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8/12/2019 Brück Michael von - Aspects of Sunyata and Consciousness in Mahayana-Buddhism
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S E L F ND O N S IO U S N E S SIndian Interpretations
Edi ted by
A U G U S T I N E T H O T T A K A R A
Pub l i shed for
C e n t r e for I n d i a n a n d I n t er - r el i g i o u s S t u d i e s , ftome
D h a r m a r a m P u b l i c a t i o n sB a n g a ! o r e - 5 6 0 0 2 9
INDIA
ν
8/12/2019 Brück Michael von - Aspects of Sunyata and Consciousness in Mahayana-Buddhism
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C O N T E N T S
P r e f a c e
C o n s c i o u s n e s s : P e r m a n e n t o r F l e et i n g ?
R e f l e c t i o n s o n In d i a n V i e w s o f C o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d S e l f
Ninian Smar t 1
T h e S e l f , t h e U n k n o w n K n o w e r o f t h e U p a n i §a d s
Danie l Acharuparampi l 1 3
T h e S e l f a n d C o n s c i o u s n e s s i n S a n k a r a ' s A d v a i t a
Mar iasusa/ Dhavamony 3 2
S e l f a n d C o n s c i o u s n e s s i n R ä m ä n u j a 's P e r s p e s t i v e
Jo hn B . Cheth im at tam 4 4
A w a k e n i n g to S e l f - A w a k e n i n g to G o d
in t h e S p i r i t u a l E x p e r i e n c e o f A b h i s h i k t a n a n d a
Jacques Dupu i s 61
S e l f a s C o n s c i o u s n e s s in C l a s s i c a l S a m k h y a
Gerhard Oberhammer 7 9
A s p e c t s o f S u n y a t ä a n d C o n s c i o u s n e s s in
M a h ä y ä n a - B u d d h i s mMichael von Brück 1 0 4
T h e C o n c e p t o f S e l f a n d L i b e r a t i o n in E a r ly J a i n a
Ä g a m a s Bans i dha r Bha t t 1 3 2
N y ä y a C r i t i q u e o f t h e B u d d h i s t D o c t r i n e o f N o n - S o u l
Bima l K r i shna Mat/la/ 1 7 3
S u f i E x p e r i e n c e o f S e l f Thomas M iche l 1 9 3
P n e u m a a s H u m a n a n d D i v i n e in C h r i s t i a n T h e o l o g y :
a C r i t i q u e
Joseph Pa th rapanka l 2 0 6
v i i
8/12/2019 Brück Michael von - Aspects of Sunyata and Consciousness in Mahayana-Buddhism
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Aspects of Sunyata and
Consciousness in Mahayana
Buddhism
Mi ch a e l vo B r u c k
1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n
T h e B u d d h a ' s o r i g i n a l t e a c h i n g was not the p h i l o s o p h i c a l
d i s c o u r s e but s p i r i t u a l i n s t r u c t i o n . The f i r s t s e r m o n at S a r n a t h
d o e s not c o n t a i n any t h e o r y of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . H o w e v e r , the
u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n for the F o u r n o b l e t r u t h s is the t h e o r y
o f karman. The different s c h o o l s of t h o u g h t in I n d i a h a v e
c o m e up with m o d i f i ed i n t er p r e t a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g karman,
b u t it is u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r the B u d d h a h i m s e l f k n e w of
p h i l o s o p h i c a l s u b t l e t ie s w h i c h w e r e i m p l i ed in t h i s c o n c e p t .
H i s was an a n a l y s i s of s u f f e r i n g , and t h i s a n a l y s i s was b a s e d
o n a u n i q u e s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e .
It is an o t h e r q u e s t i o n to a n a l y z e w h e t h e r the anatta-
d o c t r i n e d o e s n e c e s s a r i l y b e l o n g to the e a r l i e s t s t o c k of
B u d d h i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n or not. We do not h a v e s u f f i c i e n t
h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e on e ar l i es t B u d d h i s m , and t h e r e f o r e the
q u e s t i o n can be a n s w e r e d o n l y by i n f e r e n c e .1 W h a t e v e r the
a n s w e r might be, it is o b v i o u s that the w h o l e a r g u m e n tc o n c e r n i n g the F o u r n o b l e t r u th s r e s t s on the a s s u m p t i o n
* DR. M I C H A E L VON B R Ü C K , U n i v e r s i t y of T ü b i n g e n , W. G E R M A N Y
1. C p . J . P e r e z - R e m o n , S e l f an d N o n - S e l f in E a r l y B u d d h i s m , Mouton The
H a g u e - P a r i s - N e w Y o r k ) , 1980.
8/12/2019 Brück Michael von - Aspects of Sunyata and Consciousness in Mahayana-Buddhism
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 1 05
o f s o m e t h e o r y o f r e i n c a r n a t io n . T h e b a s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n
a l l l a t er B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t - w h e t h e r t h e B u d d h a w a s a l r ea d y
a w a r e o f i t o r n o t - i s anatta o n t h e o n e s i d e a n d r e b i r th o nt h e o t h e r s i d e . 2 It i s - d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w a y h o w anatta i s
u n d e r s t o o d - a p o s s i b l e c o n t r a d i c t i o n w h i c h i s t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e
b e h i n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f v i jnäna
( c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) w h i c h c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e m e t a - t h e o r y
w h i c h i s t o r e s o l v e p r e c i s e l y t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n o n t h e g r o u n d s
o f a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e f r a m e w o r k c o m p r i s i n g both t h e attaj
a r t a i f a - d i l e m m a a n d t h e r e i n c a r n a t i o n a l v i e w . T h u s , t h e t h e o r y
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t o c o m p r i s e t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n o n a h i g h e r
l e v e l , a n d t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y t h e attempt o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e
a s o n i n g i n M a h ä y ä n a - B u d d h i s m , both i n M ä d h y a m i k a a n d
V i j n a n ä v a d a t h o u g h t .
In I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h i e s w e c a n r o u g h l y d i s t i n g u i s h t w o
different p e r c e p t i o n s o f " s o u l " o r " s e l f " w h i c h s e e m to b e
p r e v a l e n t from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g a s s t r u c t u r a i i z i n g f a c t o r sc o n c e r n i n g t h e l at er p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r m e t a p h y s i c a l d e v e l o p
m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g B u d d h i s m . 3
1. T h e r e i s a n o t i o n o f " s e l f " w h i c h i s p u r e a w a r e n e s s
o r p u r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i t i s a f a c t o r o f k n o w i n g a n d l u m i n o s i t y
without a n y limiting a d j u n c t o r s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t , a b s o l u t e l y
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l t o a n y r e al p e r c e p t i o n ; i t i s s t a t i c a n d b e y o n d
c h a n g e . T h i s i s w h a t t h e U p a n i s a d s r ef er t o an d i s l at er
t h e b a s i s f o r V e d ä n t i c p h i l o s o p h y , b u t i t i s a l s o t h e r e s p e c t i v e
p r i n c i p l e i n S a m k h y a .
2 . T h e r e i s a n o t i o n o f " s e l f " w h i c h h a s o r i s a l w a y s
a s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t , i t i s s h a p e d a n d b e a r s t h e m a r k s o f
2 . T h i s p r o b l e m w a s s e e n a l r e a d y i n e a r l i e r B u d d h o l o g y i n t h e W e s t , c p .
E . Wolff , Z u r L e h r e v o m B e w u ß t s e i n ( V i j n ä n a v a d a ) b e i d e n s p ä t e r e n
B u d d h i s t e n . U n t e r b e s o n d e r e r B e r ü c k s i c h t i g u n g d e s L a n k ä v a t ä r a s a t r a ,
Winter ( H e i d e l b e r g ) , 1 9 3 0 , : p . 9 f .
3 . P r a t a p C h a n d r a , M e t a p h y s i c s o f P e r p e t u a l C h a n g e . T h e C o n c e p t o f S e l f
i n E a r l y B u d d h i s m , S o m a i y a ( B o m b a y - N e w D e l h i ) , 1 9 7 8 , p . 1 9 0 f .
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1 0 6 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
i n d i v i d u a l i t y . It i s a n entity w h i c h i s t h e v e r y f o c u s o f
i n d i v i d u a l i t y ; it i s a n d r e m a i n s d i s t i n c t from o t h e r s i m i l ar
e n t i t i e s a n d t h e r e f o r e c a l l s f o r r e a l is t i c p l u r a l i s m i n a n y p h i l o
s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s . T h i s i s o b v i o u s l y t h e b a s i c i n t u i t i o n i n
J a i n i s m , b u t a l s o o f i n f l u e n c e t o H i n d u a n d B u d d h i s t s c h o o l s
o f t h o u g h t .
T h e B u d d h i s t c o n c e p t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s (v/ nn äna/v//nän a)
s e e m s t o b e a c o n c e p t w h i c h i s t r y in g t o c o m b i n e t h e t w o
i n s o f ar a s i t i s b e y o n d t h e o r d i n a r y c o n c e p t u a l f a c t o r s i nb e i n g a m e r e c a p a c i t y w h i c h d e p e n d s o n o t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h
a s t h e s e n s e s a n d s e n s e - o b j e c t s o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d a
p r i n c i p l e o f c o n t i n u i t y i n c h a n g e w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r th e
p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h e k a r m i c c h a i n l e a d i n g i n t o t h e n e x t r e b i r t h ,
1. e . t a k i n g o n t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e j i va o f t h e J a i n s , o n t h e
o t h e r h a n d . A l r e a d y in e ar l y B u d d h i s m w e h a v e t h e i m p o r t a n t
f u n c t i o n o f t h i s v ihnäna m e n t i o n e d in m a n y S u t t a s , a n d i n
la t er M a h ä y ä n a d e v e l o p m e n t s - n o t o n l y in t h e V i j n ä n a v a d a -
S c h o o l - i t d e v e l o p e d i n t o a k i n d o f u l t im a t e p r i n c i p l e in g e n e r a l ,
b u t h e r e a l w a y s u n d e r s t o o d i n r e la t i o n t o t h e b a s i c e x p e r i e n c e
o f sünya tä a s a n o n - d u a l i s t i c a n d r a d i c a l i z e d i n t e r p r et a t io n
o f t h e e ar l y c o n c e p t o f a n i c c a a n d a n a t t a in t h e i r m u t u a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p .
T h e f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e a n attempt t o r i s e a f e wp o i n t s f o r o b s e r v a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e b a s i c B u d d h i s t v i e w .
2 . E a r l y D e v e l o p m e n t s
T h e m o s t d i s t i n c t f ea t u r e o f B u d d h i s m wi th r e g a r d t o
o t h e r I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s a t that time i s c e r t a i n l y
t h e anat ta-aooXxme a s s t a t e d i n S a m y u t t a - N i k ä y a I I I , 1 3 2 :
sabbe dh ammä an iccä du kkhä anatta, w h i c h m e a n s that a l lf o r m a t io n s a r e i m p e r m a n e n t , m i s e r ab l e a n d w i t h o u t " s e l f " .
A f e w q u e s t i o n s a r i s e a l r e a d y wi th r e g a r d t o t h i s c l a s s i c a l
f o r m u l a . F i r s t o f a l l i t h a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d that o b v i o u s l y t h e
c o n c l u s i o n : i m p e r m a n e n c e i s s u f f e r i n g , w a s n o t at a l l q u e s t i o n e d .
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 1 0 7
W h y n o t ? If w e l o o k i n t o t h e e ar l ie r V e d i c t r a d i t io n w e c a n n o t
t a k e s u c h a v i e w f o r g r a n t e d , a n d e v e n i n t h e U p a n i s a d s t h e r e
i s a n i m p l i c i t a n d ex p l i c i t a r g u m e n t f o r t h e d e v a l u a t i o n o f w h a t
l a t e r w a s c a l l e d t h e vyävahär ika: t h e b ra hm an-ä tman-xeaWty
w a s m u c h m o r e s p l e n d i d t h a n w h a t t h e s e n s e s c o u l d g r a s p ,
o r d i n a r y r e a l i ty b e i n g a m e r e s h a d o w o f w h a t r e a l l y i s . T h i s
a r g u m e n t d o e s n o t w o r k f o r t h e B u d d h i s t v i e w , b e c a u s e n o t h i n g
e l s e t h a n t h e s kandhas h a v e r ea l b e i n g . S a m y u t t a - N i k ä y a
II, 5 3 j u s t d e c l a r e s : yad an iccam ta rn du kkh am.
T h e r e i s a r e a s o n f o r t h i s i m p l i c i t l i n k , a n d t h e r e a s o n i s
p r e c i s e l y i m p l i e d i n t h e t o p i c o f t h i s p a p e r . T h e l i n k b e t w e e n
anicca a n d d u k k h a l i e s i n t h e n a t u r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d i n
t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f sünya ta , w h i c h b e c a m e a k ey c o n c e p t m u c h
la te r , o f c o u r s e , b u t w h i c h i s t h e i m p l i c i t e x p e r i e n c e a l r ea d y i n
e a r l i e s t B u d d h i s m that a l l o w s fo r t h e u n q u e s t i o n e d r e l at i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n an icca a n d d u k k h a . B u t t h i s w e s h a l l d e v e l o p l at er .
Is t h e r e a k i n d o f p e r m a n e n t p r i n c i p l e i n t h e h u m a n p e r s o n
o r n o t ? C o n c e r n i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n B u d d h o l o g i s t s a re a s d i v id e d
a s t h e B u d d h i s t s t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e w h o l e h i s t o r y o f t h e 1 8
s c h o o l s o f e a r l y B u d d h i s m i s a c o m m e n t a r y o n t h i s u n r e s o l v e d
p r o b l e m .
N o t o n l y t h e P u d g a l a v ä d i n s t r i e d t o i n t r o d u c e a p r i n c i p l e o f
c o n t i n u i t y , b u t t h e S a u t r ä n t i k a s e v e n a r g u e d that i t w e r e t h e
skandhas w h i c h t r an s m i g r a t ed from o n e life t o t h e o t h e r . T h e y
p o s t u l a t e d t h e s e e d s o f g o o d n e s s w h i c h w a s s o m e k i n d o f
i n c o r r u p t i b l e n a t u r e o f M a n w h i c h i s t h e b a s i s f o r that w h i c h
a t t a i n s N i r v a n a . T h e Y o g ä c ä r i n s w o r k e d t h i s o u t i n to a t h e o r y
o f u n d e s t r u c t i b l e d ha rmas w h i c h a re s e e d s i n t h e c o n t i n u o u s
s t r ea m a n d s o o n . W e c o u l d g o o n , b u t a s E d w a r d C o n z e
s a y s : " T h e s e ' p s e u d o - s e l v e s ' a r e n o t e a s y t o s t u d y , p a r t l yb e c a u s e t h e r e i s l i t t le p r e c i s e i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d p ar t l y b e c a u s e
t h e c o n c e p t s t h e m s e l v e s a re d i s t i n c t l y i n d e f i n i t e ' ' . 4
With r e g a r d
4 . E . C o n z e , B u d d h i s t T h o u g h t i n I n d i a , A l l e n & U n w i n ( L o n d o n ) , 1 9 6 2 ,
p . 1 3 2 .
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1 0 8 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
t o W e s t e r n a n d a l s o r e c e n t E a s t e r n s c h o l a r s h i p a n d r e c e p t io n o f
B u d d h i s m i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o s e e h o w different i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e
r e s t s h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e r e a d i n g ( a n d m i s r e a d i n g ) o f t ex t s ,from S c h o p e n h a u e r t o R h y s D a v i d s in c o n t r o v e r s y with K e r n
a n d S t c h e r b a t s k y , o r G e o r g G r i m m v e r s u s H e i n r i c h v o n G l a s e n -
a p p . 5 A n a n d a K . C o o m a r a s w a m y tried to p r o v e that t h e B u d d h a
a n d Sankara s a i d t h e s a m e , t h e E n l i g h t e n e d o n e o n l y v ia
negat iva, t h e p r e c e p t o r o f V e d ä n t a v ia eminent iae.6 T h o s e
c o m p a r i s o n s , I d a r e t o s u g g e s t , a r e n o t v e r y u s e f u l , b e c a u s e
f i rs t l y t h e y p r o j e c t l at e r V e d ä n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t s - t h e r e is a g a p
o f m o r e t h a n t h o u s a n d y e a r s b e t w e e n t h e B u d d h a a n d Sankara
a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e B u d d h i s t i n f l u e n c e o n h i s A d v a i t a Ve d ä n t a - o n t o
e ar l ie r h i s t o r y , a n d s e c o n d l y t h e t e r m s f o r " c o n s c i o u s n e s s " ,
" s e l f " , " p e r s o n " e t c . a re u s e d i n a n u n c r i t i c a l w a y m o s t l y r e f l e c t
i n g t h e c o n s c i o u s o r u n c o n s c i o u s p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e i n t e r p r et er
t h a n b e i n g f o u n d e d o n a c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s . T o d a y t h e r e i s a
t e n d e n c y t o a s s u m e that t h e B u d d h a d i d n o t d e n y a " s e l f " i n
t h e m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d totally t r a n s c e n d e n d s e n s e ,t h o u g h h e definitly n e g a t e d t h e e m p i r i c a l " I " a s t h e c e n t r e o f
a t t a c h m e n t . 7 F o r W e s t e r n B u d d h i s t s t h i s i s t h e a r t i c u l u s s t a t i s
e t c a d e n t i s e c c l e s i a e a s a n in t e r es t i n g c o n t r o v e r s y i n t h e J o u r n a l
" Y a n a " o f t h e " A l t b u d d h i s t i s c h e G e m e i n d e " in G e r m a n y ( V o l . 4 ,
1 9 5 1 ) , a n d a l s o t h e d i s p u t e d p o s i t i o n o f C h r i s t m a s H u m p h r e y s 8
s h o w .
L e t u s h i g h l i g h t s o m e o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s in e a r l y
B u d d h i s m . T h e b a s i c i n s i g h t o f t h e B u d d h a is that a l l i s u n i v e r
s a l f l u x , a n d t h e r e i s n o t h i n g e l s e . T h e t h e o r y o f t h e f i v e
5 . P r a t a p C h a n d r a , o p . c i t . , p . 112ff.
6 . C p . L . d e S i l v a , T h e P r o b l e m o f S e l f i n B u d d h i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , T h e
S t u d y C e n t r e ( C o l o m b o ) , 1 9 7 5 , p . 5 5 f .
7 . H . N a k a m u r a , D i e G r u n d l e h r e n d e s B u d d h i s m u s , i h r e W u r z e l n i n G e s c h i
c h t e u n d T r a d i t i o n , i n : B u d d h i s m u s d e r G e g e n w a r t ( e d . b y Η . D u m o u l i n ) ,
H e r d e r ( F r e i b u r g ) , 1 9 7 0 , p p . 18ff.; s e e a l s o M . S h i m i z u , D a s " S e l b s t "
i m M a h ä V ä n a - B u d d h i s m u s i n J a p a n i s c h e r S i c h t u n d d i e " P e r s o n " i m
C h r i s t e n t u m i m L i c h t d e s N e u e n T e s t a m e n t s , B r i l l ( L e i d e n ) , 1 9 8 1 , p . ; 1 5 .
8 . d e S i l v a , o p . c i t . , p . 6 0 .
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 1 0 9
khandhas jskandhas w a n t s t o b r i n g o u t p r e c i s e l y t h i s p o i n t .
T h e y a r e c o m b i n a t i o n s w h i c h d e c a y a s s o o n a s t h e y h a v e
s y n t h e s i z e d . T h e a g g r e g a t e s , h o w e v e r , a r e . A n d t h e f l u x i s .
T h u s , w e h a v e a r e a l i s t ic p l u r a l i s m c o n c e r n i n g t h e a g g r e g a t e s 9 ,
a n d w e h a v e a n u n c h a n g i n g f o r m a t i v e p r i n c i p l e w i t h r e g ar d t o
t h e f l u x . A l l t h e d i f f e re n t B u d d h i s t s c h o o l s t o o k t h i s a s a b a s i s
t o a v o i d b o t h t h o e x t r e m e s , n i h i l i s m o r b e t te r total n e g a t i o n a l i s m
(uccedavada) a s w e l l a s e t c r n a l i s m w i t h r eg a r d t o a " s u b s t a n t i a l
s o u l " (sassatavada) . T h e a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t a t t a h a s h a d a l w a y s
a n a n a l y t i c a l a n d a n e t h i c a l d i m e n s i o n .
B u t t h i s i s n o t a l l . T h e r e a r e s u f f i c i e n t s c r i p t u r a l p a s s a g e s
w h i c h h in t t o s o m e t h i n g a s c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e k a r m i c i m p r e s s i o n s ,
t h o u g h t h i s i s d e f i n i t e ly n o t a n i n dependen t s e l f . T o g i v e j u s t
a f e w e x a m p l e s I w i l l c o m e u p w i t h t h e f a m o u s s t o r y f r o m t h e
B h ä r a h ä r a- S u t t a in t h e S a m y u t t a - N i k ä y a , I I I .1 0 T h e B u d d h a c o m
p a r e s to h u m a n b e i n g w i t h a n e n t i t y b e a r i n g a b u r d e n (bharam)
w h i c h i s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e d i f f er e n t f a c t o r s o f g r a s p i n g .
Y e t , t h e r e i s a b e a r e r o f t h e b u r d e n (bhäraharam) a p a r t f r o m
t h e f i v e a g g r e g a t e s , a n d t h i s i s a k i n d o f " p e r s o n " (pugga lo)
w i t h a s p e c i f i c n a m e a n d a d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f a m i l y - b a c k g r o u n d .
T h e t h r e e c r a v i n g s a r e t a k i n g h o l d o f t h e b u r d e n ( bhärädänam) t
a n d t h e e n d o f c r a v i n g i s t h e a c t o f l a y i n g d o w n t h e b u r d e n
(bhäran ikkhepan) . It i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e B u d d h a d e s c r i b e s t h e
s p i r i t u a l p a t h t o l i b e r a t i o n , a n d t h e r e i s a s u b j e c t o n t h a t p a t h .T h e r e a r e o t h e r " s e l f - p a s s a g e s " i n t h e D h a m m a p a d a ( \ 6 0 , 3 8 0 ,) ,
t h e M a h ä p a r i n i b b ä n a - S u t t a e t c .
T h e r e i s a m o r a l t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f t h e " s e l f o f a p e r s o n
w h o h a s a t ta in e d l i b e ra t i o n , a " h i g h e r s e l f w h i c h i s b e y o n d
s a m s a r i c b o n d a g e , s e a r c h e d f o r b y M ar a , t h e e n e m y a n d t e m p -
t at o r , a n d fo r h im i m p o s s i b l e t o r e a c h . 1 1
9 . T h . S t c h e r b a t s k y , T h e C o n c e p t i o n o f B u d d h i s t N i r v a n a , M o t i l a J B a n a r -
s i d a s s ( D e l h i ) , 1 9 7 8 , I I , p . 5 5 .
1 0 . C p . t h e h i s t o r y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s text i n P r a t a p C h a n d r a , o p . c i t . ,
p . 1 2 0 f .
1 1 . A n e x e g e s i s o f t h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e s i s g i v e n b y P e r e z - R e m o n , o p .
c i t . , p . 278ff.
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1 1 0 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
M a y b e m o r e i n t e r es t i n g i s a n o t h e r e v i d e n c e b e c a u s e a
g o o d a m o u n t o f p r o b a b i l i t y i s t h e r e that w e t o u c h o n h i s t o r i c a l
g r o u n d o f t h e e ar l ie s t B u d d h i s t c o m m u n i t y : t h e q u e s t i o n o f
s u i c i d e o f a l i b e r a t ed b e i n g , a n arahat. T h e r e w a s n o q u e s t i o n
that s u i c i d e c a n n o t b r i n g a n y g a i n , b e c a u s e it i s o n l y t h e b o d y
w h i c h c o u l d b e k i l l ed . T h e k a r m i c i m p r i n t s ( sankhära lsamskära)
w o u l d r e m a i n , a n d m o r e , b y c o m m i t t i n g s u i c i d e o n e w o u l d o n l y
a d d t w o p r o b l e m s : a ) a n o t h e r a n d n e w v i o l en t a c t w o u l d o n l y
r e s u l t i n f u r t h e r k a r m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d b ) a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y
o f D h a m m a - p r a c t i c e in t h i s p r e c i o u s h u m a n birth w o u l d b ew a s t e d . B u t w h a t a b o u t a n arahat w h o h a d b u r n t u p a l l K a r m a
s o that n o t h i n g c o u l d t ra v el i n to t h e n e x t r e i n c a r n a t i o n ?
S a m y u t t a - N i k ä y a I, 1 2 0f . ( M ä r a s a m y u t t a 2 3 ) a n d l l / l l l , 3 4 4
( K h a n d h a s a m y u t t a 8 7 ) r ep o r t s t h e s t r a n g e s t o r y that M ä r a , t h e
p e r s o n i f i c a t io n o f k a r m i c h i n d r a n c e s a n d o b s t r u c t i o n , m o v e s
a r o u n d i n a s m o k y c l o u d in o r d e r t o s e a r c h f o r t h e " s o u l " o r
t h e r e b i r t h - c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a n a rahant w h o h a d c o m m i t t e d
s u i c i d e . N a tu r a l ly M ä r a f a i l e d t o f i n d a n y t h i n g , b e c a u s e that
b e i n g w a s a l r e ad y l i b e r a te d a n d n o " k a r m i c s t u f f " c o u l d b e
a r o u n d . Y e t , w h a t t h e s t o r y s h o w s i s that e ar l y B u d d h i s m
o b v i o u s l y d i d n o t d e n y a c e r ta in k i n d o f " c o h e r e n t s u b s t a n c e ' '
w h i c h a ft er d e a t h - i .e . i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e a g g r e g a t e s - w a s left
b e h i n d . N e e d l e s s t o s a y that t h e B u d d h a h i m s e l f w o u l d n e v e r
h a v e in d u l g e d t o a n s w e r t h e p o s s i b l e q u e s t i o n w h a t t h i s c o h e
r e n t entity w o u l d b e .
R a t h e r u n u s u a l ( a n d t h e r e fo r e with s o m e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k -
a g r o u n d ? ) i s a l s o t h e s t o r y i n t h e M a h ä p a r i n i r v ä n a - S ü t r a
L 16 /1 f t ) 1 2 w h i c h r e c o l l ec t s t h e " t r e a t y " b e t w e e n B u d d h a a n d
M a r a . B u d d h a h a d a t ta i n ed e n l i g h t e n m e n t , a n d M ä r a w a n t e d
t o p e r s u a d e h i m t o e n t e r N i r v a n a i m m e d i a t e l y in o r d e r to p r e v e n t
1 2 . E . W a l d s c h m i d t , D a s M a h ä p a r i n i r v ä n a s ü t r a . T e x t i n S a n s k r i t u n d T i b e t i s c h ,
v e r g l i c h e n m i t d e m ß n e b s t e i n e r Ü b e r s e t z u n g d e r c h i n e s i s c h e n E n t
s p r e c h u n g i m V i n a y a d e r M ü l a s a r v ä s t i v ä d i n s , A b h a n d l u n g e n d e r D e u t s c -
t . h e n ; A k a c t e m i e d e r W i s s e n s c h a f t e n z u B e r l i n , K l a s s e f ü r S p r a c h e n , L i t e r a
t u r u n d K u n s t J g . 1 9 5 0 , 2 , A k a d e m i e - V e r l a g ( B e r l i n ) , 1 9 5 1 , p . 209ff.
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 111
o t h e r b e i n g s from b e c o m i n g e n l i g h t e n e d , i .e . f r ee d from M ä r a ' s
o w n p o w e r a n d i n f l u e n c e . T h e B u d d h a h a d r e fu s e d b u t o f f e re d
t o e n t e r N i r v a n a a s s o o n a s t h e t e a c h i n g h a d s p r e a d s u f f i c i e n t l ya n d t h e S a m g h a b e e s t a b l i s h e d f i rm l y . N o w at t h e e n d o f h i s
life i n V a i s ä l i M ä r a r e t u r n s a n d a s k s t h e B u d d h a : par in i rvähi
bh agavan Par in i rvönasam ayah su gatasya, it i s t i m e , N i r v a n a i s
t h e r e , m a y t h e E x a l t e d O n e p l e a s e e n t e r in t o P a r i n i r v ä n a . A g a i n ,
t h i s r ef e r s t o a k i n d o f c o n t i n u o u s p r i n c i p l e w h i c h M ä r a h a s
c o n t r o l o f if it i s n o t l i b e r a t e d o r t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o a n o t h e r l e v e l o f
e x i s t e n c e . T h e m o t i v e o f t h e " p a c t with t h e d e v i l " i s o l d a n da p p e a r s h e r e a n d t h e r e in t h e h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n s , a n d B u d d h i s m
i s b y n o m e a n s a n e x c e p t i o n . T h e u n u s u a l s t o ry ( i n c l u d i n g
A n a n d a ' s f a i l u r e t o c h a n g e t h e m i n d o f t h e B u d d h a t o s t a y o n ) ,
h o w e v e r , w o u l d n o t h a v e e n t e r ed t h e c a n o n i f i t w o u l d n o t
h a v e h a d a s t r o n g s u p p o r t in t h e b e l i e f - s y s t e m o f e ar l y B u d d h i s t s .
B u t w h a t t h e n i s t h i s " e n t i t y " l e a v i n g t h e b o d y af te r d e a t h
a n d e n t e r i n g a n e w b o d y o r N i r v a n a ? B u d d h i s m c o m p a r e s i t to
t h e f l am e , w h i c h i n t h e s e c o n d c a s e i s b l o w n o u t . W e s t e r n
s c h o l a r s h i p h a s often i n t er p re te d t h i s c o m p a r i s o n a s e x t i n g u i s h
i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h i s " e n t i t y " . B u t t h i s i s w r o n g . 1 3 In
M a j j h i m a - N i k ä y a ( I , 487ff.) i t i s o n e V a c c h a g o t t a w h o a s k s t h e
B u d d h a a b o u t t h e d e s t i n y o f a n E n l i g h t e n e d O n e a ft er d e a t h .
T h e B u d d h a a s k s t h e c o u n t e r - q u e s t i o n : W h a t h a p p e n s t o t h ef l am e w h e n a l a m p i s b l o w n o u t ? It i s a g o o d q u e s t i o n , b e c a u s e
t h e f l a m e i s e n e r g y w h i c h r e t u r n s i n t o a s t a t u s o f p o t e n t i al i ty o r
a m o r e s u b t l e r e a l m o f r e al i t y . T h i s i s b y n o m e a n s a s p e c i f i c
B u d d h i s t i n t e r p r e t at i o n , b u t c o m m o n In d i a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
r e a l i t y . E v e n i n V e d a n t a i t i s n o t a g r o s s " s u b s t a n c e " w h i c h
t r a v e l s from o n e life t o t h e n e x t , b u t a n e n e r g y . It i s n o t t h e
g r o s s form o f l i f e , b u t t h e f l a m e o f l i f e , i .e . r e a l i t y ( e n e r g y ) o na m o r e s u b t e l l e v e l o f r ea l i ty w h i c h i s p a s s e d o n , a s M u n c j a k a
U p a n i s a d I II , 2 e t a l . s t a t e s .
1 3 . P r a t a p C h a n d r a , o p . c i t . , p . 1 2 5 , r e f e r s t o O . S c h r a d e n s f a m o u s a r t i c l e ,
O o t h e P r o b l e m o f N i r v a n a , i n : J . P . T . S 1 9 Q 4 f . , p ; 1 6 3 .
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1 1 2 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
F u r t h e r , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e M i l i n d a p a n h a t h e t h e o r y o f
bhavanga w a s d e v e l o p e d w h i c h f o u n d i ts w a y in t o t h e
A b h i d a m m a a n d w a s t a k e n o v er b y B u d d h a g h o s a . T h i s w a s
c o n c e i v e d o f a s a c a u s a l f ac t o r o f e x i s t e n c e , s o m e " l i f e - c o n t i
n u u m " 1 4 b e t w e e n t w o r e b i r t h s , a n d t h i s w a s l at er d e v e l o p e d
i n to a k i n d o f s t r e a m - o f - b e i n g - t h e o r y b y A n u r u d d h a ( 12 t h
c e n t u r y A . D . ) . 1 5
H e n c e , a s k i n g f o r " s e l f " a n d " p e r s o n " i n e ar l y B u d d h i s m w e
h a v e t o b e a w a r e that f o r t h e m r e a l i t y h a s m a n y l e v e l s . T h e r ea r e s u b t l e r e a l m s w h i c h p r e s e n t a n entity a s " s o m e t h i n g " , b u t
n o t a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t l y e x i s t i n g r e al i ty a s i t i s t h e c a s e i n t h e
m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f l a t e n t e n e r g e t i c p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
B u d d h a ' s ma j jh im ä pat ipadä ( m i d d l e p a t h ) m i g h t n o t j u s t
i n d i c a t e t h e i n e x p r e s s i b i l i t y o f r ea l i ty , b u t c o u l d b e s o m e t h i n g
l i k e comp lemen ta r i t y in p r e s e n t d a y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r ea l i ty .
W e c o u l d g o o n in a r g u i n g that t h e w o r l d v i e w o f e ar l y
B u d d h i s m i s m o r e i n t e l l i g i b l e - n e i t h e r " s o u l " n o r " n o t - s o u l " -
t h a n often a d m i t t e d . T h e S a u t r ä n t i k a s d e v e l o p e d t h e i r samtäna-
d o c t r i n e o f c o n t i n u i t y n o t w i t h o u t r e a s o n . H e r e , t h e vasanas
a re i m p r i n t s i n to t h e c o n t i n u u m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h form
s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t h i s i s t h e b a s i s f o r l at er Y o g ä c ä r a d e v e l o p
m e n t s . 1 6 In s t e a d o f m e r e c o n t a c t (sparsa) i t i s n o w c o o r d i n a t i o n
(särüpya), i .e . a s t r u c t u r a l i ze d r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o rp e r c ep t i o n . T h e S a m m i t i y a s c e r t a i n l y s p e a k o f s o m e i n d e p e n
d e n c e o f a " p e r s o n " , a n d i t is n o d o u b t that t h e P u d g a l a v ä d i n s
h a d b e e n a s t r o n g s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t a t l e a s t r i g h t i n to t h e 7 t h
c e n t u r y A . D . , e s p e c i a l l y i n th e N o r t h w e s t , 1 7 w h i c h w o u l d h a v e
b e e n i m p o s s i b l e i f t h e y c o u l d b e s i m p l y a c c u s e d o f b l a t a n t
h e t e r o d o x y ( w h i c h o f c o u r s e w a s t h e c h a r g e o f o t h e r s c h o o l s
w h i c h f in a l l y s u r v i v e d ) a n d th e q u e s t i o n o f " s e l f " a n d " n o - s e l f "
c o u l d b e e a s i l y a n s w e r e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e c a n o n .
1 4 . E . C o n z e , o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 2 .
1 5 . d e S i l v a , o p . c i t . , p . 4 8 .
1 6 . E .Wol f f , o p . c i t . , p . 1 7 f f .
1 7 . N . Dutt , M a f i ä y ä n a B u d d h i s m , Mot i ia l B a n a r s i d a s s ( D e l h i ) , 1 9 7 7 .
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D CONSCIOUSNESS 1 1 3
N o w w e c o m e t o t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t . O n e o f t h e c e n t r a l
t e a c h i n g s o f a l l B u d d h i s t s c h o o l s ( t h o u g h d i f f e re n t l y i n t e r p r e t e d ,
o f c o u r s e ) i s pa t i ccasamuppäda jPra t i t yasamutpäda, t h e i n t e r
d e p e n d e n t o r i g i n a t i o n . T w o l i n k s i n t h e c h a i n a re o f i n t er es t
h e r e : c o n s c i o u s n e s s (v inn äna/v/ /näna) a n d i n d i v i d u a l i t y nama-
rüpa). W h a t i s t h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s ? ,
It i s o b v i o u s that b o t h sankharas a n d v innäna a r e t h e f a c t o r s
c a r r y i n g o n i n t h e c h a i n o f r eb i r t h s . T h e sankharas a r e
b a s i c a l l y m e n t a l f a c t o r s d e t e r m i n i n g a p e r s o n ' s c h a r a c t e r -A n g u t t a r a - N i k ä y a II , 1 5 7 f . e q u a t e s sankhära a n d sancetanä
w h i c h i s t h e m o t i v a t i o n o r p r e f i g u r a t i o n o f a d e t e r m i n a t e o r
i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i o n . T h i s l e a d s r ig h t i n t o a s p e c i f i c B u d d h i s t
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n v o l i t i o n a n d a c t i o n
w h i c h i s d i s t i n c t from t h e J a i n v i e w o f ka rman a s a k i n d
o f m a t e r i a l s t u f f . 1 8 F o r t h e B u d d h i s t s a c t i o n i s b a s i c a l l y a
r e s u l t o f a m e n t a l p r o c e s s (cetana) w h i c h d i r e c t s t h e o t h e r
a g g r e g a t e s . T h e r e f o r e , v innäna i s n o t j u s t o n e a m o n g t h e
o t h e r a g g r e g a t e s , b u t i t c a n c o n t r o l th e i r f l u x o n t h e b a s i s
o f k a r m i c c o n d i t i o n s a n d i s t h e r e f o r e t h e c e n t r e f o r f r e e d o m
w h i c h i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e w h o l e B u d d h i s t p at h a n d f i n a l l y
l i b e r a t i o n . A s i t i s s t a t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e D h a m m a p a d a :
m anopu b b ang am a dh a rnm a , a i l i s d i r e c t e d b y t h e m i n d .
I n d e e d , a l r e a d y in e ar l y B u d d h i s m v i nnäna k h andh a h a sa d i s t i n c t f u n c t i o n w h i c h in o t h er s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t a r e
a t t r ib u t e d t o s o m e k i n d o f s e l f o r p e r s o n . T h i s i s s u p p o r t e d b y
a l o o k i n t o R h y s D a v i d s P a l i - E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y w h e r e t h e
w h o l e s p e c t r u m o f t h e term i s q u i t e c l e a r ; v innäna i s l i n k e d
t o f i v e d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f m e a n i n g s : it i s o n e o f t h e a g g r e g a t e s
(khandha) , i t i s l i s t e d a s a n e l e m e n t (dhätu) , i t i s o n e o f
t h e l i n k s i n pa t i ccasamuppada, i t i s a k i n d o f s u s t e n a n c e (ähära)a n d f i n a l l y r e f e r s t o a b o d y (käya). T h e r e s e e m t o b e t w o
g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s b e h i n d i t , o n e w o u l d b e v innär ia a s a n
e m p i r i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h d e p e n d s o n s e n s a t i o n s , t h e
1 8 . P r a t a p C h a n d r a , o p . p i t . , p p . 188ff.
8
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1 1 4 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
s e n s e - o r g a n a n d t h e s e n s e - o b j e c t , t h e o t h er b e i n g a d i s t i n c t
a n d i n d i v i d u a t e d v innäna w h i c h i s s o m e t h i n g l i ke a s u b t l e
b o d y .
T h e f i r s t is t h e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d b a s i s f o r B u d d h i s t
e p i s t e m o l o g y a n d t h e o r y o f p e r c e p t i o n , a s i t is s t a t e d c o n c i s e l y
i n M a j j h i m a - N i k ä y a II I , 2 8 1 : cakkhu n capa ticca rüpe ca
upp a jjat i cakkhu v inhänam t innam sanga t i phasso, b a s e d o n t h e
e y e a n d c o n n e c t e d with a n o b j e c t fo r s e e i n g a n e y e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a r i s e s , t h e c o i n c i d e n c e o f t h e t h r e e i s p e r c e p t i o n . L i k e w i s ewith r e g a r d t o t h e o t h e r s e n s e s s o that w e h a v e s i x s e n s e -
c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g manov innäna w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to
M a j j h i m a - N i k ä y a 1, 2 9 5 , c o o r d i n a t e s t h e o t h e r s in s u c h a w a y
that it a l l o w s fo r a m u l t i - s e n s u a l p e r c e p t i o n . O t h e r w i s e w e
w o u l d p e r c e i v e d i f f er en t w o r l d s o f f o r m s , s o u n d s e t c . w i t h o u t
b e i n g a b l e t o l in k t h e m . T h u s , w h e r e a s t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s
c o n n e c t e d with t h e s e n s e s a r e b a s i c a l l y p a s s i v e i n r e l y i n g
o n t h e s e n s e - o r g a n a s d i r e c t in g a g e n t , manov innäna i s a n
a c t i v e c o o r d i n a t o r w h i c h w e c o u l d c a l l " s u b j e c t i v i t y " in a
c e r t a i n s e n s e , t h e r e is e v e n a t e n d e n c y t o s u b s t i t u t e i t f o r
a " s e l f " . 1 9 T h i s h a s often b e e n o v e r l o o k e d a n d r e q u i r e s
e x p l a n a t i o n - w h a t d o e s t h i s s u b j e c t i v i t y i m p ly f o r o u r i n t er p r e
tation o f a n a t t a ?
T h e s e c o n d c o n c e p t , v innäna a s a n i n d i v i d u a t e d s u b t l eb o d y , h a s t o d o wi th t h e k ar m i c i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o
b i r t h s . It i s s a i d that v innäna d e s c e n d s i n t o t h e w o m b r ig h t
a t t h e m o m e n t o f p h y s i c a l c o p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p a r e n t s .
In t h e M a h a n i d a n a S u t t a o f D i g h a - N i k ä y a II, 6 3 t h e d e s c e n t
(okkamissa tha ) o f v innäna i s a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e n e x t l in k
in t h e c h a i n o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n t o r i g i n a t i o n w h i c h i s näma-
rüpa . I t is näma- rüpa w h i c h p r o v i d e s a " f o o t h o l d "
2 0
f o r
1 9 . A n a n a l y s i s of r e l a t e d t e x t s i n g i v e n b y P e r e z - R e m o n , o p . c i t . , p . 6 1 , 6 9 ,
1 1 8 .
2 0 . P r a t a p C h a n d r a , o p . c i t . , 1 9 2 . H o w e v e r , h i s g e n e r a l i z i n g s t a t e m e n t :
" W h a t j i va d o e s i n J a i n i s m f o r t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y , v i nnäna
d o e s i n e a r l y B u d d h i s m . " ( p . 1 9 1 ) , i s a n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n .
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 1 1 5
v innäqa , a n d b a s e d o n t h e e l em e n t s t h e r e i s d e s c e n t into
t h e w o m b (gabbhassavakkant i ) , A n g u t t a r a - N i k a y a 1,176. What
i s in t e r e s t i n g i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n näm a w h i c h is t h e
f u n c t i o n o f m e n t a l f a c t o r s i n a p e r s o n a l i t y r e l at e d to a n d
d e p e n d i n g o n a l l t h e o t h e r a g g r e g a t e s , a n d v innäna, w h i c h ,
b e i n g a p r e c o n d i t i o n i n t h e c h a i n , m u s t b e b e y o n d i t . W o u l d
it b e p o s s i b l e t o t a k e v innäna a s a k i n d o f d e p e n d e n t f ac t o r
o f a d ifferent o r d e r o f s u b t l e t y ? It i s , after a l l , n o t o n l y K a r m a
w h i c h t r a n s m i g r a t e s , b u t m a y b e t h i s v i n n a n a w h i c h is c e r ta in l y
n o t a n entity o f i n d e p e n d e n t n a t u r e b u t a f u n c t i o n o r c a p a c i t y ,m a y b e a n a l l - p e r v a d i n g latent e n e r g y , w h i c h c o m e s t o
a c t u a l i z a t i o n u n d e r c e r t a in c o n d i t i o n s a n d in d e p e n d e n c e o n
o t h e r f a c t o r s a s i s s e e n both in t h e t h e o r y o f p e r c e p t i o n a n d
in th e t h e o r y o f d e s c e n t . T h i s w o u l d a l s o g i v e a c o h e r e n t
i n t e r p r e ta t io n t o t h e s t o r i e s o f s u i c i d e o f a n a r a h a n t w h e r e a
" s u b t l e f i e l d " i s b e i n g s e a r c h e d f o r .
N o d o u b t , v innäna i s n o t a n i n d e p e n d e n t s e l f , i t i s
empty ( sünya) wi th r e g a r d t o s u b s t a n t i a l s e l f - n a t u r e (svabhäva).
It i s a s t r u c t u r a l i z i n g potentiality w h i c h f o r m s a n d is b e i n g
f o r m e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g an d d e c a y i n g . T h e r e f o r e ,
it i s a b l e to " c a r r y " k a r m i c s e e d s s o that it c a n a c c o u n t
f o r t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n t i n u i t y in t h e c h a i n o f r e b i r t h s . S i n c e
i t i s n o t a s t a t i c s e l f , b u t a s e l f r e l a t e d t o a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s , t h e
q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r i t i s d i s t i n c t in e a c h i n d i v i d u a l i t y w o u l d b e an
a b s t r a c t i o n .
B u t t h e s e a r e t h e p r o b l e m s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
c i r c l e s w h i c h l at er f o r m e d a k i n d o f n e w p a r a d i g m in B u d d h i s t
h i s t o r y : M a h ä y a n a . T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s a re b y n o
m e a n s t h e o n l y a n d m o s t important f a c t o r s a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e
e m e r g e n c e o f M a h ä y a n a . S o c i a l f a c t o r s , c u l t u r a l - r e l i g i o u s in f l u e n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e em e r g e n c e o f b h a k t i - m o v e m e n t s a l l o v e r
In d i a w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d B r a h m a n i c a l c u l t u r e ( B h a g a v a d - G i t ä )
a n d B u d d h i s m ( L o t o s - S ü t r a ) s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d p ar t l y with
t h e s a m e e f f e c t s , t h e n e c e s s i t y t o b r i d g e laity a n d m o n k s , f i n a n
c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s in c o n n e c t i o n wi th t h e S t ü p a - w o r s h i p e t c .
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1 1 6 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
a re o t h er p o i n t s . 2 1 W h a t I w a n t e d to s h o w i s that d e v e l o p m e n t s
in M a h ä y ä n a , a s f o r i n s t a n c e t h e c o n c e p t o f sünya ta ( e m p t i n e s s )
in M ä d h y a m i k a a n d t h e n o t i o n o f ä laya-vi jnäna ( s t o r e -c o n s c i
o u s n e s s ) in V i jn ä n a v ä d a a r e c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d l o g i c a l c o n c l u
s i o n s o n t h e b a s i s o f e ar l y B u d d h i s t v i e w s a n d i n t e rp r e t at i o n s .
3 . A s p e c t s i n M a h a y a n a
E a r l y B u d d h i s m t au g h t s e l f l e s s n e s s wi th r e g a r d t o t h e
p e r s o n o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t u i t i o n o f an icca, b u t c o n c e r n i n g
t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d , i .e . khandhas a n d d h ö t u s , t h e y h e l d a r e a l i s t i c
p l u r a l i s m . T h e s e a g g r e g a t e s o r e l e m e n t s d i d e x i s t , t h o u g h in
a s p e c i f i c s e q u e n c e o f t ime w h i c h w a s a c c o u n t a b l e f o r u n i n t er
r u p t ed n e w fo r m a t i o n . T h u s w e h a v e a r e al i s t i c m o m e n t a r i n e s s .
It i s m y i m p r e s s i o n that t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a d i g m s h i f t
b e t w e e n e ar ly B u d d h i s m an d M a h a y an a - t a k i n g p l a c e a l r e ad y
i n c e r t a i n s c h o o l s s u c h a s t h e M a h ä s a m g h i k a s - i s t h e r e f u t a t io no f t h i s r e a l i s t i c p l u r a l i s m , n o t a n y t h e o r y o f s o u l o r n o t - s o u l I
T h e P r a j f i ä p är a m i t ä l i t e ra tu r e , b a s e d o n t h e c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p
m e n t s m e n t i o n e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e l as t s e c t i o n a n d a n e w a n d
d e e p e r , t o m y m i n d a l s o m o r e c o n s i s t i n g , i n t e rp r e t at i o n o f w h a t
w a s e x p e r i e n c e d in t r a n s - r a t i o n a l m e d i t a t i v e s t a t e s , t h i s l i t er a
t u r e in t e r p r et s t h e B u d d h i s t p a t h t o r e al i za t i o n o r l i b e r a t io n from
a n e n t i re ly t r a n s r a t i o n a l p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e k e y term i s sünyata ,
w h i c h i s ac t u a l l y m o r e a p r o g r a m m e o r a m a t r i x o f a s p e c i f i c
s y m b o l i c i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f r e a l i t y ( o r r e a l i t y a s s y m b o l ) t h a n a
p h i l o s o p h i c a l term wit h a d e f i n i t e o r e v e n d e f i n a b l e m e a n i n g .
T h i s b e c a m e t h e c o r n e r - s t o n e f o r a l l M a h a y a na p h i l o s o p h y , b o t h
M ä d h y a m i k a a n d Y o g ä c ä r a . T h e m e a n i n g o f sünya ta o v e r
a g a i n s t t h e e a r l i e r a n d m o r e l i m i t e d anatta i s s i m p l y that t h e r e
i s n o l i m i t e d entity w h i c h w o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r i ze d b y svabhäva
w h a t s o e v e r . T h e r e is n o o b j e c t i v e re al i t y w h i c h i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d
b y a n y m a r k s g i v i n g it a n a b s o l u t e i d e n t i t y , a n d i n that s e n s e
( a n d o n l y a s s u c h ! ) t h e re i s u n i v e r s a l u n r e a l i t y o r e m p t i n e s s .
2 1 . N . Dat t , o p . c i t . , p p . 81ff., e t a l .
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1 1 8 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
t h i n g s a r e o n l y n o m i n a l ly i m p u t e d b y c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i .e . th ey
a r e n o t s e l f - e x i s t e n t a s t h e y a p p e a r to b e . B u t t h i s d o e s n o t
m e a n that t h i n g s d o n o t e x i s t .
Th e S e l f d o e s n o t e x i s t i n t h e o r d i n a r y s e n s e . W h a t a c t
u a l l y is p o s i t i v e l y a c c e p t e d i s d i f f er e n t in v a r i o u s s c h o o l s .
Y o g ä c ä r a h a s t w o e x p l a n a t i o n s . T h e s e l f i s n o t ex p l a i n e d
in r e l a t i o n t o t h e a g g r e g a t e s , i .e . t h e form o f a b o d y e t c . , b u t
o n l y o n t h e b a s i s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . N o w t h e re a r e t w o v i e w s :
o n e is t o c o u n t e i g h t c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s five s e n s e -c o n s c i o u s n e
s s e s , m e n t a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a ' ' n e g a t i v e " o r l i n k i n g c o n s c i o u
s n e s s (manas)23 a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ä laya-
v i jnäna-) , a n d t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a s t h e f u n c t i o n
o f s e l f o r I; t h e o t h e r ( e a r l i e r ) v i e w h a s o n l y s i x l e v e l s o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d h e r e t h e s i x t h o n e i s that w h i c h e x i s t s
as " I " .
M ä d h y a m i k a a l s o h a s t w o s u b - s c h o o l s : S v ä t a n t r i k a - M ä d h y
a m i k a a n d P r ä s a n g i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a . In S v ä t a n t r i k a t h e re a g a i n
a re t w o v i e w s ( Y o g ä c ä r a -S v ä t a n t r i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a a n d S a u t r ä -
n t i k a - S v ä t a n t r i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a ) , a n d b o t h a c c e p t t h e s i x t h l e v e l
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a " s e l f " i n d e p e n d e n t o f b o d y a n d t h e o t h e r
c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s . T h e a r g u m e n t , o f c o u r s e , i s , that b o d y a n d
t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s e n s e s p e r i s h a t d e a t h ,s o i t m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g e l s e w h a t is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e k a r m i c
c h a i n . P r ä s a n g i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a , h o w e v e r , h o l d s that a l l p h e n o
m e n a , i n c l u d i n g d i f f er en t a s p e c t s o r l e v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , e x i s t
in m u t u a l d e p e n d e n c e . T h e " s e l f " , t o o , e x i s t s o n l y in d e p e n d e
n c e b o t h o f t h e p h y s i c a l a g g r e g a t e s a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e r e -
2 3 . I t i s a l s o c a l l e d k l i s ta mano-v i jnäna, b e c a u s e t h e p r o c e s s o f d e f i l e d
i n t e l l e c t i o n i s a l w a y s g o i n g o n i n i t w h e r e a s ä laya i s i n d e t e r m i n a t e
o b j e c t i v i t y . It w o r k s o u t t h e d e t e r m i n a t e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n w h i c h ; i s n e c e s
s a r y f o r l i n k i n g t h e ä layav i jnäna w i t h t h e s i x s e n s e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s
{p ravr t t i -v i jndnas) . F o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s s e e A . K . C h a t t e r j e e , T h e
Y o g a c a r a I d e a l i s m , M o t i l ä l Ö a n a r s i d a s s ( D e l h i ) , 1 9 7 5 2 , p . 101ff.
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 119
f o r e , ' T ' i s a m e r e d e s i g n a t i o n r e f er r in g t o t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n n e
c t i o n b e t w e e n b o d y a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . C o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d
" s e l f " , t h e r e f o r e , a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l .
a ) Mädhyamika
I will s t a r t wi th C a n d r a k k t i ' s v i e w o f s e l f a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
b e c a u s e i t h a s b e c o m e t h e b a s i s f o r l at er c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a n d
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g m i n d , m e n t a l s t a t e s a n d s o o n in
M a d h y a m i k a , e s p e c i a l l y t h e Pr äs a n g i k a s c h o o l . 2 4
C a n d r a k i r t i s t a r t s from t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o
different k i n d s o f n o t i o n o f s e l f . 2 5 F i r s t , s e l f c a n m e a n t h e
p e r s o n o r I a s a c o n v e n t i o n a l l y e x i s t i n g p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h i s
n o m i n a l l y i m p u t e d o n t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e f i v e m e n t a l a n d
p h y s i c a l a g g r e g a t e s . S u c h a s e l f d o e s e x i s t o n l y c o n v e n t i o n a l l y ,
b e c a u s e i t c a n n o t b e f o u n d u n d e r l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s a s C a n d r a k i r t i
e x p l a i n s b y h i s S e v e n f o l d R e a s o n i n g . S e c o n d , s e l f c a n m e a ni n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e o r s e l f -s u f f i c i e n t e x i s t e n c e , a n d s u c h a s e l f
d o e s n o t e x i s t a t a l l , n o t e v e n c o n v e n t i o n a l l y . T h i s k i n d o f s e l f
w h i c h d o e s n o t e x i s t a t a l l i s t h e o b j e c t b e i n g n e g a t e d w h e n
o n e m e d i t a t e s o n t h e s e l f l e s s n e s s (sünyatä) o f p e r s o n s . T h u s ,
t h e e m p t i n e s s o f a p e r s o n i s i ts l ac k o f i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e .
T o b e a l itt le b i t m o r e p r e c i s e i t i s u s e f u l t o d i s t i n g u i s h e i g h tdifferent m e a n i n g s o f s e l f i n P r ä s a n g i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a , b u t a l l o f
2 4 . C a n d r a k i r t i , C a t u ^ a t a k a , i n : V . B h a t t a c a r y a , T h e C a t u h s a t a k a o f Ä r v a -
d e v a , with E x t r a c t s from t h e C o m m e n t a r y o f C a n d r a k i r t i , T h e I n d i a n
P r e s s ( A l l a h a b a d ) , 1 9 2 8 , p p . 831ff.; H . T a u s c h e r , C a n d r a k i r t i : M a d h y a -
m a k ä v s t ä r a l i u n d M a d h y a m a k ä v a t ä r a b h ä s y a m ( K a p . V I , 1 6 6 - 2 6 6 ) ,
W i e n e r S t u d i e n z u r T i b e t o l o g i e u n d B u d d h i s m u s k u n d e , H . 5 : U n i v e r s i t ä t
W i e n / 1 9 8 1 ; C a n d r a k i r t i , S u p p l e m e n t t o N ä g ä r j u n a ' s T r e a t i s e o n t h e
Midd l e W a y , D h a r a m s a l a e d . F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s I r e l y a l s o
o n J . H o p k i n s , Med i ta t ion o n E m p t i n e s s , W i s d o m P u b l . ( L o n d o n ) , 1 9 8 3 .
2 5 . J . W i l s o n , C h a n d r a k i r t i ' s S e v e n f o l d R e a s o n i n g : Med i ta t ion o n t h e
S e l f l e s s n e s s o f P e r s o n s , L i b r a r y o f T i b e t a n W o r k s & A r c h i v e s ( D h a r a m s a l a ) ,
1 9 8 0 , p p . 1 2 f .
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1 2 0 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
t h e m c o m e u n d e r t h e t w o d i f f er en t t y p e s w h i c h I h a v e e x p l a i n
e d . 2 6
1. S e l f i n t e r m s o f " o r p e r s o n (pudga/a) a s that w h i c h
i s b e i n g n o m i n a l l y i m p u t e d o n t h e f i v e a g g r e g a t e s a s a k i n d o f
f u n c t i o n i n g m o d u s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e i n te rp l ay . T h i s
i s , s a y s C a n d r a k i r t i , h o w t h e s e l f s h o u l d b e a p p r e h e n d e d . T h e
b a s i s f o r i m p u t a t i o n a r e t h e a g g r e g a t e s w h i c h a r e e m p t y o f
i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e , a n d t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t i s b e i n g n e g a t e d .
2 . T h i s s e l f w h i c h i s a r e fe r en t o b j e c t o f a f a l s e c o n c e p t i o n
b e c a u s e it a p p e a r s to s h o w i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e , d o e s n o t h a v e
a n y e x i s t e n c e a t a l l . It i s w h a t i s c a l l e d i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e
(svabhäva-s iddh i ) o r n a t u r a l e x i s t e n c e (sva laksana-s iddhi ) . It i s
a s u b t l e c o n c e p t a n d d i f f i c u l t t o r e m o v e , p r o b a b l y , b e c a u s e it i s
t h e r o o t c a u s e f o r a t t a c h m e n t s .
3 . T h i s n o t i o n o f s e l f c o n c e i v e s a p e r s o n ( b e i n g i m p u t e d
o n t h e a g g r e g a t e s ) b e i n g o f d i f f er e n t c h a r a c t e r from t h e a g g r e g a
t e s , b e c a u s e i t i s i n c o n t r o l o f t h e m a n d n o t s e e n a s d e p e n d e n t
o n t h e m . T h i s , s a y s C a n d r a k i r t i , i s b a s e d o n a s e c o n d a r y
i n t e l l e c t u a l r e a s o n i n g o n c e t h e l i s i m p u t e d .
4 . T h e s e l f a s p e r m a n e n t , p a r t l es s a n d i n d e p e n d e n t entity
i s t h e s e l f r e fe r re d t o i n o t h e r s y s t e m s s u c h a s V e d ä n t a a n d i s
n e g a t e d , o f c o u r s e , i n P r ä s a n g i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a .
5 . T h e v i e w o f " m i n e " atmiya) i s m u c h d e b a t e d a n d a g a i n
s u b d i v i d e d . It a r i s e s as f a l s e v i e w i n d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e c o l l e
c t i o n o f a g g r e g a t e s re g a r d i n g t h e m o r t h ei r f u n c t i o n a l o c c u r e n c e s
( fe e l i n g s , a c t i o n s e t c . ) a s " m i n e " . W e c o u l d s a y that i t i s a
m e n t a l s u b s t r u c t u r e in t h e p e r s o n ' s o w n c o n t i n u u m , a n i m p u
tation o n i m p u t a t io n , w h i c h i s c r u c i a l i n o b s t r u c t i n g l i b e ra t io n
from S a m s ä r a . T o q u o t e C a n d r a k i r t i w h o s t a t e s in h i s " C l e a rW o r d s " : 2 7 " T h a t w h i c h p e r t a i n s t o t h e s e l f i s t h e m i n e ; t h e term
2 6 . C p . t h e u s e f u l c h a r t b y W i l s o n , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 3 f f .
2 7 . C a n d r a k i r t i , C l e a r W o r d s . C o m m e n t a r y o n F u n d a m e n t a l T e x t c a l l e d
" W i s d o m " XVI I I : 2 c d , q u o t e d a c c . t o W i l s o n , o p . c i t . , p . 2 7 .
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 121
r e f e r s t o o n e ' s o w n f iv e a g g r e g a t e s . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y e x i s t i n g
s e l f i s t h e o b j e c t o f th e c o n c e p t i o n o f a n I. T h e m i n e , t h e
a g g r e g a t e s a n d s o o n , a re t h e o b j e c t s o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n o fm i n e . D u e t o t h e p a c i f i c a t i o n , i .e. t h e n o n - a r i s i n g o r n o n -
o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e t r u e e x i s t e n c e (o f t h e I a n d m i n e ) t h e y o g i
a n n i h i l a t e s t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a n I a n d t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f m i n e " .
6 . T h e s e l f a s a m o d e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s c o n c e i v i n g a " s e l f
( ä t m a g r ä h a ) o f t y p e 2 - 4 , i .e. a " s e l f " w i t h i n t h e " s e l f h a v i n g
a w r o n g c o n c e p t i o n o f r e al it y i n c o n c e i v i n g t h e s a m e a s
i n h e r e n t l y e x i s t e n t .
7 . T h e s e l f a s a m o d e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s c o n c e i v i n g a n I
i n o n e ' s o w n c o n t i n u u m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h i s n o t a w a r e
o f t h e m e c h a n i s m o f i m p u t a t i o n a n d i s t h e r ef o r e w r o n g .
8 . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f I a n d m i n e c o r r e s p o n d s t o a c o n s
c i o u s n e s s c o n c e i v i n g I Nr.7). T h e s e l f b e i n g n e g a t e d h e r e
i s a " c o n c e i v e r " w h i c h i s a s it w e r e t h e s u b j e c t o f " l - a n d - m i n e -
a r i s i n g " , a n d i t a p p e a r s d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n i t i s i n r e a l i ty .
W e s e e , t h e d i f f e r en t i a t io n b e i n g m a d e h e r e i s q u i t e s u b t l e ,
b u t a l l i s a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f sünya tä wi th r e g a r d t o t h e m e n t a l
p r o c e s s c o n c e i v i n g I o r s e l f o n d i f f er e n t l e v e l s o r s t a g e s o f
r e a s o n i n g . In P r ä s a n g i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a 2 8 b o t h p e r s o n s a n d a l l
o t h e r p h e n o m e n a a r e l a c k i n g i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e , i .e . t h e y a r esünya. T h e m e r e I, h o w e v e r , e x i s t s a s a n i m p u t a t i o n o n t h e
f i v e a g g r e g a t e s . If t h e y d o n o t a p p e a r , t h i s I c a n n o t a p p e a r .
B u t n o w c o m e s a c r u c i a l a d d i t i o n : T h e f a l s e v i e w o f a n
i n h e r e n t ly e x i s t i n g s e l f w h i c h d o e s n o t r e c o g n i z e t h i s i m p u t a t i o n
a s s u c h , c a n c o m e i n to b e i n g o n l y w h e n t h e a g g r e g a t e s
a r e c o n c e i v e d a s t ru l y e x i s t i n g . T h u s , t h e g e n e r a l i n s i g h t i n t o
sünya tä c o n c e r n i n g t h e dharmas a n d skandhas i s b e i n g c a l l e d
f o r ! N e v e r t h e l e s s , m e d i t a t i o n o n e m p t i n e s s o c c u r s a l w a y s
with r e g a r d t o t h e p e r s o n , b e c a u s e that i s w h e r e c l i n g i n g
2 8 . D e r X I V . D a l a i L a m a , K i n d n e s s , C l a r i t y a n d I n s i g h t , S n o w L i o n P u b l .
( I t h a c a ) , 1 9 8 4 , p p . 1 6 2 f .
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1 2 2 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
a n d a l l t h e k lesas a r e t o b e r e m o v e d . O r t o p u t it i n o t h e r
w o r d s : " P e r s o n s , h o w e v e r , a l s o l ac k e x i s t e n c e a s s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t
o r s u b s t a n t i a l e n t i t i e s a n d a s p e r m a n e n t p a r t l es s a n d i n d e p e n d
e n t s e l v e s . P h e n o m e n a o t h e r t h a n p e r s o n s a re n o t m e d i t a t ed
u p o n a s b e i n g empty o f t h e s e m o d e s o f e x i s t e n c e f o r t h e
s i m p l e r e a s o n that t h e r e is n o i n n a t e c o n c e p t i o n o f e i t h e r
o f t h e s e t w o i n p h e n o m e n a o t h e r th a n p e r s o n s " . 2 9
O n t h i s b a s i s w e d o n o t h a v e t o c o m m e n t o n C a n d r a k i r t i ' s
m o d e o f S e v e n f o l d R e a s o n i n g c o n c e r n i n g s e l f l e s s n e s s i n d e t a i l
y e t t h e s e v e n s t e p s s h a l l b e j u s t m e n t i o n e d .3 0
H e c o m p a r e st h e a g g r e g a t e s wi th t h e p a r t s o f a c h a r i o t a n d t h e " s e l f "
with that w h a t i s c a l l e d " c h a r i o t " b u t d o e s n o t ex i s t i n d e
p e n d e n t l y o r a p a r t from t h e p a r t s :
1 . T h e r e i s n o c h a r i o t w h i c h i s o t h e r t h a n i ts p a r t s .
2 . T h e r e i s n o c h a r i o t w h i c h i s t h e s a m e a s i t s p a r t s .
3 . T h e r e i s n o c h a r i o t w h i c h i n h e r en t l y p o s s e s s e s i t s p a r t s .
4 . T h e r e i s n o c h a r i o t w h i c h i n h e r e n t l y d e p e n d s o n i t s p a r t s .
5 . T h e r e i s n o c h a r i o t u p o n w h i c h i ts p a rt s a r e i n h e r e n t l y
d e p e n d e n t .
6 . T h e r e i s n o c h a r i o t w h i c h i s t h e m e r e c o l l e c t i o n o f
i t s p a r t s .
7 . T h e r e i s n o c h a r i o t w h i c h i s t h e s h a p e o f i t s p a r t s .
L i k e w i s e t h e re i s n o s e l f w h i c h c o u l d b e f o u n d s e p a r a t e
from t h e b a s i s o f d e s i g n a t i o n , i .e . t h e a g g r e g a t e s . P o s i t i o n
6 i s a refutation o f t h e v i e w o f S v a t a n t r i k a s w h o h e l d that
t h e c o n t i n u u m o r c o l l e c t i o n o f m o m e n t s o f t h e m e n t a l c o n s
c i o u s n e s s w o u l d b e t h e s e l f w h i c h t a k e s r eb i r t h . P o s i t i o n
7 i s s a i d t o b e d i r e c t ed a g a i n s t n o n - B u d d h i s t s y s t e m s o f
t e n e t s . 3 1
2 9 . W i l s o n , o p . c i t . , p . 2 5 .
3 0 . C a n d r a k i r t i , C o m m e n t a r y o n " A S u p p l e m e n t " , q u o t e d a c c . t o W i l s o n ,
o p . c i t , p p . 30ff.
3 1 . W i l s o n , o p . c i t . p . 3 3 .
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 1 2 3
I d o n o t w a n t t o g o i n to d e t a i ls c o n c e r n i n g t h e r a t i o n a l i t y
o f t h e P r ä s an g i k a s y s t e m c o n c e r n i n g o u r s u b j e c t b u t s h a l l
b r i ef l y s u m m a r i z e t h e f u nc t i on ing o f t h e a r g u m e n t a t i o n with
r e g ar d t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b a s e d o n t h e
e x p l a n a t i o n g i v e n b y t h e X I V . D a l a i L a m a . 3 2
W h a t a c t u a l l y i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s a c c o r d i n g t o P r äs a n g i k a-
M ä d h y a m i k a ? H u m a n b e i n g s h a v e f i ve s e n s e o r g a n s , t h u s -
o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f o r g a n , s e n s e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a n d o b j e c t b e i n g p e r c e i v e d , a s e x p l a i n e d e a r l i e r - o n e c a n s e e ,
h e ar , s m e l l , t a s te a n d t o u c h s o m e t h i n g . N o w , w h a t h a p p e n s
w h e n o n e m e d i t a t es a n d c u t s o f f m e n t a l a w a r e n e s s from
t h e s e s e n s u a l i m p r e s s i o n s , w h a t r e m a i n s ? F ir s t o f a l l , t h e
m i n d g e t s o c c u p i e d with i n n e r i m a g e r y , m e m o r i e s a n d s o o n .
O n c e t h e m e d i t a t o r h a s g o n e t h r o u g h t h i s s t a g e t h e re m i g h t
b e s t i l l a n a w a r e n e s s o f p r e s e n t , p a s t a n d f u t u r e , b u t t h i s
a l s o d i s a p p e a r s with c o n t i n u i n g p u r i f i c a t io n o f t h e p r o c e s s
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . W h a t r e m a i n s n o w i s a c l e a r , u n d i s t u r b e d
a n d n o n - d u a l m i n d . W e s h a l l c o m e b a c k t o t h e n o t i o n o f
n o n - d u a l w h i c h i s d i f f er en t i n P r äs a n g i k a a n d Y o g ä c ä r a t h o u g h t .
N o w , w h e n t h i s m i n d i s i n v e s t i g a t e d intoit i s c l e a r that i t
d o e s n o t h a v e a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m a r k s o f f o r m , l o c a t i o n , o r i g i n
a n d s o o n .
T h u s , w h e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s is o u t o f c o n t a c t wi th a n o b j e c tit i s e m p t y l ik e a v a s t l i m i t l e s s o c e a n . B u t a s s o o n a s it
c o m e s i n c o n t a c t with a n o b j e c t it g e t s a n e x p e r i e n c e o r
r e f le c t i o n o f t h e s a m e , i t i s , a s i t w e r e , s h a p e d ( p a s s i v e )
b y t h e q u a l i t i e s o f o b j e c t s a n d r e f le c t s t h e m ( a c t i v e ) , l i ke a
m i r ro r , w h i c h i s w h a t i t i s , b u t r e f l ec t s i m m e d i a t e l y t h e i m a g e
p u t i n front o f i t . T h u s , t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s
c o m p r i s e s b o t h , g e tt i n g a c l e a r k n o w l e d g e a b o u t a n y g i v e no b j e c t a n d r e f l e c t i n g that e x p e r i e n c e t o t h e o n e w h o e x p e r i e n c e s
t h e o b j e c t . N o w , i s t h i s v a s t o r l i m i t l es s e m p t i n e s s t h e t r u e
3 2 . T h e X I V D a l a i L a m a , U n i v e r s a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d t h e G o o d H e a r t ,
o p . c i t . , p p . 53ff.
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124 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
nature of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ? No. B e c a u s e wh at h as been s a i d
s o far was an a n a l y s i s of the fu nc t i on of c o n s c i o u s n e s s only
w h en it is related to a co nc ret e exper ien ce. T h i s , therefore,i s an understanding of the relat ive nature of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
T h e r e are mor e levels and a s p e c t s to be taken into ac c o u n t ,
h o w e v e r .
If yo u take al l the attr ib utes and a s p e c t s of c o n s c i o u s
n e s s you come from level to level , from mo de to m od e. Al l
c o m p o s e d th ing s, ho wever, are im permanent . S i n c e c o n s
c i o u s n e s s has l e v e l s , mo des etc. it is c o mp o s ed , therefor e
impermanent . T h i s im per man enc e is on e of the a s p e c t s of
i t s nature.
C o n s c i o u s n e s s depen ds on fac tors l i ke any th ing co m po s ed.
O n l y on the sup erf ic ial level it appears as a s el f -exis t i ng
entity. Bu t i t is a l s o not a mere design at ion, as s h o w n abo ve.
A n y moment of c o n s c i o u s n e s s is depending on a former
moment of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Bu t mo re, it is a l s o depend ing
on the con di t io ns for i ts ar is in g, as expla ined by Candrak i r t i .
T o be not ind ependentl y exis t i ng , therefore, is the true natur e
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , it is th e ul ti mate natu re of th e sel f.
S o yo u have tw o l e v e l s : th e ult i mate natur e of c o n s
c i o u s n e s s and the kn ow led ge of thi s ul t imate nature of c o n s
c i o u s n e s s . Th e f irst on e is th e b a s i s , and the s e c o n d itsattr ibute. C o n s c i o u s n e s s or s e l f is the b a s i s - being not i nd e
pendent ly ex is t ing - , and al l pos s ib le mod es of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a r e i ts attr ibutes. Bu t b a s i s and att r ib utes are of o n e an d
the same nature: C o n s c i o u s n e s s wh ic h is not inherent ly
e x i s t i n g and its nature, emp ti nes s wi th regard to i nh erent
e x i s t e n c e , are one and the s a m e . Empt in ess penetrates every
th in g as i ts tru e natu re.
If w e regard c o n s c i o u s n e s s as su bj ect and the f inal n atur e
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s as i ts obj ect w e ca n co mp reh end t he ul t imate
nature of c o n s c i o u s n e s s properly. T h i s is thedi rect exp er i enc e of
e m p t i n e s s as d i rect and n on -du al exper ience of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
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A S P E C T S O F S Ü N Y A T Ä A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 1 2 5
T h e r e s u l t i s that g r e e d , h a t r e d a n d a ll o t h e r k lesas a r e
e r a d i c a t e d , b e c a u s e t h e y d e p e n d o n t h e d u a l i t y o f g r a s p e r
a n d g r a s p e d .
Fo r C a n d r a k i r t i ,3 3 a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y i n P r ä s a n g i k a - M ä d
h y a m i k a , n o n - d u a l i t y m e a n s prajiia w h i c h i s f r ee from b o t h t h e
e x t r e m e s o f t h e v i e w o f p e r m a n e n c e a n d t h e v i e w o f a n n i
h i l a t i o n . T h u s , i t i s a n o t h e r w o r d fo r t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l
p r i n c i p l e o f m ädh y am ik a a n d n o t a n o n t o l o g i c a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f r e al i t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e d u a l i t y
o f m a t t e r a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s i s p r e c i s e l y t h e b a s i c
p o i n t o f d i f f er e n c e b e t w e e n P r äs a n g i k a a n d Y o g ä c ä r a - S v ä t a n t -
r i k a - M ä d h y a m i k a b u t m a i n l y b e t w e e n P r äs a n g i k a a n d Y o g ä c ä r a /
C i t t a m ä t r a .
b ) Yogäcära
With r eg a r d t o t h e L a n k ä v a t ä r a - S ü t r a D .T . S u z u k i
3 4
h a so b s e r v e d that t h r e e t e r m s r e f er t o t h e s a m e r ea l i t y o f t h e d e e p e s t
l e v e l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s from d i f f er e n t a n g l e s a n d o n d i f f e r e n t
h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d : 1. c i t ta , w h i c h from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g
o f B u d d h i s t h i s t o r y o f t h o u g h t w a s r e la te d t o t h e t h e o r y o f
p e r c e p t i o n a n d f u n c t i o n s o f th e m i n d , 2 . ä layavi jnäna, w h i c h i s
t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e p s y c h o l o g i c a l term i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
w / w ä f / r a - t r a d i t i o n , 3 . ta thagata-garbha, w h i c h i s a r e l i g i o u s term
r e f er r i n g t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l i b e r a t io n f o r e v e r y b o d y .
Citta i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e r ef e r s t o a l l p o s s i b l e m e n t a l p r o
c e s s e s , b u t in a s p e c i f i c s e n s e i t i s d i f f e r e n t from manas a n d t h e
v i jnänas o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s e n s e s . T h e y s i g n i f y s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n s ,
w h e r e a s citta i s t h e " p r i n c i p l e o f u n i f i c a t i o n b y w h i c h a l l t h e
a c t i v i t i e s a re u n d e r s t o o d a s i s s u i n g from o n e c e n t r e " . 3 5
Manas,
3 3 . C a n d r a k i r t i , S u p p l e m e n t t o N ä g ä n u n a ' s T r e a t i s e o n t h e M idd le W a y ,
q u o t e d a c c . t o W i l s o n , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 f . n o t e 5 .
3 4 . D . T . S u z u k i , S t u d i e s i n t h e L a f i k ä v a t ä r a S ü t r a , R o u t l e d g e ( L o n d o n ) ,
1 9 3 0 , p . 2 5 4 .
3 5 . S u z u k i , o p . c i t . , p . 2 4 8 .
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1 2 6 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
h o w e v e r , d e v e l o p s w i t h i n t h e c i t ta , a n d it h a s t w o f u n c t i o n s ,
( a ) i t r e f l e c t s manyati) o n citta a n d ( b ) m a k e s citta s e e i t s e l f
a s o b j e c t i y id iya te) . D u r i n g t h i s p r o c e s s o f d i f fe r en t i at i o n w i t h i n
t h e o n e citta t h e k a r m i c s e e d s {b i ja), s t o r e d u p n o w h e r e e l s e
t h a n i n t h e citta ( a n d in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n u s u a l l y c a l l e d
älayavi jnäna), g e t a c t u a l i z e d . T h e L a n k ä v a t ä r s S ü t r a p u t s i t t h i s
w a y : c i t tena c iya te karma..., K a r m a i s a c c u m u l a t e d b y
c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d s t r u c t u r a l i z e d b y t h e a n a l y t i c a l f u n c t i o n o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s - j i iänena ca v idh iya te .36 T h e r e s u l t i s that citta
g e t s " e n v e l o p e d " b y t h e c l o u d o f v c 7s a/? f7-f o rm a ti on s w h i c hS u z u k i c a l l s v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e ly " h a b i t e n e r g i e s " .
In e ar l y B u d d h i s m t h e s e ca i t tas o r ce tas ikas w e r e r e al ly
d i s t i n c t r e al i t i es b e s i d e s t h e c o n t e n t l e s s c i t ta . In Y o g ä c ä r a t h e y
a r e j u s t p h a s e s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h e x p l i c a
t e s t h e i m p l i c a t e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e o n e c i t t a . T h e r e f o r e , i n e ar l y
B u d d h i s m o n e m o m e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f
citta a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g ca i t tas , w h e r e a s in Y o g ä c ä r a o n e
m o m e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s o n l y o n e p h a s e o f th e citta t h o u g h
d i f f er e n t ia t in g d i f fe r en t a s p e c t s o f i ts o w n . 3 7
T h e r e a r e a v i e w b e a u t i f u l p a s s a g e s i n t h e L a n k ä v a t ä r a , a n d
I q u o t e a c c o r d i n g t o S u z u k i ( p . 2 5 6 f . ) : " T h e C i t ta i s i n i ts o r i g i
n a l n a t u r e l p u r e , b u t t h e M a n a s a n d o t h e r s a re n o t a n d b y
t h e m v a r i o u s k a r m a s a r e a c c u m u l a t e d , a n d a s t h e r e s u l t t h e r e
a r e t w o s o r t s o f i m p u r i t i e s " . ( 7 5 4 ) " O n a c c o u n t o f e x t er n a l d e f i l e
m e n t s from t h e b e g i n n i n g l e s s p a s t th e p u r e s e l f i s c o n t a m i n a t e d :
i t i s l ik e a s o i l e d g a r m e n t w h i c h c a n b e c l e a n s e d " . ( 7 5 5 ) " A s
a n u n i n t e l l ig e n t m a n s e e k s fo r t h e a b o d e o f s w e e t s o u n d in t h e
b o d y o f t h e l u t e, c o n c h - s h e l l , o r k e t t l e -d r u m , s o d o e s h e
l o o k f o r a s o u l w i t h i n t h e S k a n d h a s " . ( 7 5 7 ) T h i s p a s s a g e
m a k e s it q u i t e c l e a r that t h e p u r e citta i s n o t t o b e m i s u n d e r s t o o d a s a k i n d o f s e l f o r s u b s t a n c e o r i n d i v i d u a l r ea li ty bes ides
a n y t h i n g e l s e .
3 6 . L a n k ä v a t ä r a S ü t r a , 1 5 8 - 3 , q u o t e d a c c . t o S u z u k i , o p . c i t . , p . 4 0 1 .
3 7 . A . K . C h a t t e r j e e , o p , c i t . , p . 1 1 3 .
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 1 2 7
T h e c i t ta n o w b e c o m e s o b s c u r e . H e n c e , t h e c i t t a i s f u ll o f
p h e n o m e n a a n d e x p e r i e n c e o f p a s t k a r m i c e v e n t s , a n d a l l w h a t
i s a p o s s i b l e p h e n o m e n o n o f e x p e r i e n c e i s n o w h e r e e l s e t h a n i n
t h i s c i t t a , i n f a c t , i t i s c i t t a . E v e n t h e dh ä t u s d o n o t e x i s t a p a r t
f r o m i t i.e. t h e y a r e e m p t y o f i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e , a s t h e L a t i k ä v a -
t är a e x p l i c i t e l y m e n t i o n s i n S a g ä t h a k a m 2 0 . C i t t a m ä t r a t h e r e f o r e
m e a n s t h e g r o u n d o f a l l d i f f er e n t ia t io n w h i c h i s b e y o n d p h e n o
m e n a l r e a l i t y , a n d t h a t i s w h y c i t t am h i sa rvam, a s S a g ä t h a k a m
1 3 4 h a s i t . B u t w h e n t h i s g r o u n d (c i t ta) e v o l v e s (pravartate),
a l l f o r m s c o m e i n to ( d e p e n d e n t ) b e i n g .
T h u s , w h a t i s s t a t ed h er e i s a r a d i c a l o n t o l o g i c a l n o n - d u a
l i s m . A l l f o r m s , e n e r g i e s , f o r m a t i v e e n e r g i e s , s u b t l e r e a l i t ie s
o r g r o s s m a t t er i s n o t h i n g b u t e x p l i c a t i o n o f a n i m p l i c a t e
p o t e n t i a l i t y .
T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s p o s s i b l e o n l y o n t h e b a s i s o f sünya tä
w h i c h c a n u n i f y a l l d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s a n d l e v e l s o f r e a l i tyb e c a u s e i t a l l o w s f o r t h e ir m u t u a l i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n . T h i s , i n
t u r n , i s n o t j u s t a n o n t o l o g i c a l o r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d e v i c e , b u t a
s o t e r i o l o g i c a l in s t r u m e n t in o r d e r t o b r i d g e n o t o n l y t h e d i f fe r en t
w o r l d s o f samsära a n d n i rvana, b u t t h e d e f i l e d a n d u n d e f i l e d
c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 3 8 T h i s , a g a i n , i s t h e g r e a t i n s i g h t in M a h ä y a n a
u n d e r l y i n g a l l s c h o o l s .
T h e m u c h d i s p u t e d ä layav i jnäna i s n o " s e l f " i n t h e s e n s eo f a n i n h e r e n t l y e x i s t i n g e n t i ty a t a l l . It i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s g r o u n d
3 8 . G a r m a C . C C h a n g p u t s i t v e r y w e l l : " I t i s b e c a u s e o f S ü n y a t ä t h a t t h e
m e r g i n g o r d i s s o l v i n g o f a l l d u a l i t i e s i s m a d e p o s s i b l e . T h i s w e h a v e
s e e n i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e N o t - T w o D h a r m a P r i n c i p l e ( o r t h e D h a r m a -
g a t e o f n o n - d u a l i t y ) m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e i n t h e V i m a l a k i r t i S ü t r a .
W i t h o u t S ü n y a t ä , t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f S a m S ä r a a n d N i r v a n a , t h e m e r g i n g
o f t h e f i n i t e a n d i n f i n i t y , a n d t h e i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n a n d m u t u a l c o n t a i n m e n t o f a l l b e i n g s o n a i l l e v e l s w o u l d n o t b e p o s s i b l e . . . w i t h o u t t h e
r e a l i z a t i o n o f E m p t i n e s s , t h e i n f i n i t e c o m p a s s i o n a n d a l t r u i s t i c d e e d s o f
a B o d h i s a t t v a a r e n o t p o s s i b l e . . . T h e w a y t o B u d d h a h o o d i s t o d o a l l
g o o d d e e d s w i t h a s p i r i t i m b u e d w i t h T h o r o u g h E m p t i n e s s , f r e e f r o m a l l
a t t a c h m e n t " . ( T h e B u d d h i s t T e a c h i n g o f T o t a l i t y , A l l e n & U n w i n
( L o n d o n ) , 1 9 7 2 , p . 1 1 6 f ) .
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1 2 8 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
o f p o t e n t i a l i t y , d e p e n d i n g o n e v e r y t h i n g e l s e . It i s o n e o f t h e
v i jnanas, t h o u g h t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l o n e in s o f ar a s it s t o r e s
a l l t h e k a r m i c i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e p a s t . It f o r m s , a s it w e r e , t h e
m a t r ix f o r t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f a l l t h e o t h e r p r o c e s s e s o f c o n
s c i o u s n e s s . B u t i n t h e L a n k ä v a t ä r a i t i s i d e n t i f i e d with t h e
Tathögata-garbha a s t h e o r i g i n a l a n d p u r e n a t u r e , t h e s u c h n e s s
o f r ea l i ty d o r m a n t in e v e r y b e i n g . N o w o n d e r that M a h ä m a t i
g o t c o n f u s e d an d a s k e d t h e B u d d h a w h e t h e r t h i s i s n o t a
p e r m a n e n t s e l f , v e r y m u c h l ik e t h e ä tman. A n d h e r e i s t h e
B u d d h a ' s a n s w e r : " 0 M a h ä m a t i , t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e ä tman b y
t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s i s n o t t h e s a m e a s m y t e a c h i n g o f t h e ta thä-
gata-garbha. F o r w h a t t h e T a t h ä g a t a s t e a c h i s e m p t i n e s s
(hlnyatä), limit o f r e a l i t y (bhütakot i ) , N i r v a n a , n o - b i r t h , n o -
a p p e a r a n c e , n o - d e s i r e apranihita), a n d s u c h o t h e r c o n c e p t i o n s ,
with w h i c h t h e ta thägata-garbha i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d , a n d b y w h i c h
t h e i g n o r a n t a r e s a v e d from t h e o c c a s i o n o f c h e r i s h i n g a s e n s e
o f fe ar a b o u t t h e B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g o f n o n - e g o . . . " .3 9
T h e v i jnanas d e p e n d o n t h e ä layavi jnäna, a n d t h e y i n
t u r n m i s t a k e p h e n o m e n a f o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y e x i s t i n g " t h i n g s ' '
i n s t e a d o f r e a l i z i n g that t h e y a l l a re p r o j e c t i o n s o f d i f f er e n t
l e v e l s o f c i t t a . B u t w h e n a l l t h e k a r m i c s e e d s i n t h e ä laya
a r e s t i l l ed a n d e r a d i c a t e d , e m p t i n e s s a p p e a r s . In o t h e r w o r d s :
n o n - d u a l i t y a r i s e s a s s o o n a s t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g f a c t o r s w i t h i nc i t t a d i s a p p e a r .
T h i s i s a n e x t r e m e l y b r i e f attempt t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e
n a t u r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s in Y o g ä c ä r a t h o u g h t , a l l s u b t l e t i e s
b e i n g n e g l e c t e d h e r e . I d o u b t that i t is u s e f u l t o c a l l c i t tamätra
a form o f i d e a l i s m , a s S u z u k i d o e s . W h y ? F i r s t b e c a u s e o f
t h e h i s t o r y o f Y o g ä c ä r a t h o u g h t . It i s r a th e r w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d ,that V a s u b a n d h u in h i s T r i m s a t ik ä d o e s n o t s p e a k a b o u t a
c o s m i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b u t ab o u t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h i n g s
i n a n i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i .e . i n t h e i r s u b j e c t i v i t y {ä tman)
3 9 . L a n k ä v a t ä r a S ü t r a , q u o t e d a c c . t o S u z u k i , p . 259f.
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A S P E C T S O F S Ü N Y A T Ä A N D CONSCIOUSNESS 1 2 9
a n d t h e i r o b j e c t i v i t y ( dharma) b o t h o f w h i c h a r e o n l y m e n t a l
c o n s t r u c t s . 4 0 T h o u g h t h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s d i f f e r e n t i n l a t e r
Y o g ä c ä r a , i t i s t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e . B u t
s e c o n d wi th r eg a r d t o f u l l y d e v e l o p e d Y o g ä c ä r a : b e c a u s e
o f t h e e m p t i n e s s o f c i t t a . T h i s i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n Y o g ä c ä r a :
a n i n f in i t e c o n t i n u u m w h i c h h a s t h e p o t e n t ia l o f s e l f - d i f f e r en t i
a t i o n , b u t i n i t s e l f , a t i t s d e e p e s t l e v e l i t i s a b s o l u t e l y q u i e t
a n d n o n - d u a l . A l l w h a t h a p p e n s , h a p p e n s w i t h i n t h i s s e l f -
d i f f e r e n t i at i o n . B u t e v e n t h i s g r o u n d o r d e e p e s t l ev e l i s " n o
t h i n g " , i t i s e m p t y o f i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e , p u r e p r o c e s s , o n ec o u l d s a y .
W h a t m a t te r s i s n o t t o h o l d a v i e w o f s e l f o r n o - s e l f .
E v e n a " v i e w o f n o - s e l f " c a n b e c o m e a f i x ed n o t i o n , a s u b s t
a n t i a l i ze d m e n t a l p h e n o m e n o n , a n d t h u s t u rn i n t o w h a t M a h ä y
a n a c a l l s " i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e " o r s e l f ! E m p t i n e s s a l s o m u s t
b e e m p t i e d . W h a t r e m a i n s i s t h e c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f e m p t y i n g .
T h i s i s t h e n a t u r e o r b e t t e r t h e a d v e n t u r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
i t s f i n a l g r o u n d w h i c h i s n o - g r o u n d , o f c o u r s e .
4 . C o n c l u s i o n
I w i l l n o t t r y a s y n t h e s i s h e r e , m u c h l e s s a c r i t i c a l
e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n h o w t o p r o c e e d u n d e r a c r o s s -
c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e . I j u s t w o u l d l ik e t o s u m m a r i z e a f e w
b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n s w h i c h a re e s s e n t i a l f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f sünya tä i n M a h ä y ä n a - B u d d h i s m
w i t h o u t i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e b a s i c d i f f e r en c e b e t w e e n P r ä s a n g i k a -
M ä d h y a m i k a a n d Y o g ä c ä r a c o n c e r n i n g t h e s u b t l e d u a l i s m
( o f m i n d a n d matter) o f t h e f i r s t o n e a n d t h e r a d i c a l n o n -
d u a l citta m ä t ra-doc t r ine o f t h e s e c o n d o n e . M y attempt i s
t o s h o w t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e w h o l e d i s c u s s i o n f o r o u r
m e n t a l t r a i n i n g o n t h e b a s i s o f a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i f f er e n t
l e v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s p r e s e n t e d i n M a h ä y a n a .
4 0 . C p . t h e e x c e l l e n t s t u d y o f T r i m s a t i k ä b y T h . A . K o c h u m u t t o m i n h i s : A
B u d d h i s t D o c t r i n e o f E x p e r i e n c e , Mot i la l B a n a r s i d a s s ( D e l h i ) , 1 9 8 2 /
e s p . p p . 170ff.
9
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13 S E L F A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S
1. Th e cor e of al l B ud dh i st ph i l o so p hy is the st udy of
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b e c a u s e it is c o n s c i o u s n e s s wh i ch i s accountab le
for al l act i on s, emot io ns and tho ugh ts w h i c h are to be pur i f iedin order to attain l iberatio n. What ever c o n s c i o u s n e s s is defined
to be, al l ph i l oso phi cal endeavo ur has th i s soter io l ogi cal
mot ivat ion.
2 . C o n s c i o u s n e s s is the fu nd amental real i ty , a beg in ni ng -
l e s s and e n d l e s s con t inuum o f p r o c e s s e s . Bu dd hi sm refers
to th is co nt i nn um both in log ical a n a l y s i s and in di rect
medi tat ive percept ion. C o n s c i o u s n e s s cannot or ig inate f rom
not hin g nor from matter, and therefore its s o u r c e is a for mer
moment of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s is an i mpor tant argu ment
u s e d to estab li sh the rationality of beli ef in rebirt h.
3. So m e Sütras co mp are the gr ou nd of c o n s c i o u s n e s s
(citta) wi th an oc ean and the dif ferent ment al states or
p r o c e s s e s in c o n s c i o u s n e s s (caitta) wi th th e r ip ples on the
s u r f a c e of the o c e a n . In Yog äcär a citta is the on e reality
o r a universal c o n s c i o u s n e s s in w h i c h a l l p r o c e s s e s emerge
a n d , af ter their d i sap pear anc e, leave form at ive t r aces (bija)
for further p r o c e s s e s . E v e n in w h at w e cal l matter thi s c o n s
c i o u s pr i nci ple is latent, and the d evel op men t of thi s c o n s c i o u s
p r i n c i p l e tow ards ful l matur i ty, w h i c h is Bu dd hah oo d, is the
evolut ionary p r o c e s s in Bu dd hi sm . In Präsaf i g i ka-Mädhy amik a,
h o w e v e r , there is al wa ys an extremely su bt le dual i ty of mo st
s u b t l e min d in Tibetan od gsal, th e cl ear l ig ht) and mo st
s u b t l e mat ter , w hi c h is i ts sup por t in g energ y (präna, rlung).
4. The essen t i al nature of c o n s c i o u s n e s s is i ts empt in esswith regard to inherent existence (sünyata), it is pur e pot entiali ty
a s p r o c e s s o f it s o w n luminos i ty and facu l t y o f k no wi ng .
T h e most sub t le level of th is co nt in uu m is und estruc t ib le and
l a s t i n g f rom bir th to bir th, bein g co mp l etel y puri f ied r ight
in to Buddhahood.
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A S P E C T S O F S U N Y A T A A N D C O N S C I O U S N E S S 131
5 . C o n s c i o u s n e s s i s n o t o n l y a s t o r e f o r i n f o r m a t i o n
r e s u l t i n g from k a r m i c p r o c e s s e s , b u t it i s t h e a c t i v e p r o c e s s
o f k n o w i n g . H e r e , o n e d i f f er e n t ia t es b e t w e e n a t t en t i v e n e s s( b u ddh i ) a n d k n o w l e d g e /nana). O n l y b y i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d
p u r i f i c a t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a t t en t i v e n e s s c a n b e c o m e s o
u n d i v i d ed a n d k n o w l e d g e s o c l ea r that t h e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s c a n b e p e r c e i v e d d i r e c t l y . T h e p u r i f i c a t i o n
is e s s e n t i a l l y a n e r a d i c a t i o n o f t h e k lesas w h i c h p r o d u c e
k a r m i c d e f i l m e n t s o f w h i c h t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l o n e i s t h e
f a l s e n o t i o n o f a s u b s t a n t i a l s e l f a s a n entity o f i t s o w n(svabhava) . T h i s " s e l f " t r i es t o e s t a b l i s h i t s w r o n g i d en t i t y
b y a l l s o r t s o f c l i n g i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e i n t e n s i f i e s t h e i l lu s i o n
o f i ts e x i s t e n c e b y f u r t h e r i l l u s i o n , g r e e d a n d h a t r e d . W h a t
i s t h e p r o b l e m o f b e i n g s , t h e r e f o r e , i s t h e w r o n g p e r c e p t i o n
o f a n a b s o l u t e n e s s o f d i f f e r en t i a t e d o r i n d i v i d u a t e d r ea l i ty .
6 . W h a t i s p e r c e i v e d i n t h e d i r e c t p e r c e p t i o n o f c o n s
c i o u s n e s s b y a p u r i f i e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s ? T h e u l t im a t e e m p t i n e s s
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s p e r c e i v e d , i .e . t h e m o s t s u b t l e l e v e l o f
t h e c o n t i n u u m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h h a s n o l im i t in g
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w h a t s o e v e r . I t i s n o s u b s t a n c e , b u t p u r e l ig h t
b e y o n d a n y c o n c e p t u a l p e r c e p t i o n a n d d u a l i t y . It h a s n o
b e g i n n i n g a n d n o e n d . It i s a l w a y s p r e s e n t i n a l l b e i n g s .
It i s t h e i r u l t i m a t e n a t u r e .
7 . F r o m a t h e i s t i c p o i n t o f v i e w t h e B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d e m p t i n e s s a l l o w s a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e
v i e w o f t h e p e r s o n . W h a t l at er w a s d e v e l o p e d b y E a s t -
A s i a n B u d d h i s m wi th i ts d o c t r i n e o f m u t u a l i n t e r p e n e t ra t io n
o f i a l l p h e n o m e n a ( b a s e d o n t h e A v a t a m s a k a -S ü t r a ) h a s
r e l e v a n c e t o d a y f o r a u n i f i ed w o r l d - v i e w . T h e b a s i c q u e s t i o n
i s n o t s e l f o r n o - s e l f , b u t o n a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e l e v e l :f r a g m e n t a t i o n o r u n i t y o f r e al i t y .