbow colored fringes around theedges of objects while in black and white photography, itappears as a slight blue. The Lens cont


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Slide 127:melcon s. lapina, mscrim The Lens cont Classic example ofastigmatism. Left wheel: no astigmatism. In the presence ofastigmatism (middle and right wheels) one discriminatesbetween the sagittal and tangential foci.

Slide 128:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Types of Lenses (as to degree ofcorrection to lens aberration) 1. Achromatic lens corrected forchromatic aberration. 2. Rapid-rectilinear lens corrected for

distortion. 3. Anastigmat lens corrected for astigmatism aswell as the other lens defects. 4. Apochromatic lens alsocorrected for astigmatism but with higher degree of correctionto color. The Lens cont

Slide 129:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal length is the distance measuredfrom the optical center of the lens to the film plane when thelens is set or focused at infinity position or far distance. Focal

distance is the distance from the optical center of the lens to thefilm plane. Focal Length

Slide 130:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal length is a measure of the light-bending power of a lens. It is invariably measured in millimeters(mm). The longer the focal length of a lens, the narrower theangle of view, and the larger objects appear in the viewfinderwithout the need to move any closer to them. Long focal lengthlenses are called telephotos short focal lengths are called

wideangles. Focal Length cont

Slide 131:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Wide-angles A lens with a focal lengthof 50mm is known as a standard lens the view that it gives issimilar to that of the human eye. Any lens with a shorter focal


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length, and wider angle of view, is known as wide-angle. FocalLength cont

Slide 132:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont This pictureshows the views afforded by common wide-angle lenses.

Slide 133:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont How Focal Length

Affects Image Size Lenses work on the principle that lightaffecting from a subject can be bent using the refractive

properties of glass to form a miniature image of the subject.

Slide 134:

melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont How Focal LengthAffects Image Size cont Lenses with short focal lengths, suchas the wide-angle lens, produce a small image. Telephotolenses, with longer focal lengths, produce a larger image, whentaken from the same distance.

Slide 135:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Wideangle Lens

A short focal length results in a smaller image. Telephoto Lens

Long focal lengths bring objects closer to fill the frame.

Slide 136:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Telephoto LensesTelephotos are lenses with focal lengths greater than 50mm.They range from 70mm short telephotos to long toms withfocal lengths of 1000mm or more.

Slide 137:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont

Slide 138:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Zoom Lens It is akind of lens with variable focal length.

Slide 139:


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melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Does FocalLength Affect Depth of Field? Aperture is not the only factor thataffects how much of a scene is in focus. You should also takeinto account the focal length of the lens being used and thedistance that the lens is focused at (generally the distance fromthe camera to your subject). The longer the focal length, themore restricted depth of field becomes.

Slide 140:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont So, all thingsbeing equal, a wide-angle lens keeps more of the scene in focusthan a telephoto one. In addition, depth of field becomesincreasingly more limited the closer you are to the subject thatyour lens is focused on.

Slide 141:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont

Slide 142:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Factors AffectingDepth of Field These diagrams show how aperture, focuseddistance and focal length can individually affect how much of ascene is in focus. The shaded area indicates the amount of

depth of field in front of, and behind, the subject.

Slide 143:melcon s. lapina, mscrim Focal Length cont Aperture Thelarger the aperture the less depth of field. For maximum depth offield, use the smallest aperture Focused Distance The closerthe subject you focus on, the less depth of field. Depth of field isgreater with distance subjects. Focal Length The longer thelens you use, the less depth of field you will have. Wide-anglelenses give the greatest depth of field.

Slide 144:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITEFILMS Emulsion - a suspension of a sensitive silver salt or amixture of silver halides in a viscous medium (as a gelatinsolution) forming a coating on photographic plates, film, or

paper.


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Slide 145:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITEFILMS cont Gray or Anti-Halation Backing - a layer found inmodern photographic films. It is placed between the light-sensitive emulsion and the tough film base, or sometimes onthe back of the film base. The light that passes through theemulsion and the base is absorbed by the opaque anti-halationlayer.

Slide 146:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITEFILMS cont Gray or Anti-Halation Backing - This keeps thatlight from reflecting off the pressure plate or anything else

behind the film and re-exposing the emulsion, reducingcontrast. The anti-halation layer is rendered transparent orwashed from the film (as in K-14 films) during processing of thefilm.

Slide 147:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITEFILMS cont Film Base - A film base is a transparent substratewhich acts as a support medium for the photosensitive

emulsion that lies atop it. Despite the numerous layers andcoatings associated with the emulsion layer, the base generallyaccounts for the vast majority of the thickness of any given filmstock.

Slide 148:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS BLACK & WHITEFILMS cont Film Base - Historically there have been threemajor types of film base in use: cellulose nitrate, celluloseacetate (cellulose diacetate, cellulose acetate propionate,

cellulose acetate butyrate, and cellulose triacetate), andpolyethylene trephthalate polyester (Kodak trade-name:ESTAR).

Slide 149:


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melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Characteristics of B& W Films: Emulsion Speed Spectral Sensitivity Granularity orGraininess

Slide 150:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Emulsion Speed

ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressedin arithmetical value. DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normen) rating,which is expressed in logarithmic value. ISO (InternationalStandards Organization) rating. This is expressed in thecombined arithmetical and logarithmic values.

Slide 151:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Spectral Sensitivity

Blue sensitive film sensitive to UV rays and blue color onlyOrthochromatic film sensitive to UV rays, to blue and greencolor. It is not sensitive to red color. Panchromatic film sensitive to UV radiation to blue, green, and red light or allcolors.

Slide 152:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Spectral Sensitivitycont d. Infra-red film sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green, red

light and infrared rays.

Slide 153:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Granularity orGraininess This refers to the size of the metallic silver grainsthat are formed after development of an exposed film. Generally,the size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsionspeed of the film and the type of developing solution that isused in processing.

Slide 154:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Granularity orGraininess cont RULES to remember: The lower the emulsionspeed rating of the film, the finer is the grain. The higher theemulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger are the grains. Afilm developer will produce a finer grain that a paper developerwhen used for film processing.


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Slide 155:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS B. COLOR FILMS Acolor film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same supportor base.

Slide 156:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Main types of colorfilm in current use Color negative film forms a negative (color-reversed) image when exposed, which is permanently fixedduring developing. This is then exposed onto photographic

paper to form a positive image. Ex: Kodacolor Color reversalfilm, also known as slide film, forms a negative image whenexposed, which is reversed to a positive image during

developing. The film can then be projected onto a screen. Ex:Kodachrome

Slide 157:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS C. PhotographicPapers (Black & White) Photographic paper is exposed to lightin a controlled manner, either by placing a negative in contactwith the paper directly to produce a contact print, by using anenlarger in order to create a latent image, by exposing in some

types of camera to produce a photographic negative, or byplacing objects upon it to produce photograms. Photographicpapers are subsequently developed using the gelatin-silverprocess to create a visible image.

Slide 158:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Characteristics of aPhotographic Paper Chloride paper has a slow speed and issuited for contact printing. Bromide paper has a fast speedand is recommended for projection printing or enlarging.

Chloro-bromide paper is a multi-speed and could be used inboth contact printing and enlarging.

Slide 159:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Exposure anddevelopment latitude Latitude is the degree or amount of whichyou can deviate from the ideal exposure or development without


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appreciable loss of print quality. 1. Exposure latitude Generally,photographic papers do not have a wide exposure latitude soexposure must be critical at all times.

Slide 160:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS 2. Developmentlatitude Papers that do not change appreciable in contrast andimage tone with reasonable variations in development has agood latitude. However, for best quality the developing timeshould be as near as those prescribed by the manufacturer.

Slide 161:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Contrast Range orGrade In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade

are indicated by numbers # 0 to 5 1. # 0 & 1 are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative. 2. # 2 are used on normalexposed or normal contrast negatives. 3. # 3 to 5 used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives.

Slide 162:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Which Film to UseFilm is available in variety of 'speeds'. The faster the film themore sensitive it is to light, and the shorter the exposure

needed. Fast film produces a grainier image.

Slide 163:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Which Film to Usecont Film speed is measured on the ISO scale. A film rated asISO 100 is four times slower than an ISO 400 film, and needsfour times more light for the same shot.

Slide 164:melcon s. lapina, mscrim FILMS & PAPERS Slow Film and Ultra-

Slow Film Slow films are not just used conditions. For the shotof the sculpture (left) a tripod was used and I

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