BRM Complete Syllabus

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IBusiness Research Methods

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

What is Research? BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IResearch is an art of scientific investigation.It is regarded as a systematic efforts to gain new knowledge.The dictionary meaning of research is a careful investigation or enquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.


Definition of ResearchResearch comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.-Clifford WoodyBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Nature of ResearchBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IIt strives to be objective and logical.It is based on observable experience or empirical evidence.It is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.It demands accurate observations, reservations and descriptions.


ContdBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IIt is directed towards the solution of the problem.It is carefully recorded and reported.It requires expertise.It involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources or using existing data for new purpose.


Objectives of Research

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - ITo investigate a subject.To collect data regarding the problem.To conduct logical and objective study.To conduct a systematic enquiry of the subject.For carefully recording, reporting and presenting the facts.


BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - ITypes of ResearchFundamental ResearchEmpirical Research

Analytical Research

Qualitative Research

Conceptual ResearchApplied ResearchDescriptive ResearchQuantitative ResearchHistorical Research


Descriptive Research

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IDescriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect.


Historical ResearchThe purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, logs, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Applied ResearchApplied research is designed to solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledges sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It focus on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is generally conducted on large scale basis, it is expensive. As such, it often conducted with the support of some financing agency like government , public corporation , world bank, UNICEF, UGC,Etc,. According to hunt, applied research is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems for example:- improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific disease, improve the energy efficiency homes, offices, how can communication among workers in large companies be improved? BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Applied ResearchApplied research can be further classified as problem oriented and problem solving research. Problem oriented research:- research is done by industry apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the companies. Eg:- WTO does problem oriented research for developing countries, in india agriculture and processed food export development authority (APEDA) conduct regular research for the benefit of agri-industry. Problem solving:-this type of research is done by an individual company for the problem faced by it. Marketing research and market research are the applied research. For eg:- videocon international conducts research to study customer satisfaction level, it will be problem solving research. In short, the main aim of applied research is to discover some solution for some pressing practical problem.



Conceptual ResearchConceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Quantitative ResearchQuantitative research aim to measure the quantity or amount and compares it with past records and tries to project for future period. In social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of qualitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Qualitative ResearchQualitative research is collecting, analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and description of things. Qualitative research is much more subjective and uses very different methods of collecting information, mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open ended.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Qualitative ResearchQualitative research can be further classified in the following type. I. Phenomenology:-a form of research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. E.g.:-we might interview 20 victims of Bhopal tragedy. II. Ethnography:- this type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. E.g.:-the researcher might decide to go and live with the tribal in Andaman island and study the culture and the educational practices. III. Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account of one or more cases



Analytical ResearchIn analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.



Empirical ResearchEmpirical researchis a way of gainingknowledgeby means of direct and indirectobservationor experience. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively. Through quantifying the evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected (usually called data).BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Fundamental ResearchThe research which is done for knowledge enhancement, the research which does not have immediate commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure, fundamental research. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. Basic research lay down the foundation for the applied research. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Significance of ResearchIt provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.It helps in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry.It is an aid to decision making.It establishes the relation between variables.



ContdBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IIt is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.It provides a basis for innovation.It facilitates the process of thinking, analysis, evaluation and interpretation of various situation.


Limitations of ResearchBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IIt is based on sample & sampling research lacks the complete accuracy.Long time is required in the research procedures.Difficult to evaluate the economic benefits derived from the research.Trained personnel and a lot of time are required for research.Lack of adequate knowledge of research.


Approaches of Research MethodsBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IThere are two types of approachesScientific methodNon Scientific Method


Scientific Method: DefinitionBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IScientific research refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge or correcting and integrating previous knowledge consist of collection of data through observation and experimentation and formulation and testing of hypothesis.


Non Scientific Method: DefinitionBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - INon scientific research is investigating about human society and of individual relationships in and to society. It consist of data through observation and presume relations among natural phenomena.


Non Scientific MethodFreud used many non scientific methods in his research; this includes his theory of consciousness and his dream theory. Freud thought that dreams were representative of unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. We dont consciously express these thoughts but Freud suggested that they find their way into our awareness via dreams. The problem with this theory is that dreams can not be scientifically measured and some people would argue that this makes the method less valid.The non scientific method does not works on empirical evidences which means it relies on argument or beliefs. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


DifferenceBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IScientific research is a systematic way of analyzing and interpreting new or existing material through experimentation and observation. Non scientific research is based upon investigation of natural phenomenon without systematic means of investigation.


Scientific Method:BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Other way of explanationBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Why Scientific Method is requiredBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IThis can be understood by the errors committed by the experts in drawing the results.


Errors of experts who did not follow the Scientific MethodBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I"Computers in the future may weigh no more than 1.5 tons." Popular Mechanics, forecasting the relentless march of science, 1949"I think there is a world market for may be five computers." Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM, 1943"Airplanes are interesting toys but of no military value. Marechal Ferdinand Foch, Professor of Strategy, Ecole Superieure de Guerre.


BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I"Louis Pasteur's theory of germs is ridiculous fiction". Pierre Pachet, Professor of Physiology at Toulouse, 1872"Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible. Lord Kelvin, president, Royal Society, 1895.


Steps of Scientific ResearchBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IFormulate Research question / ProblemBackground / ObservationFormulate HypothesisDesign ExperimentTest Hypothesis/ Collect DataInterpret/Analyse ResultsPublish Findings


Formulate Research question / ProblemBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IThe most important step in researchOften comes from the thought: The research question defines the area of interest but it is not a declarative statement like a hypothesis.Research question must be capable of being confirmed or disprove.The study must be feasible.


Background / ObservationBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IHow has the work been done previously?What similar work has been leading up to this point?Study state of the art (literature review, projects, informal discussions, etc).Optional realization of preliminary experiments.What distinguishes previous work from what you want to do?Who / What will be impacted by this research?


Formulate hypothesisBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IA scientific hypothesis states the predicted (educated guess) relationship amongst variables.Serve to bring clarity, specificity and focus to a research problem ... But are not essential ... You can conduct valid research without constructing a hypothesis... On the other hand you can construct as many hypothesis as appropriateStated in declarative form. Brief and up to the point.A possible format (formalized):If ...... then .... (because ....)


Characteristic of a HypothesisBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IShould be simple, specific and conceptually clear.... ambiguity would make verification almost impossible.Should be capable of verification.... i.e. There are methods and techniques for data collection and analysis.Should be related to the existing body of knowledge.... i.e. Able to add to the existing knowledge.Should be operationalisable ... i.e. Expressed in terms that can be measured.


Hypothesis Independent and Dependent VariableBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IThe hypothesis shall contain two types of variables:Independent Variable(s) and Dependent Variable(s)Independent Variable - the one the researcher controls. It is what you, the researcher, change to cause a certain effect.Dependent Variable - the one you measure or observe. Its the effect of the researchers change.If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light, then people with a high exposure to UV light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer.Skin cancer is dependent and UV Light is independentIf temperature affects leaf color change, then exposing the plant to low temperatures will result in changes in leaf color. Temperature is Independent and Leaf color change is dependent


Design ExperimentBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IIncludes planning in detail all the steps of the experimental phase.Identify the variables that will be manipulated and measured the research outcomes must be measurable.


Hypothesis Test and Data CollectBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - ICollection of the data on the basis of formulation of a questionnaireQuestionnaire formulation is done on objectives consdered and hypothesis formulationCollection of Data on the basis of sampling unit, sample size and sample design.Test the formulated hypothesis through different statistical techniques


Interpret / Analyze resultsBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IWhat did your experiment show?Qualitative data analysis.Quantitative data analysis.Descriptive and inferential statistics, clustering, ...What might weaken your confidence in the results (critical spirit)?Discussion regardingLiteratureResearch objectivesResearch questions.Consider next stepsRecommendations for further research.


Publish findingsBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - IA research result is not a contribution to the field if no one knows about it or can use it !Write scientific papers, make presentationsIntermediate results ConferencesCollect feedbackConsolidated resultsJournalsBe careful in selecting where you publish !


Flow Chart of Research ProcessBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Define Research Problem

Review of theLiteratureFormulate HypothesisDesign ResearchCollection of DataAnalyze the Data

Interpret & Report


Ethics in Business ResearchThere are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, normspromote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote thevalues that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that various codes addressHonestyObjectivityIntegrityCarefulnessOpennessRespect for Intellectual PropertyConfidentialityResponsible PublicationResponsible MonitoringRespect for ColleagueSocial ResponsibilityNon DiscriminationCompetenceAnimal CareLegalityHuman Subject protection



Unit II (The Research Problem and Design)Formulation and Definition of Business Research Problem;Formulation of Research Hypotheses, Business Research Design Meaning and Formulation; Research Design Classification Exploratory Research Design (Secondary Data & Qualitative Research), Descriptive Research Design (Survey & Observation) Causal Research Design (Experimentation); Potential Sources of Errors in Research



Definition of Business Research ProblemDefining your destination before beginning a journey. It determines, what you will do, will it withstand scientific scrutiny, how you will do it, and what you may achieve!

It is a broad statement of the general problem and identification of the specific components of the research problem.



Importance of Research ProblemDefined research problem can help in making research design.The real part of the problem can be addressedIt helps in using the time, effort and money in the right directionUndefined problem is the reason for failure of resultsIt enhances the usefulness of the research



The process of defining the problemBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Discussion with Decision MakersProblem Audit is required before discussion with decision makers.It is a comprehensive examination of a research problem to understand its origin and nature.It will help out the decision maker before expressing their view point.Researcher while expressing problem audit should tell causes not the symptoms.Discussion requires 7 c approach:Communication, cooperation, confidence, candor (openness), closeness, continuity, creativity.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Interview with expertsExperts are found inside and out side of the organisation.Unstructured way of interviewing should be followed.but mere list of topics for interview should be prepared.A researcher may face two type of difficulties.An expert who says knowledgeable may not posses knowledge.It may be difficult to get the knowledge from out side expert.The expert may not provide the right information.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Secondary Data AnalysisFrom books, journals, news papers, studies conducted earlier, The secondary data is an essential process in informing the socio economic background. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Environmental Context of the ProblemBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Management Decision Problems and Marketing Research ProblemsThe Management decision problems asks what the DM needs to doThe marketing research problem asks what information is needed and how it can best be obtained.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Distinction between management decision problems and marketing research problemsBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Components of the ApproachObjectives: Unbiased evidence that is supported by empirical findingsTheory: A conceptual scheme based on foundation statements or saying that are assumed to be true.Analytical model: An explicit specification of a set of variables and their interrelationships designed to represent some real system or process in whole or in part.Verbal models: analytical models that provide the written statement of the relationship between the variables.Graphical models: analytical model that provide the graphical representation between the variables.Mathematical Models: Analytical model that describes the relationship between the variables mathematically. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Formulation of HypothesisHypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches assumed for use in devising theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible. (Eric Rogers, 1966)A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables. (Kerlinger, 1956)Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an independent and dependent variables. A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked in the form of a question.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


It is a tentative prediction about the nature of the relationship between two or more variables.

It is a tentative explanation of the research problem, a possible outcome of the research or an educated guess about the research outcome.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Nature of HypothesisIt is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated.It should be specified before the conduct of the research.Should be able to address the objectivesShould be able to address the key abstract concepts involved in the researchIt should be able to address the key problem and the literature reviewA problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to hypothesisIt can be tested (verified and falsify)



They are not the moral and ethical questionsIt is neither too specific nor to generalIt is the prediction of consequencesIt is considered valuable even after proving it false.



Types of HypothesisBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


ExampleBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Facts of HypothesisBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Generation of Research HypothesisBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Consider the example of a simple association between two variables, Y and X.1. Y and X are associated (or, there is an association between Y and X).

The hypothesis provides a simple statement of association between Y and X. Nothing is indicated about the association that would allow the researcher to determine which variable, Y or X, would tend to cause the other variable to change in value.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


2. Y is related to X (or, Y is dependent on X).

The second hypothesis is also a simple statement of association between Y and X, but this time it may be inferred that values of Y are in some way contingent upon the condition of the X variable.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


3. As X increases, Y decreases (or, increases in values of X appear to effect reduction in values of Y).

The third hypothesis is the most specific of the three. Not only does it say that Y and X are related and that Y is dependent on X for its value, but it also reveals something more about the nature of the association between the two variables.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Qualitative ResearchAn Unstructured exploratory research methodology based on small samples intended to provide insights and understanding of the problem setting.Pilot survey may also be helpful.



How is a research problem selected?Researchers interest in a topicNational or agency prioritiesUrgency of an issueAvailability of research fundsAvailability of supervision



Problem Tree Keep asking Why?BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I*Food InsecurityLow Labor ProductivityLow Land ProductivityUnskilled LaborWater ScarcityUnsuitable CropsPoor SoilInefficient IrrigationLack of crop varieties adapted to climateInefficient Water harvestingUnsuitable ClimateFarming Patterns do not Return nutrientsFarmers cant afford fertilizersFarmers unaware of best practices


Business Research DesignMeaning and Formulation:

Aresearch designis a systematic plan to study a scientific problem.

Decision regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning and enquiry or a research study constitute a research design.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

A research design have following partsSampling designObservational DesignStatistical DesignOperational DesignBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Features of a research DesignThe mean of obtaining informationThe availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if anyThe objective of the problem to be studiesThe nature of the problem to be studiedThe availability of time and money for the research work.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Classification of research DesignBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


The names of three types of research design describe their purpose very well. The goal of exploratory research is to discover ideas and insights.Descriptive research is usually concerned with describing a population with respect to important variables.Causal research design is used to establish cause and effect relationships between variables. Experiments are used in causal research design because they are best suited to determine cause and effect.



Exploratory ResearchIts objective is explore or search through problem or situation to provide insights and understanding.Research could be used for any of the following purposesFormulate or define a problem more preciselyIdentify alternative courses of actionDevelop hypothesisIsolate key variables and relationships for further examinationGain insights for developing an approach to the problemEstablish priorities for further researchBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Exploratory research is meaningful in any situation where the researcher does not have enough understanding to proceed with the research project.It is characterized by flexibility and verstality with respect to the methods because formal research protocols and procedures are not employed.It rarely involves the structured questionnaires, large samples and probability sampling plans.Researcher have to be alert to new ideas and insights as they proceed.Once the new idea is pursued until its possibilities are exhausted or another direction is found. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Most popular methods of exploratory researchBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Literature SearchLiterature Review: A search of popular press (newspapers, magazines, etc) trade literature academic literature or published statistics from research firms or governmental agencies for data or insights into the problem at hand.Depth Interview: Interview with people knowledgeable about the general subject being investigated.Focus Group: An interview conducted among a small number of individuals simultaneously, the interview relies more on group discussion than on directed questions to generate data.Case Analysis: Intensively study of selected examples of the phenomenon of interest. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Descriptive Research DesignIt is a type of conclusive research that has as its major objective the description of something usually market, characteristics, or functions.

Descriptive research is conducted for the following reasons:To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, sales people, organizations or market areas.

For ex- we could develop a profile of the heavy users (frequent shoppers) of the prestigious stores like Wal-Mart and BigbazarBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


To estimate the percentage of units in a specified populations exhibiting a certain behaviour

Forex- we might be interested in estimating the percentage of heavy users of prestigious department stores like Wal-Mart and Big-bazar.

To determine the perceptions of product characterstics.

For-ex: how do house-holds perceive the various department stores in terms of salient factors of the choice criteria.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


To make specific predictions.For-ex: what will be retail sales of Neiman Marcus (specific store) for fashion clothing (specific product category) in the Dallas area (specific region)



Features of Descriptive research designA descriptive research is characterized by prior formulations of specific hypothesis.Thus the information needed is clearly definedDescriptive research is preplanned and structuredIt is based on large representative samplesA formal research design specifies the methods for selecting the source of information and for collection of the who, what, when, where, why and way of the research.



Descriptive research in contrast to exploratory research is marked by a clear statement of the problem, specific hypothesis and detailed information needs.Other examples are:Market studiesMarket share studiesSales analysis studiesImage studiesProduct usage studiesDistribution studiesPricing studiesAdvertising studiesBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Descriptive studies involves following methodsData analysisSurveysPanelsObservation and other dataDescriptive research design can be further classified into crss sectional and longitudinal designs.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Causal ResearchCausal research is used to obtain evidence of cause and effect relationships.

These assumptions may not be justified and the validity of the causal relationships should be examined via formal research.

For example the common assumptions that a decrease in price will lead to increased sales and market share does not hold in certain competitive environments.



Causal research is appropriate for the following purposes.To understand which variable are the cause (independent variables) and which variables are the effect (dependent variable) of a phenomenon.

To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be predicted.

Like descriptive research, causal research requires a planned and structural design.



Descriptive research can determine the degree of association between variables, it is not appropriate for examining causal relationship.

Examining causal relationship requires causal design

A relatively controlled environment is one in which the other variables that may affect the dependent variable are controlled or checked as much as possible.The main method of causal research is causal experimentation



For Ex: In the context of the department store patronage project, a researcher wishes to determine whether the presence and helpfulness of sales people (causal variable) will influence the sales of house wares (effect variable).

A causal design could be formulated in which two groups of otherwise comparable housewares departments of a particular chain are selected.

For four weeks, trained sales people are stationed in the one group of housewares departments but not in the other BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Sales are monitored for both groups, while controlling for other variables.

A comparison of sales for the two groups will reveal the effect of sales people on housewares sales in department stores.

Alternatively, instead of selecting two groups of stores, the researcher could select only one set of department stores and carry out this manipulation for two comparable time periods.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Sales people are present in one time period and absent in the other.



Microsoft Experimenting with usabilityBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Relationships among Exploratory, Descriptive and Causal ResearchA given marketing research project may involve more than one type of research design and thus serve several purposes.

Combination of a research design depends on the nature of the problem.

There are following guideline to select the research design.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


When little is known about the problem situation, it is desirable to begin with exploratory research.

It is appropriate when the problem needs to be defined more precisely, alternative course of action identified, research questions or hypotheses developed and key variables isolated and classified as dependent or independent.



Exploratory research is the initial step in the overall research design framework.It should be followed by descriptive or causal research. Hypothesis developed via exploratory research should be statistically tested using descriptive or causal research.It is not necessarily to begin every research design with exploratory research.It depends upon the precision with which the problem has been defined and the researchers degree of certainty about the approach to the problem.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


A descriptive design could well begin with descriptive or causal research.Exploratory research is generally the initial step, it need not to follow descriptive or causal research.



difference between Descriptive and Exploratory ResearchDescriptive research, being quantitative in nature, is restrictive in terms of open ended questions, which can be better answered using exploratory research.

Flexibility of design is offered by exploratory research more than by descriptive research.

Descriptive research is used more to arrive at statistical tools such as mean, average, median and frequency. On the other hand, exploratory research allows the researcher to develop designs that are more qualitative in nature.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


The amount of information known to the researcher at the start of the research plays an important role in deciding upon the type of research. With only vague ideas in the minds of the researcher, it is better to go for exploratory design. On the other hand, more information such as quantitative data allows a researcher to go for descriptive research that leads to unearthing causal relationships.

Exploratory research needs to be conducted first to have a platform that allows for collation of data required in descriptive research.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


How Exploratory and Descriptive Research Work TogetherExploratory research must happen first for descriptive research to be effective. The latter organizes the data and hypotheses found during the exploratory process. Researchers must spend the necessary time in exploratory research before moving on to the descriptive phase.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Potential Source of ErrorA good Research Design control the various sources of error.The total error is the variation between the true mean value in the population of the variable of interest and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project.Random Sampling Error:It occurs because the particular sample selected is an imperfect representation of the population of interest.It is the variation between the true mean value for the population and the true mean value for the original sample.



Non Sampling Errors:It can be attributed to sources other than sampling and they may be random and nonrandom.This type of error occurs due to many reasons. Errors in problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire design, interviewing methods and data preparation and analysis.For ex: designing a poor questionnaire, which contains many questions, that leads the respondents to give biased answers.Non sampling errors consists of non response srrors and response errors.



Non Response Error: arises when some of the respondents included in the sample do not respond.The primary causes of nonresponse are refusals and not at homes.It is defined as variation between the true mean value of the variable in the original sample and the true mean value in the net sample.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Response Error: arises when respondets give inaccurate answers or their answers are misrecorded or misanalyzed.

It is defined as the variation between the true mean value of the variable in the net sample and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project.



Errors made by the researcher includes:Surrogate information error: is defined as the variation between the information needed for the marketing research problem and the information sought by the researcher.

Measurement Error: is defined as the variation between the information sought and the information generated by the measurement process employed by the researcher.

Population Definition error: is defined as the variation between the actual population relevant to the problem at hand and the population as defined by the researcher.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Sampling frame error: is the variation between the population defined and the population implied by the sampling frame.Data Analysis Error: It occurs when the raw data from the questionnaires are transformed into research findings.Respondent Selection Error: It occurs when interviewers select respondents other than those specified by the sampling design or in a manner inconsistent with the sampling design.Recording Error: It arises due to hearing, interpretation and recording the answers given by the respondents.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Cheating Error: it occurs when the interviewer fabricates answers to a part or all the interview.Inability Errors: it occurs from the respondents inability to provide accurate answers. Unwillingness Error: arises from the respondents unwillingness to provide accurate information.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Sampling Design and Measurement TechniquesThe Sampling Design Process; Types of Sample Design Probability and Non-probability Sampling Designs; Size of Sample; Sampling Errors; Concept of Measurement and Scaling; Important Scaling Techniques Comparative and Non-comparative; Reliability and Validity of Measurement.



Sampling OverviewIt is one of the component of research design.Sampling design involves several basic questions:Should a sample be taken?If so what process should be followed?What kind of sample should be taken?How large should it be?What can be done to control and adjust for non response errors?



Example of Sampling Design process BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Should one take sample or censusThe objective of research is to obtain information about the characteristics or parameters of a population.

A population is the aggregate of all the elements that share some common set of characteristics and that comprise the universe for the purposes of the marketing research problem.

Information of the population parameter may be obtained by taking a census.A census involves a complete enumeration of the elements of a population. A population parameter can be calculated directly in a straightforward way after the census is enumerated.

A sample is a sub group of the population selected for participation in the study. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


The Sampling Design ProcessBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Target Population is the collection of elements or objects that possess the information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made.

The target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent and time.

An element is the object about which or from the information is desired.A sampling unit is an element or a unit containing the element that is available for selection at some stage of the sampling process.

Determining the Sampling FrameA sampling frame is a representation of the elements of the target population. It consists of a list or set of direction for identifying the target population.Example: Telephone Book, An Association directory, listing the firms, in an industry, a mailing list, a city directory or a map.If list is not completed than some directions for identifying the target population should be specified. The list may omit some elements of the population or include other elements that do not belong. Therefore the use of the list will lead to sampling frame error. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Some cases the sampling frame error can be ignored but in most cases it should be considered.This can be done through three ways.1. Redefine the population in terms of the sampling frame.If the telephone book is used as a sampling frame, the population of households could be redefined as those with a correct listing in the telephone book in a given area.2. considering sampling frame error by screening the respondents in the data collection phase.3. adjust the data collected by a weighing schemes to counter balance the sampling frame error.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Select a Sampling TechniquesThe researcher has to decide whether to use a Bayesian or traditional sampling approach, to sample with or without replacement, and to use non-probability sampling.In Bayesian Approach, the elements are selected sequentially.After each element is added to the sample, the data are collected, sample statistics computed and sampling costs determined.This approach incorporates prior information about population parameters as well as the costs and probabilities associated with making wrong decisions.This approach is theoretically appealing, but is not used much in marketing due to unavailable information on cost and probabilities.

In traditional Sampling approach, the entire sample is selected before data collection begins. Sampling with replacement, an element is selected from the sampling frame and appropriate data are obtained. Then the element is placed back in the sampling frame. Hence it is possible for an element to be included in the sample more than once.Sampling without replacement, once an element is selected for inclusion in the sample, it is removed from the sampling frame and therefore cannot be selected again.



Sample Size Calculationss=Z2* (p) * (1-p)/c2Orn=Z 2c.l.pq/ E2where: n: Sample SizeZ 2c.l.: Square of the confidence level in standard error unitsp: estimated proportion of successq=(1-p) , or estimated proportion of failuresE2: Square of the maximum allowance for error between the true proportion and the sample proportion For 95% confidence level and 5% confidence interval and estimated proportion of success as 0.5, n=385

Mu ()=0 (Population Mean)Sigma=1 (Population Standard Deviation)This situation is only for standardized normal Distribution CurveAny Normaly Distributed curve can be converted into standardized normal distributed curve by using the formulaZ=x- /SigmaX= is the value one wants to convert is population meanSigma Standard DeviationBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


With the help of z value we can find out how far the value x is from meanIf z is negative the x is below the meanIf z is positive the x is above the meanZ value can also tell us what is the probability of obtaining a particular value x.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Z value is .3554If positive it will lie right side of the mean and negative it will lie on the left side.3554*100= 35.54Probability of any value lying between mean score of 494 and 600 is 35.54%



n=Z 2c.l.pq/ E2In this formula Z is pre defined.For 90% confidence level, Z is = 1.65For 95%, 1.96For 99%, 2.58Higher the confidence level more would be size of sample



P & qP is probability of success and q is probability of failureP+q = 1 (Total Probability of happening and non happening of an event always between 0 and 1)q=1-pVarious possible combination of p & q are


Pqp*q.1.90.09.2.8.16.3.7.21.4.6.24.5.5.25 (Maximum value)


When p and q are known, then the actual values of p & q are taken.When p & q are not known, it is safe to take p=.5 and q=.5 as it will give the largest sample size as the product is maximum. E: confidence interval or margin of error is always expressed as decimal and it is a plus or minus figure.It is the error between the true proportion and the sample proportion.Decision regarding E is taken by the researcher himself.This formula is independent of the population size.

Formula for finite populationBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Classification of Sampling TechniquesBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Non Probability Sampling Selection of different types of Non-probability sampling relies on personal judgment. Non probability samples yield good estimates of the population characteristics.In non probability sampling the probability of any particular member of the population being chosen is unknown.The selection of sampling units in non probability sampling is quite arbitrary, as researcher rely heavily on personal judgment. There are no appropriate statistical techniques for measuring random sampling error from a non probability sample.

The researcher can arbitrarily or consciously decide what elements to include in the sample results.However they do not allow for objective evaluation of the precision of sample results. Convenience, Judgmental Quota and snowball sampling are the main sampling techniques.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Probability SamplingProbability sampling is a sampling procedure that gives every element in the target population a known and nonzero probability of being selected.In probability sampling every element in the population has a known nonzero probability of selection.The simple random sample is the best known probability sample, in which each member of the population has an equal probability of being selected. There are no appropriate statistical techniques for measuring random sampling error from a non-probability sample.



Situation of ErrorsTotal PopulationSampling frame ErrorSampling FrameRandom Sampling ErrorPlanned SampleNon response ErrorRespondents (actual sample)BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Non Probability SamplingConvenience Sampling: is also called as haphazard or accidental sampling.It refers to sampling by obtaining units or people who are most conveniently available.For ex: it is convenient and economical to sample employee in companies in a nearby area.Just before elections television channels often present person on the street interviews that are presumed to reflect public opinion.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Judgment or purposive sampling: is a non probability sampling technique in which an experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her judgment about some appropriate characteristic required of the sample members.The researcher selects a sample to serve a specific purpose, even if this makes a sample less than fully representative. For Ex: A TV researcher wants a quick sample of opinions about a political announcement. They stop what seems like a reasonable cross-section of people in the street to get their views.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Quota Sampling is a non probability sampling procedures that certain characteristic of a population sample will be represented to the exact extent that the investigator desires. The purpose of the QS is to ensure that the various subgroups in a population are represented on pertinent sample characteristics to the exact extent that the investigators desires. For Ex:, an interviewer in a particular city may be assigned 100 interviews, 20 of which are with small business owners, 18 with professionals, 10 with managerial employees, 7 with supervisors, and the rest with hourly employees. Aggregating the various interview quotas yields a sample representing the desired proportions of the subgroup.

Snowball Sampling refers to a variety of procedures in which initial respondents are selected by probability methods and additional respondents are then obtained from information provided by initial respondents. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Probability SamplingSimple Random Sampling assures that each element in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Drawing names from a hat and selecting the wining raffle ticket from a large drum are typical examples of simple random sampling. Systematic Sampling is a procedure in which an initial starting point is selected by a random process and then every nth number on the list is selected. With systematic sampling, every 200th name from the list would be drawn. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Stratified Sampling is a probability sampling procedure in which random subsamples are drawn from within different strata that are more or less equal on some characteristics. This is not used in quota sampling. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Difference between Quota and Stratified SamplingStratified sample = a sample including each sub category of the target population So for example, if your target population is Banaras Hindu University students, each sub category would include each University degree; English students, Law students, Psychology students, Engineering students, Mathematics students etc. Quota sample = a sample including a pre determined % of each sub category of the target population So for example, if your target population is Banaras Hindu University students, each sub category would have an assigned required %; 10% of English students, 20% of Law students, 5% of Psychology students, 5% of Engineering students and 60% of Mathematics students. So a stratified sample is a sample including each sub category of a target population, whilst a quote sample determines what % of each sub category of the target population is required.

Cluster Sampling: is an efficient sampling technique in which the primary sampling unit is not the individual element in the population but a large cluster of elements. (e.g. Manufacturing firms but the large cluster of elements (e.g. cities)The area sample is the most popular type of cluster sample.A grocery researcher for ex, may randomly choose several geographic areas as the primary sampling units and then interview all or a sample of grocery stores within the geographic clusters. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Multistage Sampling: involves two or more steps that combine some of the probability techniques already described.

For Ex: A political researcher investigating an election in Varanasi might first choose states within the contry to ensure that the different areas are represented in the sample. In the second step, grounds within the selected states may be chosen. As a final step, constituency (or house hold) within the grounds could be chosen, then all the blocks (or house hold) within the geographic area would be interviewed. As many steps as are necessary are taken to achieve a representative sample. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Concept of Measurement and Scaling: Important scaling techniqueThe first determination in any survey design is "What is to be measured?" Although our problem statement or research questionwill inform us as to the concept that is to be investigated, it often does not say anything about the measurement of that concept. Let us assume we are evaluating the sales performance of group sales representatives. We could define their success in numerical terms such as dollar value of sales or unit sales volume or total passengers. We could even express it in share of sales or share of accounts lost. But we could also measure more subjective factors such as satisfaction or performance influencers.

Traditionally, the level of scale measurement is seen as important because it determines the mathematical comparisons that are allowable.

The four levels or types of scale measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio level scales.

Each type offers the researcher progressively more power in analyzing and testing the validity of a scale.



Primary Scale of MeasurementBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Nominal ScaleNominal scales represent the most elementary level of measurement. A nominal scale assigns a value to an object for identification or classification purposes only.The nominal scale does not express any values or relationships between variables.Labeling men as "1" and women as "2" (which is one of the most common ways of labeling gender for data entry purposes) does not mean women are "twice something or other" compared to men.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Ordinal ScaleOrdinal scales allow things to be arranged in order based on how much of some concept they possess. In other words, an ordinal scale is a ranking scale. In fact, we often use the term rank order to describe an ordinal scale. When class rank for high school students is determined, we have used an ordinal scale.We know that the students is determined, we have used an ordinal scale.We know that the student ranked seventh finished ahead of the student ranked eighth, who finished ahead of ninth ranked student.

Example of Ordinal1. This brand makes a strong impression on my visual senses or other senses.(1- Strongly Agree, 4 Neither agree nor disagree and 7 Strongly disagree)BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

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Interval ScaleInterval scales have both nominal and ordinal properties, but they also capture information about differences in quantities of a concept.If a professor assigns grades to term papers using a numbering system ranging from 1.020.0, not only does the scale represent the fact that a student with a 16.0 outperformed a student with 12.0, but the scale would show by how much (4.0).



The classic example of an interval scale is temperature. Consider the following weather: June 6 was 80 F December 7 was 40 FThe interval Fahrenheit scale lets us know that December 7 was 40 F colder than June 6. But, we cannot conclude that December 7 was twice as cold as June 6. Although the actual numeral 80 is indeed twice as great as 40, remember that this is a scaling system. (Due to equal interval it can be said the interval item)In this case, the scale is not iconic, meaning that it does not exactly represent some phenomenon. In other words, there is no naturally occurring zero pointa temperature of 0 does not mean an absence of heat (or cold for that matter).

This brand does not appeal to my senses (strongly agree to Strongly Disagree)


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Ratio ScaleRatio scales represent the highest form of measurement in that they have all the properties of interval scales with the additional attribute of representing absolute quantities.

Interval scales possess only relative meaning, whereas ratio scales represent absolute meaning. In other words, ratio scales provide iconic measurement.Ex. Indicate your age in Years. (Only numbers to be given e.g. 24)0-1010-2020-3030-40

When the age of the respondent is compared with other respondent than it is ratio.Otherwise it is nominalRatio can be converted into nominal.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Scaling Techniques Comparative and Non-comparativeWithcomparative scaling, the items are directly compared with each other (example: Do you preferPepsiorCoke?). Innon-comparative scalingeach item is scaled independently of the others (example: How do you feel about Coke?).



Paired ComparisonThis is an ordinal level technique where a respondent is presented with two items at a time and asked to choose one. This is the most widely used comparison scale technique. If you take n brands then [n (n-1)/2] paired comparisons are required. A classic example of when paired comparison is used is during taste tests. For example you could have a taste test in which you have someone try both Coke and Pepsi and then ask them which one they prefer.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Paired Comparison scalingBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Rank Order ScalingThis gives the respondent a set of items and then asks the respondent to put those items in some kind of order. The order could be something like preference, liking, importance, effectiveness, etc. This can be a simple ordinal structure such as A is higher than B or be done by relative position (give each letter a numerical value as in A is 10 and B is 7). You could present five items and ask the respondent to order each one A-E in order of preference. In Rank-Order scaling only (n-1) decisions need to be made.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Constant Sum ScalingRespondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points, to attributes of a product to reflect their importance.If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.



Likert ScalingBusiness researchers adaption of the summated rating method, developed by Rennis Likert is extremely popular for measuring attitudes because the method is simple to administer. An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. Response alternatives: strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree.



Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward TennisIt is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match than to play an easy one.

Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree



There is really no such thing as a tennis stroke that cannot be mastered.Strongly AgreeAgree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree



Playing tennis is a great way to exercise.Strongly AgreeAgree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree



Semantic DifferentialA series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. Bipolar adjectives, such as good and bad, anchor both ends (or poles) of the scale.

A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.



Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes Toward TennisExciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : CalmInteresting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ ComplexPassive___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active



Stapel ScalesModern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well as the results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential. However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to conduct and administer.This is a unipolar ten-point rating scale. It ranges from +5 to 5 and has no neutral zero point.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Stores ImageDepartmentStore Name+3+2+1Wide Selection-1-2-3



Three Criteria for Good Measurement (Reliability, Validity)There are three major criteria for evaluating measurements: reliability, validity and sensitivity.Reliability: Reliability is an indicator of a measures internal consistency. Consistency is the key to understanding reliability. A measure is reliable when different attempts at measuring something converge on the same result. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Reliability applies to a measure when similar results are obtained over time and across situations.Reliability is a degree to which measures are free from error and therefore yield consistent results.For example: ordinal measures are reliable if they consistently rank order items in the same manner, reliable interval measures consistently rank order and maintain the same distance between items.When a respondent misunderstands the question, are the cause of low reliabilityIf a respondent understand the question but does not know the real reason for his behavior, hence he may not be able to give the response with truthfulness.

Two dimensions underlie the concept of reliability: one is repeatability and other is internal consistency. Assessing the repeatability of a measure is the first aspect of gauging the reliability. The test-retest method of determining reliability involves administering the same scale or measure to the same respondents at two separate times to test for repeatability.For Ex. If repeated measurement of that individuals attitude toward the job are taken with the same attitude scale, a reliable instrument will produce the same results each time the attitude is measures.When the measuring instrument produces unpredictable results from one testing to the next, the results are said to be un reliable because of errors in measurement.

There are two problems with measures.1. pre-measure may sensitize the respondents to their participation in a research project and subsequently may influence the result of second measure. 2. the second dimension of reliability concerns the homogeneity of the measures. An attempt to measure an attitude may require asking several similar (but not identical) questions or presenting of a battery scale. For Ex. Please tell me how true each statement is about your job. Is it very true, somewhat true, not very true or not at all true?1. The work is interesting2. I have an opportunity to develop my own special abilities.3. I am giving a chance to do the things I do best.

Internal consistency represents a measures homogeneity. An attempt to measure trustworthiness may require asking several similar but not identical questions.The technique of splitting halves is the most basic method for checking internal consistency when a measure contains a large number of items. In the split-half method the researcher may take the result obtained from one half of the scale items and check them against the results from the other half of the items. In the equivalent form method two alternative instrument are designed to be as equivalent as possible. Each of the two measurement scales is administered to the same group of subjects.If there is high correlation between the two forms, the researcher concludes that the scale is reliable.

Coefficient alpha ( ) is the most commonly applied estimate of a multiple-item scales reliability.Coefficient represents internal consistency by computing the average of all possible split-half reliabilities for a multiple-item scale. Coefficient alpha ranges in value from 0, meaning no consistency, to 1, meaning complete consistency (all items yield corresponding values). Generally speaking, scales with a coefficient between 0.80 and 0.95 are considered to have very good reliability.Scales with a coefficient between 0.70 and 0.80 are considered to have good reliability, and an value between 0.60 and 0.70 indicates fair reliability. When the coefficient is below 0.6, the scale has poor reliability.Most statistical software packages, such as SPSS, will easily compute coefficient .

Cronbachs basic equation for alpha

n = number of questionsVi = variance of scores on each questionVtest = total variance of overall scores (not %s) on the entire test

How alpha worksVtest is the most important part of alpha

If Vtest is large, it can be seen that alpha will be large also:Large Vtest Small Ratio Vi/Vtest Subtract this small ratio from 1 high alpha

High alpha is good. High alpha is caused by high variance.But why is high variance good?

High variance means you have a wide spread of scores, which means students are easier to differentiate.

If a test has a low variance, the scores for the class are close together. Unless the students truly are close in ability, the test is not useful.



ValidityValidity is the ability of a scale or measuring instrument to measure what it is intended to measure.There are three approaches to deal with the evaluation of validity.1. Face Validity or Content Validity, refers to the subjective agreement among professionals that a scale logically appears to reflect accurately what it claims to measure.2. Criterion Validity, is the ability of some measure to correlate with other measures of the same construct.It helps in knowing, Does my measure correlate with other measure of same construct?

3. Construct Validity: is the ability of a measure to confirm a network of related hypothesis generated from a theory based on the concepts.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Unit 3Data Collection Tools and Data Processing-Questionnaires and Observation Forms; Questionnaire Design Process; Collecting Primary Data through Observations, Semi-structured Interviews, In-depth Interviews and Questionnaire; Processing of Research Data Editing, Coding, Classification and Tabulation



QuestionnairesA questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents.

The overriding objective is to translate the researchers information needs into a set of specific questions that respondents are willing and able to answer.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Why Is a Questionnaire Important?A questionnaire enables quantitative data to be collected in a standardized way so that the data are internally consistent and coherent for analysis.

Imagine how difficult it would be to analyze the data of a national survey conducted by 40 different interviewers if the questions had not been asked in a standard way, that is, if the interviewers had asked different questions using different wording and order.

A questionnaire ensures standardization and comparability of the data across interviewers, increases speed and accuracy of recording, and facilitates data processing.

Questionnaire Design Process

Specify the information needed: A continual review of the earlier stages of the research project, particularly the specific components of the problem, the research questions, and the hypotheses, will help keep the questionnaire focused.

Questionnaires should also be designed with the target respondents in mind, taking into account their educational level and experience.



Type of Interviewing Method:Personal Interview Telephone InterviewMail QuestionnaireComputer Assisted InterviewInternet QuestionnaireEmail questionnaire



Individual Question Content: the decision is to be taken on number of parameters.Is the Question Necessary?Are several Questions needed instead of One? (Sometimes, several Questions are needed to obtain the required information in an unambiguous manner)Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft drink? (Incorrect)Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink? And Do you think Coca Cola is a refreshing soft drink? (Correct)Why do you shop at Nike Town? (Incorrect)What do you like about Nike Town as compared to other stores? And How did you first happen to shop in Nike Town? (Correct)



Overcoming Inability to answerRespondents may not always be able to answer the questions posed to them. Researchers can help them overcome this limitation by keeping in mind the reasons people typically cannot answer a question: They may not be informed or they may not remember.Overcoming Unwillingness to AnswerEven if respondents are able to answer a particular question, they may be unwilling to do so. Refusal to answer a question may be due to a variety of circumstances. The respondent may feel there's simply too much effort involved, or that the information requested is too sensitive.

Structure of the Question?Unstructured Questions Structured Questions (Structured questions specify the set of responses as well as their format. A structured question may offer multiple-choices, or a scale.)Multiple-Choice QuestionsDo you intend to travel overseas within the next six months? _____ Definitely will not travel _____ Probably will not travel _____ Undecided _____ Probably will travel _____ Definitely will travelScales to be used

How Should the Question Be Worded?To avoid problems in question wording, there are five guidelines: (1) define the issue, Which brand or brands of bath soap have you personally used at home during the past month? In case of more than one brand, please list all the brands that apply

(2) use ordinary words, Is the distribution of snack foods adequate? (Incorrect) Are snack foods readily available when you want to buy them? (Correct) BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


(3) avoid ambiguous words, In a typical month, how often do you go to a movie theater to see a movie? _____ Never _____ Occasionally _____ Sometimes _____ Often _____ Regularly (Incorrect) _____ Less than once _____ 1 or 2 times _____ 3 or 4 times _____ More than 4 times (Correct)

(4) avoid leading questions, Do you think that India should provide financial aid to poor foreign countries when it is not our responsibility to do so? _____ Yes _____ No _____ Don't know (Incorrect)

Do you think that America should provide financial aid to poor foreign countries? _____ Yes _____ No _____ Don't know (Correct)(5) use positive and negative statements. Questions of this type should be balanced by using dual statements, some of which are positive and some negative. Two different questionnaires, which reverse the direction of the questions, could also be used to control for any bias introduced by the positive or negative nature of the statements



Proper Order of Questions?When arranging questions in a proper order, the researcher should consider the opening questions, the type of information sought, difficult questions, and the effect on subsequent questions. Questions should be arranged in a logical order, organized around topic areas.Three types of information are obtained from a questionnaire: (1) basic information, (2) classification information, and (3) Identification information.Should the Questionnaire Be Pretest? YesDesign of Questionnaires for Experimentation



Collecting Primary Data through Observations, Semi-structured Interviews, In-depth Interviews and Questionnaire; Observations, Observation involves: Systematic observationRecordingDescriptionAnalysis and Interpretation of peoples behaviour



Types of observation:Participant observation discovers the meaning that people attach to their actions (more qualitative). Has its roots in social anthropology the individual derives a sense of identity from interaction and communication with others (symbolic interactionism)

Types of observation:Structured observation more concerned with the frequency of this action (more quantitative). It is systematic and has a high level of predetermined structure. Uses self-completion diaries

Advantages of structured observation

It can be used by anyone after some training so it can be delegatedThe results are reliableNot only observes the frequency of events, but also records the relationship between themNo personal interpretation on events by observers, everything is recorded the moment it happensStructured observation secures information that otherwise would be ignored as insignificant

Disadvantages of structured observationObserver must be present when phenomena happenResearch results are limited to overt actionData is slow and expensive to collect

Semi-structured Interviews, In-depth Interviews and QuestionnaireInterview: An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more peopleKahn and Cannell (1957)



Structured interviews: use questionnaire based on a predetermined and standardized or identical set of questions and we refer to them as interviewer administered questionnaires. Semi-structure interviews: the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview. This means that you may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organizational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic. The order of questions also be varied depending on the flow of conversation.

Unstructured interviews: are informal. You would use these to explore in-depth a general area in which you are interested . We therefore, refer to these as in-depth interviews. There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events behavior and beliefs in relation to topic area.



Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories



Interviewing CompetenceThere are several areas where you need to develop and demonstrate competence in relation to conduct of semi structured and in-depth research interview . These areas are:Opening the interview;Using appropriate language;Questioning;Listening;Testing and summarizing understanding;Recording and dealing with difficult participants; recording data.

Approaches of QuestionsOpen Questions: The use of open question will allow participants to define and describe the situation or event. An open is designed to encourage the interviewee to provide an extensive and developmental answer and may be used to reveal attitudes or obtain facts. It encourage s the interviewee to reply as they wish. An open question is likely to start with or include, one of the following words: what, or how, or why,. Propping Questions: Can be used to explore responses that are of significance to the research topic. They may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus or direction.



Specific & Closed Questions: These types of questions are simpler to those used in structured interviews. They can be used to obtain specific information or to confirm a fact or opinion.



Forms of InterviewBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Types of Questions (Structured Questionnaire)Yes/No Questions Do you have a library membership card?Yes ()No ()Multiple Choice QuestionsWhat purpose do you visit the library? (Multiple choices) ( ) To read news papers ( ) To refer books ( ) To borrow and return books ( ) To brows InternetBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Scaled questions: Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale, semantic differential scale, and rank-order scaleEx: To what extent the information obtained from the web based resources are useful to you? (Likert Scale)



Rankings:Please rank the following web based resource usefulness in order of preference (starting from 1 is least preferred and 10 is most preferred).



Unstructured questionnaires (Open-ended)1. What are the facilities and services do you expect from your library?2. What are the benefits for automating a library housekeeping functions?Semi-structured questionnaires (Partially Structured Question) 1. What purpose do you use web based resources?To write assignmentsFor Research WorkTo improve subject knowledgeFor the purpose of seminar presentationAny other (Please specify): 1.________________2. ________________

Processing of Research Data Editing, Coding, Classification and Tabulation Editing: is the process of checking and adjusting responses in the completed questionnaires for omissions, legibility, and consistency and readying then for coding and storage.

Purpose of Editing:For Consistency between and among responses.For completeness in responses-to reduce effects of item non response.To better utilize questions answered out of order.To facilitate the coding processBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Basic Principles of Editing:Checking the no of schedules/questionnaireCompletenessReadability To avoid inconsistencies in answerTo maintain degree of UniformityTo eliminate Irrelevant ResponsesTypes of EditingField EditingOffice Editing



Coding:It is the process of identifying and classifying each answer with a numerical score or other character symbol.The numerical score or symbol d a code and serves as a rule for interpreting classifying and recovering dataIdentifying responses with code is necessary if data is to be processes by computer.BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Example: Which Magazines do you read?BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Tabulation: it is a process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (in the form of statistical analysis) for further analysis. When mass data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise logical order, which may be called tabulation.Advantages:It simplifies complex dataIt facilitates comparisonIt facilitates computationIt presents facts in minimum possible space.It is good for references.

Preparing a table:Table NumberTitle of tableCaptions or columns headingsStubs or row designationBody of the tableFoot notesSources of dataTypes of Table:Simple or one way tableTwo way tableManifold table

Unit 4Analysis of Data-Exploring, Displaying and Examining Data; Basic Data Analysis Descriptive Statistics; Univariate Statistics Hypotheses Testing; Bivariate Analysis Test of Differences and Measures of Association; Multivariate Analysis.



Analysis of Data-Exploring, Displaying and Examining DataBUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I


Facts about dataRaw or data that have been summarized in any way are some times referred to as ungrouped data.Data that have been organized into a frequency distribution are called grouped data.One particularly useful tool for grouping data is the frequency distribution which is a summary of data presented in the form of class interval.The midpoint of each class interval is called the class midpoint and is sometimes referred as the class mark. It is the value halfway across the class interval and can be calculated as the average of two class endpoints.Relative frequency is the proportion of the total frequency that is in any given class interval in a frequency distributionCumulative Frequency is a running total of frequencies through the classes of a frequency distribution.

Frequency TableA frequency table is a simple device for arraying data. It arrays category codes from lowest value to highest value,

Columns for count (frequency), percent, valid percent (percent when missing data is extracted), and cumulative percent.



Frequency TableWhen the variable of interest is measured on an interval-ratio scale and is one with many potential values, these techniques are not

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