Module 8

The English Civil War

(1603-1714)

and

The Restoration

http://handmademaps.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/145_English-Civil-War.jpg

A single monarch

Elizabeth I, the last of the Tudor monarchs, died in 1603 and the thrones of England and

Ireland passed to her cousin, James Stuart.

Thus James VI of Scotland also became James I of England. The three separate kingdoms

were united under a single ruler for the first time, and James I and VI, as he now became,

entered upon his unique inheritance.

http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/james/jamesvansomer.jpg

England, Scotland and Ireland were very different countries, and the memories of past

conflict ran deep.

James had awaited Elizabeth's death with eager anticipation, because of the wealth and

prestige the English crown would bring him. But, as this canny monarch must have known all

too well, the balancing act he would henceforth be required to perform was not an easy one.

England, Scotland and Ireland were very different countries, with very different histories,

and the memories of past conflict between those countries - and indeed, of past conflict

between different ethnic groups within those countries - ran deep.

To make matters trickier still, each kingdom favoured a different form of religion. Most Scots

were Calvinists, most English favoured a more moderate form of Protestantism and most

Irish remained stoutly Catholic. Yet each kingdom also contained strong religious minorities.

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In England, the chief such group were the Catholics, who initially believed that James would

prove less severe to them than Elizabeth had been.

When these expectations were disappointed, Catholic conspirators hatched a plot to blow

both the new king and his parliament sky-high.

The discovery of the Gunpowder Plot served as a warning to James, if any were needed, of

the very grave dangers religious divisions could pose, both to his own person and to the

stability of his triple crown.

James I was resolved to keep his kingdoms out of foreign entanglements if he could.

However - following the marriage of his daughter Elizabeth to Frederick V, elector of the

Rhineland Palatinate; Frederick's crowning as king of Bohemia; and the forcible ejection of

the young couple from their new kingdom by Catholic forces soon afterwards - James found

himself being dragged into the continental Thirty Years' War.

Many of Charles's subjects became alienated by his religious policies.

His health failing, the old king died in 1625 and was succeeded by his son Charles, who

initially threw himself into the fight against the Catholic powers, but eventually withdrew

from the European conflict in 1630.

Charles I (1600-1649)

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Charles I was a conscientious and principled ruler, but he was also stubborn, reserved and

politically maladroit. From the moment that he first assumed the crown, uneasy murmurs

about his style of government began to be heard.

Over the next 15 years, many of Charles's English subjects became alienated by his religious

policies and by his apparent determination to rule without parliaments.

Some, especially the more zealous Protestants, or 'puritans', came to believe in the existence

of a sinister royal plot - one which aimed at the restoration of the Catholic faith in England

and the destruction of the people's liberties.

Similar fears were abroad in Scotland, and when Charles attempted to introduce a new

prayer book to that country in 1637 he provoked furious resistance.

Charles's subsequent attempts to crush the Scots by force went disastrously wrong, forcing

him to summon an English parliament in October 1640. Once this assembly had begun to sit,

Charles was assailed by angry complaints about his policies.

At first, the king seemed to have practically no supporters. But as puritan members of

parliament began to push for wholesale reform of the church and religious traditionalists

became alarmed, Charles found himself at the head of a swelling political constituency.

Then, in 1641, the Catholics of Ireland rose up in arms, killing many hundreds of the English

and Scottish Protestants who had settled in their country.

The rebellion caused panic in England, and made it harder than ever for a political

compromise to be reached. Charles I and parliament could not agree and England began to

divide into two armed camps.

Civil war

Visual support. English Civil War

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hHLaRKrwfk

Questions

1. Who were the main opponents in the English Civil War?

2. What did Charles I need money for?

3. How was the Parliament supposed to get money?

4. What did the King do in response to the Parliaments refusal to obey his orders?

5. What was Charles Is attitude to Puritans?

6. What was the Petition of Right?

7. Why did the Parliament feel betrayed by Charles I?

8. Who were the Cavaliers and Roundheads?

9. Who took the power after Charles Is death?

10. What restrictions did Cromwell impose?

The civil war which broke out in 1642 saw a broadly Royalist north and west ranged against

a broadly Parliamentarian south and east.

Charles derived particular advantage from the support of the Welsh and the Cornish, who

supplied him with many of his foot soldiers, while parliament derived still more advantage

from its possession of London.

In mid-1643, it looked as if the king might be about to defeat his opponents, but later that

year the Parliamentarians concluded a military alliance with the Scots.

Charles was tried, found guilty, and beheaded in January 1649.

Following the intervention of a powerful Scottish army and the defeat of the king's forces at

Marston Moor in 1644, Charles lost control of the north of Britain.

The following year, Charles was defeated by parliament's New Model Army at Naseby and it

became clear that the Royalist cause was lost.

Unwilling to surrender to the Parliamentarians, the king gave himself up to the Scots instead,

but when they finally left England, the Scots handed Charles over to their parliamentary

allies.

Still determined not to compromise with his enemies, the captive king managed to stir up a

new bout of violence known as the Second Civil War.

Realising that the kingdom could never be settled in peace while Charles I remained alive, a

number of radical MPs and officers in the New Model Army eventually decided that the king

had to be charged with high treason. Charles was accordingly tried, found guilty, and

beheaded in January 1649.

In the wake of the king's execution, a republican regime was established in England, a

regime which was chiefly underpinned by the stark military power of the New Model Army.

Oliver Cromwell The Protectorate

Protectorate, in English history, name given to the English government from 1653 to 1659. Following the English civil war and the execution of Charles I, England was declared (1649) a commonwealth under the rule of the Rump Parliament. In 1653, however, Oliver Cromwell dissolved the Rump, replacing it with the Nominated, or Barebone's, Parliament (see Barebone, Praise-God), and when the latter proved ineffectual, he accepted (Dec., 1653) the constitutional document entitled the Instrument of Government, which had been drawn up by a group of army officers. By its terms, Cromwell assumed the title lord protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland and agreed to share his power with a

council of state and a Parliament of one house. However, although Parliament met regularly, Cromwell's protectorate was a virtual dictatorship resting on the power of the army. After a royalist uprising, he divided (1655) the country into 11 military districts, each under the administration of a major general who enforced the rigidly puritanical laws and collected taxes. Toleration was extended to Jews and all non-Anglican Protestants, but not to Roman Catholics. In 1654, the first of the Dutch Wars was brought to a close and English sea power turned against Spain. In the Humble Petition and Advice of 1657, Parliament offered Cromwell the throne (which he refused), allowed him to name a successor, and set up an upper house to be chosen by him; but this attempt at constitutional revision had little practical effect on the government. Richard Cromwell succeeded as lord protector on the death of his father in 1658, but he was unable to control the army and resigned in May, 1659. The Rump was recalled and the Commonwealth resumed, and after a period of chaos Gen. George Monck recalled the Long Parliament and brought about the Restoration of Charles II.

Oliver Cromwell was born on 25 April 1599 in Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire into a family of

minor gentry and studied at Cambridge University. He became member of parliament for

Huntingdon in the parliament of 1628 - 1629. In the 1630s Cromwell experienced a religious

crisis and became convinced that he would be guided to carry out God's purpose. He began

to make his name as a radical Puritan when, in 1640, he was elected to represent

Cambridge, first in the Short Parliament and then in the Long Parliament.

Civil war broke out between Charles I and parliament in 1642. Although Cromwell lacked military experience, he created and led a superb force of cavalry, the 'Ironsides', and rose from the rank of captain to that of lieutenant-general in three years. He convinced parliament to establish a professional army - the New Model Army - which won the decisive victory over the king's forces at Naseby (1645). The king's alliance with the Scots and his subsequent defeat in the Second Civil War convinced Cromwell that the king must be brought to justice. He was a prime mover in the trial and execution of Charles I in 1649 and subsequently sought to win conservative support for the new republic by suppressing radial elements in the army. Cromwell became army commander and lord lieutenant of Ireland, where he crushed resistance with the massacres of the garrisons at Drogheda and Wexford (1649).

Cromwell then defeated the supporters of the king's son Charles II at Dunbar (1650) and Worcester (1651), effectively ending the civil war. In 1653, frustrated with lack of progress, he dissolved the rump of the Long Parliament and, after the failure of his Puritan convention (popularly known as Barebones Parliament) made himself lord protector. In 1657, he refused the offer of the crown. At home Lord Protector Cromwell reorganised the national church, established Puritanism, readmitted Jews into Britain and presided over a certain degree of religious tolerance. Abroad, he ended the war with Portugal (1653) and Holland (1654) and allied with France against Spain, defeating the Spanish at the Battle of the Dunes (1658). Cromwell died on 3 September 1658 in London. After the Restoration his body was dug up and hanged.

Cromwell's son Richard was named as his successor and was lord protector of England from September 1658 to May 1659. He could not reconcile various political, military and religious factions and soon lost the support of the army on which his power depended. He was forced to abdicate and after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 he fled to Paris. He returned to England in 1680 and lived quietly under an assumed name until his death in 1712.

Visual support-Oliver Cromwell - Timelines.tv History of Britain B09

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bqi0Wd68Mio

1. Who had the right to vote in the 17th century England?

2. What institution was fit to govern England according to Cromwell?

3. What was special about the reign of Charles II?

Visual support. Oliver Cromwell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewTBVosN_XU

1. What were the religious conflicts in Charles Is time?

2. What was the name of the republic after the death of Charles I?

3. What was Cromwells position towards Catholics?

4. What was Cromwells position towars the Jews?

Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)

England's new rulers were determined to re-establish England's traditional dominance over

Ireland, and in 1649 they sent a force under Oliver Cromwell to undertake the reconquest of

Ireland, a task that was effectively completed by 1652.

Meanwhile, Charles I's eldest son had come to an agreement with the Scots and in January

1651 had been crowned as Charles II of Scotland. Later that year, Charles invaded England

with a Scottish army, but was defeated by Cromwell at Worcester.

Cromwell strove to establish broad-based support for godly republican government - with

scant success.

The young king just managed to avoid capture, and later escaped to France. His Scottish

subjects were left in a sorry plight, and soon the Parliamentarians had conquered the whole

of Scotland.

In 1653, Cromwell was installed as 'lord protector' of the new Commonwealth of England,

Scotland and Ireland. Over the next five years, he strove to establish broad-based support

for godly republican government with scant success.

Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded as protector by his son, Richard, but Richard had

little aptitude for the part he was now called upon to play and abdicated eight months later.

After Richard Cromwell's resignation, the republic slowly fell apart and Charles II was

eventually invited to resume his father's throne. In May 1660, Charles II entered London in

triumph. The monarchy had been restored.

The English Restoration

The Restoration of the monarchy began in 1660 when the English, Scottish and Irish

monarchies were all restored under Charles II. The term Restoration may apply both to the

actual event by which the monarchy was restored, and to the period immediately following

the event. It is very often used to cover the whole reign of Charles II (16601685) and often

the brief reign of his younger brother James II (1685-1688). In certain contexts it may be

used to cover the whole period of the later Stuart monarchs as far as the death of Queen

Anne and the accession of the Hanoverian George I in 1714;

Charles II was an intelligent but deeply cynical man, more interested in his own pleasures

than in points of political or religious principle. His lifelong preoccupation with his many

mistresses did nothing to improve his public image.

Charles II

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The early years of the new king's reign were scarcely glorious ones. In 1665 London was

devastated by the plague, while a year later much of the capital was destroyed in the Great

Fire of London.

The Dutch raid on Chatham in 1667 was one the most humiliating military reverses England

had ever suffered.

Nevertheless, the king was a cunning political operator and when he died in 1685 the

position of the Stuart monarchy seemed secure. But things swiftly changed following the

accession of his brother, James, who was openly Catholic.

Catholic succession

James II at once made it plain that he was determined to improve the lot of his Catholic

subjects, and many began to suspect that his ultimate aim was to restore England to the

Catholic fold.

James II

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The birth of James's son in 1688 made matters even worse since it forced anxious

Protestants to confront the fact that their Catholic king now had a male heir.

Soon afterwards, a group of English Protestants begged the Dutch Stadholder William of

Orange - who had married JamesII's eldest daughter, Mary, in 1677 - to come to their aid.

Many suspected that James II wanted to bring back Catholicism.

William, who had long been anticipating such a call, accordingly set sail with an army for

England. James II fled to France a few weeks later and William and Mary were crowned as

joint monarchs the following year. This is known as The Glorious Revolution.

James II still had many supporters in Ireland, and in March 1689 he landed there with a

French army.

William now assembled an army of his own to meet this challenge, and in 1690 he decisively

defeated James at the Battle of the Boyne. James promptly returned to France, leaving

William free to consolidate his hold on power.

The death of Mary in 1694 left William as sole ruler of the three kingdoms, and by 1700 all

eyes were turning to the problem of the succession.

Because neither William nor James II's surviving daughter, Anne, had any children,

Protestants were terrified that the throne would eventually revert to James II, to his son, or

to one of the many other Catholic claimants.

To avert this danger, the Act of Settlement was passed in 1701, directing that after the

deaths of William and Anne the throne would return to the descendants of James I's

daughter, Elizabeth.

Sophia, electress of Hanover, and her heirs thus became next in line to the English throne.

In 1702, William died and was succeeded by Anne. Five years after this, a formal union of the

kingdoms of England and Scotland was contrived, in order to ensure that there would be a

Protestant succession in Scotland too.

Henceforth England and Scotland officially became one country, and when Queen Anne, the

last of the Stuart monarchs, died in 1714, it was to the throne of the United Kingdom of

Great Britain that George I, the first of the Hanoverians, succeeded.

Cultural Aspects of the Restoration

During this time, a premium was placed on the importance of human reason and on an

empirical philosophy that held that knowledge about the world was through the senses

and by applying reason to what we take in through our senses. Reason was an unchanging,

uniquely human characteristic that served as a guide for man. Thus this time is often also

called the Age of Reason or Enlightenment. Characteristics of this period included observing

human nature and nature itself which were considered unchanging and constant.

The age is also known as the Neoclassical period. Writers of the time placed great emphasis

on the original writings produced by classical Greek and Roman literature. The literature of

this period imitated that of the age of Caesar Augustus, writers such as Horace and Virgil,

with classical influences appearing prevalent in poetry with the use of rhyming, and in prose

with its satirical form. The Augustans deemed classical literature as natural, that these works

were the idealized models for writing. The Neoclassical "ideals of order, logic, restraint,

accuracy, 'correctness,' decorum,. . . would enable the practitioners of various arts to imitate

or reproduce the structures or themes of Greek or Roman originals". Alexander

Pope furthers this idea as he says "Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem; To copy

Nature is to copy them" (Essay on Criticism). The way to study nature is to study the

ancients; the styles and rules of classical literature. Closely allied with the emphasis placed

on the classics and the unchanging rules of nature was the belief that reason was an

unchanging and unique human quality that served as a guide for man.

An Age of Satire

Literature during this period was often considered a tool for the advancement of knowledge.

Writers were often found observing nature in their attempts to express their beliefs. Human

nature was considered a constant that observation and reason could be applied to for the

advancement of knowledge.

Within these circumstances, the Age of Satire was born. Satire was the most popular literary

tool that was utilized by writers of the time. With the help of satire, writers were better able

to educate the public through literature. Its function was to acknowledge a problem in

society and attempt to reform the problem in a comical manner while still educating the

public. Its effectiveness can be seen in literary pieces by Jonathan Swift such as A Modest

Proposal where he addresses and criticizes the problem of a growing famine in Ireland.

Playwrights of the time were also known to incorporate satire in their plays. Through the use

of satire, they were able to expose and critique social injustices. "Over the thirty years of its

triumphs, Restoration comedy, in an astounding fugue of excesses and depravities, laid bare

the turbulence and toxins of this culture" (Longman).

Satire was a highly successful literary tool that worked to promote social awareness through

literature, the theater and periodicals of the time.

Visual support, Mr. Osborne - British Literature Unit Preview 3 - The Restoration & , 10:22

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F4Jzp4Ywuek

1. What happened to the English theaters during the Protectorate?

2. What was a major change in the theater during Charles II?

3. What literary genre is Swifts Gullivers Travels?

Restoration and the 18th Century

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLpeUJt7aVE

The Metaphysical Poets

The term metaphysical poetry refers to a specific period of time and a specific set of poets.

In 17th-century England, there was a group of poets who, while they did form a formal

group, have been considered the metaphysical poets. There are, in most lists, nine poets that belong, and they are as follows: John Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, Edward Herbert, Thomas Carew, Richard Crashaw, Andrew Marvel, Richard Lovelace and Sir John Suckling. There are an additional seven poets that are sometimes also considered to be part of this small group of 17th century metaphysical poets, and they are George Chapman, Abraham Cowley, Richard Leigh, Katherine Philips, Edward Taylor, Anne Bradstreet and John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester.

Donne is, and this is almost undisputed, the quintessential metaphysical poet. If none other is read, Donne is generally recommended for a reader to get a good idea of what metaphysical poetry is all about.

So, what is metaphysical poetry? The answer lies in the composition of these pieces. The common thread is that they contain metaphors that are highly conceptual in nature. These metaphors are often tenuous, at best, in their comparisons of one thing to another, but they can leave the reader feeling enlightened.

This type of metaphor is known as a metaphysical conceit. The way to tell a metaphysical conceit from a regular metaphor is that they often exhibit an analytical tone, contain double

meanings, show logical reasoning, and have paradoxes, symbolism, and wit. While one or two of these elements might be missing from any given piece, there should be the majority of them present.

One of the prime examples of metaphysical poetry is John Donnes A Valediction:

Forbidding Mourning. In this piece, Donne paints a picture of a drawing compass that helps an artist or architect create circles. One arm is one of the lovers and is constantly moving, but even so, the other person, or arm, leans toward the movement. The circles that the compass draws are symbols of perfection and eternity, two things people strive for when in love. Most wouldnt have drawn a correlation between love and lovers and a compass used for making precise circles. This was the genius of the metaphysical poet drawing similarities between the unlikeliest of similar ideas and objects.

One of the most apparent contrasts between metaphysical poetry and other poems of the

17th century is that while the metaphysical poets were comparing love to compasses (Donne) and the human soul to drops of morning dew (Marvel) the rest were relying heavily on classical mythology and nature for their symbolism and allusions.

Another characteristic that separates the poetry of the metaphysical poets and their contemporaries is that even when writing on a romantic subject, the word and metaphor choices were most often decidedly unromantic. They have both been praised and criticized for this, but despite the mixed reviews, they remain interesting and engaging reads.

Visual support Metaphysical poetry 6:34

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gM6xTfq-zxo

1. What was the target audience of metaphysical poets?

2. Who is considered the Father of metaphysical poetry?

3. What is the purpose of metaphysical poetry?

4. Why did the metaphysical poets compared apparently unrelated objects?

5. What are the main themes approached by Donne?

6. What are metaphysical conceits?

7. What famous metaphor created by Donne is mentioned in the film?

8. A VALEDICTION FORBIDDING MOURNING. by John Donne

AS virtuous men pass mildly away, And whisper to their souls to go, Whilst some of their sad friends do say, "Now his breath goes," and some say, "No." [1]

So let us melt, and make no noise, 5 No tear-floods, nor sigh-tempests move ; 'Twere profanation of our joys To tell the laity our love.

Moving of th' earth brings harms and fears ; Men reckon what it did, and meant ; 10 But trepidation of the spheres, Though greater far, is innocent.

Dull sublunary lovers' love Whose soul is sensecannot admit Of absence, 'cause it doth remove 15 The thing which elemented it.

But we by a love so much refined, That ourselves know not what it is, Inter-assurd of the mind, Care less, eyes, lips and hands to miss. 20

Our two souls therefore, which are one, Though I must go, endure not yet A breach, but an expansion, Like gold to aery thinness beat. If they be two, they are two so 25 As stiff twin compasses are two ; Thy soul, the fix'd foot, makes no show To move, but doth, if th' other do. And though it in the centre sit, Yet, when the other far doth roam, 30 It leans, and hearkens after it, And grows erect, as that comes home. Such wilt thou be to me, who must, Like th' other foot, obliquely run ; Thy firmness makes my circle just, 35 And makes me end where I begun.

9. [AJ Notes:

Sources

http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/protectorate-english-history.html

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cromwell_oliver.shtml

https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/English_Restoration.html

https://britlitwiki.wikispaces.com/The+Restoration+and+the+18th+Century

Module 9

Britain in the 18th century

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content/uploads/2011/10/1747_La_Feuille_Map_of_England_-_Geographicus_-_England-

ratelband-1747.jpeg

Eighteenth-Century Culture in Europe

The eighteenth century created a lavish and costly aristocratic culture. One of the most enduring results of this affluent culture was patronage of music. Noble patrons hired musicians and conductors, who were expected to cater to the whims of their aristocratic benefactors. When musicians proved too independent, as did Mozart, they failed to prosper. The literary and philosophical counterpart of musical patronage was the creation of urban salons, where influential thinkers exposed their ideas to an aristocratic audience and other members of the intellectual elite.

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment reflected a set of attitudes critical of traditional European customs and morals. Those who adopted Enlightenment techniques of criticism were called philosophes. Although the Enlightenment began in France, its methods rapidly spread to the rest of Europe.

The Spirit of the Enlightenment

Three of the most important Enlightenment philosophes were Francois-Marie Arouet (called Voltaire) of France, David Hume of Scotland, and Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron Montesquieu. In 1734 Voltaire, a French intellectual active in the salons of Paris, issued a laudatory editorial on English society entitled Philosophical Letters Concerning the English Nation. Its criticism of French society and the Roman Catholic Church stimulated an intellectual and philosophical revival that rapidly spread beyond the borders of France. In his early career, Voltaire was essentially a satirist of all traditional European cultureincluding the royalty. Exiled from France for his audacity, Voltaire traveled to England and remained there for two years. His praise of England in comparison to France caused thephilosophe to retreat from Paris to the countryside. Following the death of his mistress, Voltaire traveled in Prussia and Switzerlandwearing out his welcome in both places. The end of his life was devoted to tireless assaults on Roman Catholicism in particular and religion in general. A university scholar, Hume spent most of his life as an author of philosophical treatises (largely unread during his lifetime) and histories (broadly popular). Hume was the ultimate skeptic who refused to accept the Cartesian synthesis and relegated all natural laws to the relativism of mental perception. He was, even during his own lifetime, renowned as an enemy of Christianity. Like Hume, Baron Montesquieu received university training. His most popular early work was Persian Letters, a satire of traditional European social organization and culture. Following a visit to Britain, Montesquieu undertook a comparative study of forms of government, The Spirit of Laws. In his work, Montesquieu advocated balanced constitutions as those most likely to maximize the pleasure of the governed. Enlightenment thinkers believed that the world could be reshaped by the proper application of scientific principles. Jean Jacques Rousseau and John Locke developed theories of education based on sense experience rather than moral indoctrination. Enlightenment thinkers such as Cesare Beccaria advocated social reform based on the concept of securing the greatest pleasure and the promotion of happiness.

Some Enlightenment philosophes began to advocate the concept of progress based on reform and social evolution. Man was seen as a raw form capable of molding his society according to his personal experience. Mankind responded principally to pleasure and painone acted to maximize pleasure and reduce pain. According to the philosophes, the object of all governments should be the greatest happiness of the greatest number. The Enlightenment world could not only be controlled, it could be managed for improvement. For the philosophes, progress was an identifiable goal.

The Impact of the Enlightenment

Intended for public consumption, it was inevitable that the Enlightenment would have some influence on European society. Curiously, political reform was embraced more willingly in eastern Europe than in the west. The three aspects of government most immediately affected were law, education, and the spread of religious toleration. In Austria, Prussia, and Russia, legal codification was undertaken, though not necessarily completed. As the Enlightenment thinkers commonly attacked the Jesuits, the religious order most associated with education in eastern Europe, the states had to create new educational institutions. Throughout the east, compulsory educationprograms were initiated. Religious toleration

was readily granted in Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The strict regulation of minority sects was somewhat alleviated in western Europe, although general toleration did not exist in England, Spain, or France.

Also influential were Enlightenment theories of economics. In France the physiocrats developed the theory that al wealth came from land, either directly or indirectly. State wealth should be based on taxation on the land. Physiocrats also proposed that the state should intervene as little as possible in private economic endeavorthe doctrine of laissez-faire. The ideas of the physiocrats and the Scottish intellectual Adam Smith provided the foundations for economic reform in the nineteenth century.

18th century Britain: general features

The 18th century saw revolutionary changes in Britain -- it was the beginning of the Agrarian and Industrial Revolution which took place in Europe and America.

Within Britain the early 18th century was much the same as the second half of the 17th century. Major changes began to occur in the middle and second half of the 18th century. Britain was now beginning to be wealthy and powerful. Scotland had been conquered and joined with England in 1701, forming Great Britain. The British navy was the strongest in the world. The slave trade and the Atlantic coast colonies were thriving. The "Navigation Act" of Britain in 1651 which mandated that all goods flowing to or coming from British colonies must be carried on British ships added to Britain's wealth.

The American colonists propensity to use smuggled goods from the West Indies and thus avoid paying duties to the British government was a thorn in the side of the British government, The squabble over duties went to the very heart of the British system of colonial financing, and was therefore not a minor matter.

Britain's government revenue was made up in large part by excise taxes and stamp duties from transshipment of colonial goods. English companies and individuals made their profits principally on the three way trade between Britain, North America and Africa. England became dependent on the profits from the slave trade.

As a result of the slave trade and the massive profits for individual Englishmen from the West Indies and India, the mercantile class in England experienced a sharp increase in wealth and began investing in land and peerages. They rapidly became part of the landed gentry of England and formed a powerful lobby. Most of the peerages purchased at this time were from merchants from the West Indies and later from India.

These nouveau riche nabobs were able to initiate and pass powerful Enclosure laws which enclosed large areas of the common land of England creating a large class of newly poor landless peasants.

The English countryside was transformed between 1760 and 1830 as the open-field system of cultivation gave way to compact farms and enclosed fields. Despite massive increases in agricultural output, British per capita income fell in the period 1770-1820. The rich got much richer and the poor became penniless.

Society in 18th Century Britain

In the late 18th century the industrial revolution began to transform life in Britain. Until then most people lived in the countryside and made their living from farming. By the mid 19th century most people in Britain lived in towns and made their living from mining or manufacturing industries.

Coal was the fuel which kick-started the Industrial Revolution - and Britain was very fortunate to have plenty that could be easily mined.

Wood had been the main source of energy in Britain, used for fuel in homes and small industries.

But as the population grew, so did the demand for timber. As forests were cut down, wood had to be carried further to reach the towns. It was bulky and difficult to transport and therefore expensive.

Coal was a much more potent form of power, providing up to three times more energy than wood.

Britain had an advantage over other European countries because its mines were near the sea, so ships could carry coal cheaply to the most important market - London.

The demand for coal led to deeper and deeper mines and an increased risk of flooding.

In order to keep exploiting this wonder fuel, it was necessary to find a way to pump water out of the mines.

Horse-drawn pumps could only draw water from depths up to 90 feet, limiting the amount of coal that could be mined.

The idea of making profits was driving the Industrial Revolution and practical men were motivated to solve this problem.

The first commercially successful steam engine was the atmospheric engine, invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. The new engine did the work of 20 horses and pumped water from hundreds of feet below the ground - making deeper mines economically viable.

http://www.egr.msu.edu/~lira/supp/images/newcomen.gif

His machine burnt tons of coal so its location was limited to pitheads where coal was virtually free. But Britain now had seemingly inexhaustible quantities of cheap energy.

In 1769 James Watt (1736-1819) patented a more efficient steam engine. In 1785 his engine was adapted to driving machinery in a cotton factory. The use of steam engines to drive machines slowly transformed industry.

James Watt (1736-1819)

www.cottontimes.co.uk, Watts steam engine

Meanwhile during the 1700s Britain built up a great overseas empire. The North American colonies were lost after the War of Independence 1776-1783. On the other hand after the Seven Years War 1756-1763 Britain captured Canada and India. Britain also took Dominica, Grenada, St Vincent and Tobago in the West Indies. In 1707 the Act of Union was passed. Scotland was united with England and Wales. England became part of Great Britain.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Articles_of_Union.jpg

Owning land was the main form of wealth in the 18th century. Political power and influence was in the hands of rich landowners. At the top were the nobility. Below them were a class of nearly rich landowners called the gentry. In the early 18th century there was another class of landowners called yeomen between the rich and the poor. However during the century this class became less and less numerous. However other middle class people such as merchants and professional men became richer and more numerous, especially in the towns.

Below them were the great mass of the population, craftsmen and laborers. In the 18th century probably half the population lived as subsistence or bare survival level.

In the early 18th century England suffered from gin drinking. It was cheap and it was sold everywhere as you did not need a license to sell it. Many people ruined their health by drinking gin. Yet for many poor people drinking gin was their only comfort. The situation improved after 1751 when a tax was imposed on gin.

Population in 18th Century Britain

At the end of the 17th century it was estimated the population of England and Wales was about 5 1/2 million. The population of Scotland was about 1 million. The population of London was about 600,000. In the mid 18th century the population of Britain was about 6 1/2 million. In the late 18th century it grew rapidly and by 1801 it was over 9 million. The population of London was almost 1 million.

During the 18th century towns in Britain grew larger. Nevertheless most towns still had populations of less than 10,000. However in the late 18th century new industrial towns in the Midland and the North of England mushroomed. Meanwhile the population of London grew to nearly 1 million by the end of the century.

Women in the 18th Century

In the 18th century girls from well off families went to school but it was important for them to learn 'accomplishments' like embroidery and music rather than academic subjects. Nevertheless there were some famous women scholars in the 18th century. In 1792 a woman named Mary Wollstonecraft published a book called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In the late 18th century Caroline Herschel was a famous astronomer. In France Madame Anne de Stael was a famous writer.

Agriculture in 18th Century England

During the 18th century agriculture was gradually transformed by an agricultural revolution. Until 1701 seed was sown by hand. In that year Jethro Tull invented a seed drill, which sowed seed in straight lines. He also invented a horse drawn hoe which hoed the land and destroyed weed between rows of crops.

Seed drill

Horse drawn hoe

Food in the 18th Century

There was little change in food in the 18th century. Despite the improvements in farming food for ordinary people remained plain and monotonous. For them meat was a luxury. In England a poor person's food was mainly bread and potatoes. In the 18th century drinking tea became common even among ordinary people.

Houses in the 18th Century

In the 18th century a tiny minority of the population lived in luxury. The rich built great country houses. A famous landscape gardener called Lancelot Brown (1715-1783) created beautiful gardens. The leading architect of the 18th century was Robert Adam (1728-1792). He created a style called neo-classical and he designed many 18th century country houses.

Visual support- Neoclassical style/British Gardens

Robert Adam, architect

In the 18th century the wealthy owned comfortable upholstered furniture. They owned beautiful furniture, some of it veneered or inlaid. In the 18th century much fine furniture was made by Thomas Chippendale (1718-1779), George Hepplewhite (?-1786) and Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806). The famous clock maker James Cox (1723-1800) made exquisite clocks for the rich.

However the poor had none of these things. Craftsmen and laborers lived in 2 or 3 rooms. The poorest people lived in just one room. Their furniture was very simple and plain.

Clothes in the 1700s

In the 18th century men wore knee-length trouser like garments called breeches and stockings. They also wore waistcoats and frock coats. They wore linen shirts. Both men and women wore wigs and for men three-cornered hats were popular. Men wore buckled shoes.

Women wore stays (a bodice with strips of whalebone) and hooped petticoats under their dresses. Women in the 18th century did not wear knickers. Fashionable women carried folding fans. Fashion was very important for the rich in the 18th century but poor people's clothes hardly changed at all.

Frock coats

http://www.coatpant.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Mens-Frock-Coat-History.jpg

18th century breeches,www.osfcostumerentals.org

three - cornered hat

https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR9uALd6dctRb5rHpm1dVI05JGyYJbAqEFxyMBtaRRCKMa__oV6aA

Buckled shoes, www.mfa.org

stays=corset, http://fc07.deviantart.net/fs70/i/2011/053/8/3/__lady_hamilton___stays_by_rum_inspector-d3a5k5e.jpg

Hooped petticoat=jupon pe cercuri, http://www.ageofantiquity.com/graphics/18thCenturyLargePanniersSide.jpg

Leisure in the 18th Century

Traditional games remained popular in the 18th century. These included games such as chess, drafts and backgammon. They also played tennis and a rough version of football. It is believed dominoes was invented in China. It reached Europe in the 18th century. Then in 1759 a man named John Jeffries invented an entirely new board game called A Journey Through Europe or The Play of Geography in which players race across a map of Europe.

Horse racing was carried on for centuries before the 18th century but at this time it became a professional sport. The Jockey Club was formed in 1727. The Derby began in 1780. For the well off card games and gambling were popular. The theater was also popular. In the early 18th century most towns did not have a purpose built theater and plays were staged in buildings like inns. However in the late 18th century theaters were built in most towns in England. Assembly rooms were also built in most towns. In them people played cards and attended balls. In London pleasure gardens were created. Moreover a kind of cricket was played long before the 18th century but at that time it took on its modern form. The first cricket club was formed at Hambledon in Hampshire about 1750.

Also in the 18th century rich people visited spas. They believed that bathing in and/or drinking spa water could cure illness. Towns like Buxton, Bath and Tunbridge prospered. At the end of the 18th century wealthy people began to spend time at the seaside. (Again they believed that bathing in seawater was good for your health). Seaside resorts like Brighton and Bognor boomed.

Reading was also a popular pastime in the 18th century and the first novels were published at this time. Books were still expensive but in many towns you could pay to join a circulating library. The first daily newspaper in England was printed in 1702. The Times began in 1785.

Many people enjoyed cruel 'sports' like cockfighting and bull baiting. (A bull was chained to a post and dogs were trained to attack it). Rich people liked fox hunting. Public executions were also popular and they drew large crowds. Boxing without gloves was also popular (although some boxers began to wear leather gloves in the 18th century). Puppet shows like Punch and Judy also drew the crowds. Furthermore in the late 18th century the circus became a popular form of entertainment.

Smoking clay pipes was popular in the 18th century. So was taking snuff. Wealthy young men would go on a 'grand tour' of Europe lasting one or two years.

Visual support

Education in the 18th Century

In the early 18th century charity schools were founded in many towns in England. They were sometimes called Blue Coat Schools because of the color of the children's uniforms. Boys from well off families went to grammar schools. Girls from well off families also went to school but it was felt important for them to learn 'accomplishments' like embroidery and music rather than academic subjects.

However dissenters (Protestants who did not belong to the Church of England) were not allowed to attend most public schools. Instead they went to their own dissenting academies.

Medicine in the 18th Century

Knowledge of anatomy greatly improved in the 18th century. The famous 18th century surgeon John Hunter (1728-1793) is sometimes called the Father of Modern Surgery. He invented new procedures such as tracheotomy. Among other advances a Scottish surgeon named James Lind discovered that fresh fruit or lemon juice could cure or prevent scurvy. He published his findings in 1753.

A major scourge of the 18th century was smallpox. Even if it did not kill you it could leave you scarred with pox marks. Then, in 1721 Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation from Turkey. You cut the patient then introduced matter from a smallpox pustule into the wound. The patient would (hopefully!) develop a mild case of the disease and be immune in future. Then, in 1796 a doctor named Edward Jenner (1749-1823) realized that milkmaids who caught cowpox were immune to smallpox. He invented vaccination. The patient was cut then matter from a cowpox pustule was introduced. The patient gained immunity to smallpox.

Art and Science in the 18th Century

During the 18th century England produced two great portrait painters, Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) and Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792). Meanwhile the artist

William Hogarth (1697-1764) painted scenes showing the harsh side of 18th century life. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded in 1768. In theater the greatest actor of the 18th century was David Garrick (1717-1779).

Thomas Gainsborough, Self-Portrait

Sophia Charlotte. Lady Sheffield, by Thomas Gainsborough

Study of a Rustic Figure, by Thomas Gainsborough

Sir Joshua Reynolds, Self-Portrait

Mrs Richard Bennett Lloyd by Sir Joshua Reynolds

Sir Joshua Reynolds, PRA, Portrait of King George III (1779) Royal Academy of Arts, London; Ph. John Hammond

William Hogarth, Self-Portrait

In science Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) discovered oxygen. Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) discovered hydrogen. He also calculated the mass and density of the earth. William Herschel (1738-1822) discovered Uranus. The Scottish engineer Thomas Telford (1757-1834) built roads, canals and the Menai suspension bridge.

Religion in the 18th Century

The early 18th century was noted for its lack of religious enthusiasm and the churches in England lacked vigor. However in the mid-18th century things began to change. In 1739 the great evangelist George Whitefield (1714-1770) began preaching. Also in 1739 John Wesley (1703-1791) began preaching. He eventually created a new religious movement called the Methodists. His brother Charles Wesley (1707-1788) was a famous hymn writer.

John Wesley traveled all over the country, often preaching in open spaces. People jeered at his meetings and threw stones but Wesley persevered. He never intended to form a movement separate from the Church of England. However the Methodists did eventually break away. After 1760 Methodism spread to Scotland.

In Wales there was a great revival in the years 1738-1742. Howell Harris (1714-1773) was a key figure. Scotland was also swept by revival in the mid-18th century. William McCulloch and James Robe were the leading figures.

Political life

After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the Whig party adhered, at least in theory, to the following principles: they

advocated personal freedom maintained that the king governed at the people's consent ("the people" was itself,

of course, an ambiguous term at this time, since it did not include, for example, women)

said that sovereignty rested, ultimately, with the people were strong supporters of William III and his wife Mary, and maintained a virtual

monopoly of political power during their reign.

The Whigs, though their leadership was aristocratic, were also the party of the new financial and mercantile interests. These interests profited in the early eighteenth century from the wars against France.

The Whigs were adherents of the Hanoverians when that dynasty succeeded to the throne, and in fact reigned supreme from 1714 until 1760. Between 1760 and 1800 the party, which had become increasingly corrupt and dependent upon political patronage, disintegrated into a number of smaller groups, and would not return to power until 1830.

The Tories (conservatives)

In a more general sense, the Tories represented the more conservative royalist supporters of Charles II, who endorsed a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the power of Parliament, and who saw in the Whig opponents of the Court a quasi-Republican tendencyto strip the monarchy of its essential prerogative powers and leave the Crown as a puppet entirely dependent upon Parliament.

Besides the support of a strong monarchy, the Tories also stood for the Church of England, as established in Acts of Parliament following the restoration of Charles II both as a body governed by bishops, using the Book of Common Prayer, and subscribing to a specific doctrine, and also as an exclusive body established by law, from which both Roman Catholics and Nonconformists were excluded.

Visual support The Whigs vs. Tories - World History (Block E)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vx3I8QPqxs8 3:33 min

Whigs Tories World Hist, 3:37

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MomcDj7Jyp4

Task- Sum up the Whig and Tory ideologies

Political liberalism

Britain also had the right political background for free-market capitalism, says Professor Black.

"The system of parliamentary government that followed the Glorious Revolution of 1688-9 provided the background for stable investment and for a basis of taxation favourable to economic expansion. "

By the 18th Century the British parliament had won much greater independence from its monarch than any other European great power.

"Liberal practices and values developed accordingly, notably a modest role for the state in economic activity that proved significant for growth."

Parliament passed the laws and controlled expenditure. This helped to ensure political stability and that encouraged the pursuit of scientific breakthroughs as people set up businesses and sought to make profit.

France, by contrast, was home to some of the finest scientific minds, but had an absolute monarchy which wielded great control over economic and political life.

In Britain people believed that through industrial production they could create untold wealth - and the government believed that it was its responsibility to make this happen.

Sources

http://wps.ablongman.com/long_kishlansky_cw_6/35/9181/2350389.cw/index.html

Module 10

The British Romantic poets

Source: is.byu.edu

The Romantic era entails a movement in the literature and art of virtually every country of Europe, the United States, and Latin America that lasted from the late 18th century to the

early 19th century. It is characterized by a shift from the structured, intellectual, reasoned approach of the 1700s to use of the imagination, freedom of thought and expression, and an idealization of nature.

Certain themes and moods, often intertwined, became the concern of almost all 19th-century writers. Those themes include libertarianism, nature, exoticism, and supernaturalism.

Inspiration for the romantic approach initially came from two great shapers of thought,

French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau and German writer Johann Wolfgang von

Goethe. The preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1800), by English poets

William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was also of great importance as a

manifesto of literary romanticism. The two poets reiterated the importance of feeling and

imagination to poetic creation and disclaimed conventional literary forms and subjects.

Thus, as romantic literature everywhere developed, imagination was praised over reason,

emotions over logic, and intuition over sciencemaking way for a vast body of literature of

great sensibility and passion. This literature emphasized a new flexibility of form adapted to

varying content, encouraged the development of complex and fast-moving plots, and

allowed mixed genres (tragicomedy and the mingling of the grotesque and the sublime) and

freer style.

Visual support: Introduction to the Romantic Movement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XV_q45Otdic

1. What is the significance of the term romantic in the context of the Romantic movement?

2. What values of the Enlightenment were rejected by the Romantics? 3. What historical events triggered the Romantic movement? 4. What kind of literary art was preferred by the Romantics? 5. What British author was a source of inspiration for the Romantic poets and why? 6. What are the characteristics of Gothic fiction and how did it inspire the Romantics? 7. What was the Romantic conception of love? 8. What was the Romantics ideas about social roles? 9. What element was considered a great source of inspiration for the Romantic poets?

The Lake District, Cumbria, North-West of England

exoticaplaces.blogspot.com

The Lake District,

http://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/00/1e/47/a0/ennerdale-water-on-a.jpg

Daffodils by William Wordsworth

I WANDER'D lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vales and hills,

When all at once I saw a crowd,

A host, of golden daffodils;

Beside the lake, beneath the trees,

Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the Milky Way, They stretch'd in never-ending line Along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced; but they Out-did the sparkling waves in glee: A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company: I gazedand gazedbut little thought What wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils.

https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQYjxLcPK6wqB3lE1-m9OeB2FRrE5gkwxgKG4rSfcmyQ-QL-4e5TA

https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTO1bFc8M9Yn036TlGdWbRem9bl60lIjGVuylMoZ6Xh_GMIU4Mp

Libertarianism

Many of the libertarian and abolitionist movements of the late 18th and early 19th centuries were given rise by the romantic philosophythe desire to be free of convention and tyranny, and the new emphasis on the rights and dignity of the individual. Just as the insistence on rational, formal, and conventional subject matter that had typified neoclassicism was reversed, the authoritarian regimes that had encouraged and sustained neoclassicism in the arts were inevitably subjected to popular revolutions. Political and social causes became dominant themes in romantic poetry and prose throughout the Western world, producing many vital human documents that are still pertinent. The year 1848, in which Europe was wracked by political upheaval, marked the flood tide of romanticism in Italy, Austria, Germany, and France.

Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, who for some most typify the romantic poet in their personal lives as well as in their work, wrote against social and political wrongs and in defense of the struggles for liberty in Italy and Greece.

Lord Byron/George Gordon Byron ( 1788-1824)

https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRMtl-k3T-X5Jy0c9_ZPK79QzFMVKx_dzPSC_KjL8_93JvMenA6bw

Percy B. Shelley ( 1792-1822)

https://encrypted- tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTfHRAV8DpWSO4wZQved6d_vm8aicEhYv23_0MFKbybZGXhddnH

The general romantic dissatisfaction with the organization of society was often channeled into specific criticism of urban society. Rousseau had written that people were born free but that everywhere civilization put them in chains. This feeling of oppression was frequently expressed in poetryfor example, in the work of English visionary William Blake, writing in the poem Milton (about 1804-1808) of the dark Satanic mills that were beginning to deface the English countryside; or in Wordsworth's long poem The Prelude (1850), which speaks of ... the close and overcrowded haunts/Of cities, where the human heart is sick.

William Blake (1757-1827), www.notable-quotes.com

A Divine Image by William Blake

Cruelty has a Human Heart,

And Jealousy a Human Face;

Terror the Human Form Divine,

And Secrecy the Human dress.

The Human Dress is forged Iron,

The Human Form a fiery Forge,

The Human Face a Furnace seal'd,

The Human Heart its hungry Gorge.

William Blake, Hecate of the Three Fates

http://www.dailyartfixx.com/wp-content/gallery/william-blake/blake_william_hecate_or_the_three_fates.jpg

William Blake, The Witch of Endor

http://www.dailyartfixx.com/wp-content/gallery/william-blake/the_witch_of_endor_william_blake_2.jpg

William Blake, The Grave Personified

http://www.dailyartfixx.com/wp-content/gallery/william-blake/william_blake_-_the_grave_personified.jpg

Nature

Basic to such sentiments was an interest central to the romantic movement: the concern with nature and natural surroundings. Delight in unspoiled scenery and in the innocent life of rural dwellers is perhaps first recognizable as a literary theme in such a work as The Seasons (1726-1730), by Scottish poet James Thomson. It was a formative influence on later English romantic poetry and on the nature tradition represented in English literature, most notably by Wordsworth. Often combined with this feeling for rural life is a generalized romantic melancholy, a sense that change is imminent and that a way of life is being threatened. The melancholic strain later developed as a separate theme, as in Ode on Melancholy (1820) by John Keats.

John Keats ( 1795-1821)

favimages.net

Ode on Melancholy

By John Keats

No, no, go not to Lethe, neither twist

Wolf's-bane, tight-rooted, for its poisonous wine;

Nor suffer thy pale forehead to be kiss'd

By nightshade, ruby grape of Proserpine;

Make not your rosary of yew-berries,

Nor let the beetle, nor the death-moth be

Your mournful Psyche, nor the downy owl

A partner in your sorrow's mysteries;

For shade to shade will come too drowsily,

And drown the wakeful anguish of the soul.

But when the melancholy fit shall fall

Sudden from heaven like a weeping cloud,

That fosters the droop-headed flowers all,

And hides the green hill in an April shroud;

Then glut thy sorrow on a morning rose,

Or on the rainbow of the salt sand-wave,

Or on the wealth of globed peonies;

Or if thy mistress some rich anger shows,

Emprison her soft hand, and let her rave,

And feed deep, deep upon her peerless eyes.

She dwells with BeautyBeauty that must die;

And Joy, whose hand is ever at his lips

Bidding adieu; and aching Pleasure nigh,

Turning to poison while the bee-mouth sips:

Ay, in the very temple of Delight

Veil'd Melancholy has her sovran shrine,

Though seen of none save him whose strenuous tongue

Can burst Joy's grape against his palate fine;

His soul shalt taste the sadness of her might,

And be among her cloudy trophies hung.

Exotic

In the spirit of their new freedom, romantic writers in all cultures expanded their imaginary horizons spatially and chronologically. They turned back to the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) for themes and settings and chose locales as can be seen in the Asian setting of Xanadu evoked by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in his unfinished lyric Kubla Khan.

creativegenius.hubpages.com, Samuel Taylor Coleridge (October 1772 - July 1834 )

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Kubla Khan

IN Xanadu did Kubla Khan

A stately pleasure-dome decree:

Where Alph, the sacred river, ran

Through caverns measureless to man

Down to a sunless sea. 5

So twice five miles of fertile ground

With walls and towers were girdled round:

And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills

Where blossom'd many an incense-bearing tree;

And here were forests ancient as the hills, 10

Enfolding sunny spots of greenery.

But O, that deep romantic chasm which slanted

Down the green hill athwart a cedarn cover!

A savage place! as holy and enchanted

As e'er beneath a waning moon was haunted 15

By woman wailing for her demon-lover!

And from this chasm, with ceaseless turmoil seething,

As if this earth in fast thick pants were breathing,

A mighty fountain momently was forced;

Amid whose swift half-intermitted burst 20

Huge fragments vaulted like rebounding hail,

Or chaffy grain beneath the thresher's flail:

And 'mid these dancing rocks at once and ever

It flung up momently the sacred river.

Five miles meandering with a mazy motion 25

Through wood and dale the sacred river ran,

Then reach'd the caverns measureless to man,

And sank in tumult to a lifeless ocean:

And 'mid this tumult Kubla heard from far

Ancestral voices prophesying war! 30

The shadow of the dome of pleasure

Floated midway on the waves;

Where was heard the mingled measure

From the fountain and the caves.

It was a miracle of rare device, 35

A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice!

A damsel with a dulcimer

In a vision once I saw:

It was an Abyssinian maid,

And on her dulcimer she play'd, 40

Singing of Mount Abora.

Could I revive within me,

Her symphony and song,

To such a deep delight 'twould win me,

That with music loud and long, 45

I would build that dome in air,

That sunny dome! those caves of ice!

And all who heard should see them there,

And all should cry, Beware! Beware!

His flashing eyes, his floating hair! 50

Weave a circle round him thrice,

And close your eyes with holy dread,

For he on honey-dew hath fed,

And drunk the milk of Paradise.

Supernatural

The trend toward the irrational and the supernatural was an important component of English and German romantic literature. It was reinforced on the one hand by disillusion with 18th-century rationalism and on the other by the rediscovery of a body of folktales and ballads.

Some of the major British poets during the Romantic era include William Blake, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Lord Byron.

Source: http://www.mariahecarter.com/

Optional, BBC Documentary, The Romantics, 59:01

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=scck3YCiRxg

The history of the British empire

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrYJshOfkrE 44: 29 min

Module 11

The British Empire

To fully appreciate the significance of the Commonwealth, Britain's global position, it is

important to understand its origins from the British Empire. Technically, there have been

three empires, the first in France, lost by 1558; the second in North America, which became

the United States of America after 1776; and the third was global, which became the

modern Commonwealth of Nations after 1949. Each one being larger than the one before.

The origins of the British Empire can be seen as going back to the Middle Ages with the

beginning of the conquest of Ireland (1172) and conquest of much of France during the

Hundred Years' War. However, the modern British Empire can be considered having started

in 1497 with John Cabot's claim to Newfoundland. The British Empire was the largest

Empire in history; At it's zenith, it held sway over a population of nearly 500 million people -

roughly a quarter of the world's population - and covered about 14.3 million square miles

(17.4 million including Antarctic claims), almost a third of the world's total land area.

During the mid-19th century Britain was the sole developed hyper-power, enjoying

unparalleled prosperity. Britain was "the work-shop of the world," and even by 1870 she still

was producing well over 30% of the global industrial output, no other nation coming even

close to her production superiority. In 1885 America and Germany can be considered as

having become industrialised, but Britain was still the world's most developed nation until

around 1913 when she was surpassed by America. Due to the supremacy of the Royal Navy,

Britain truly did rule the waves for centuries. With territories scattered across every

continent and ocean and in every time-zone, the "Empire Under Palm and Pine" was

accurately described as "the empire on which the sun never sets."

The Empire facilitated the spread of British technology, commerce, language, and

government around much of the globe through Pax Britannica and British Imperial

hegemony. The contributions the British Empire made to the world, the technology,

philosophy, literature, medicine, investment, institutions, and plain advancements of

mankind have left a profound legacy.

Pax Britannica (Latin for "the British Peace", modelled after Pax Romana) was the period of

relative peace in Europe and the world (18151914) during which the British Empirebecame

the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman.

The British Empire consisted of various territories all over the world conquered or colonized

by Britain from about 1600. It was expanded by commerce, trade, colonisation, and

sometimes conquest. Over all the Empire was built on commerce, not conquest. There were

colonies conquered, but they were done for a reason. For instance, France hired the Mughal

Empire to fight Britain. Britain then fought back and conquered the Mughal Empire which

made up the Northwest corner of present day India. The 19th century saw the largest

expansion of the Empire as the British took many former French possessions in the West

Indies and began to settle in large numbers in Australia in the early part of the century and

later competed fiercely with other European powers for territory in Africa.

At the same time, there was serious expansion in Asia, notably the acquisition of Singapore

(1824), Hong Kong (1841), and Burma (1886), and the South Pacific, particularly the

settlement of New Zealand (1840). The final big expansion of the empire was following

World War I, when former German and Turkish territories were mandated to Britain and the

Dominions. The only serious loss of territory was the loss of the 13 American colonies in the

American Revolution of 1776 1783, which became the United States of America. The

British Empire was at its largest territorial expansion after the First World War after 1918,

until the 1940s, consisting of over 25% of the world's population and 30% of its area.

Since 1949, the British Empire was replaced by the Commonwealth of Nations. Most

colonies are now independent;todays Commonwealth is composed of former and remaining

territories of the British Empire and a few non former British Empire countries which once

belonged to other powers such as Portugal, France and Belgium. The Commonwealth is a

loose, voluntary organisation dedicated to preserving human rights and democracy and is

held together by a desire for membership and the English language as well as history.

http://www.ispilledthebeans.com/images/commonwealthmap.jpg

The Empire and the Sea.The British Empire was largely a Maritime Empire. For the most

part, it was won by hardy British sailors, who pushed their way into the uttermost corners of

the world and brought country after country under the sway of Britain. It was held largely by

the power of the British Royal Navy, which had long controlled the sea-ways of the world.

By far the greater part of its enormous commerce was carried in British merchant vessels,

which linked port to port and country to country, enabling the wheat of Canada, the wool of

Australia, the tea of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and the apples of New Zealand to reach the

markets of the United Kingdom. Without the free use of the sea, the Empire could not live.

So it was that, although railways and other land communications played a great part, they

were secondary in importance to the sea communications of the Empire. The merchant fleet

of Britain herself was the largest and most efficient in the world, while that belonging to the

great colonies was far from small.These ships were the most important material bond

uniting the far-flung dominions of the King-Emperor. To enable both the navy and the

merchant fleet to accomplish their tasks, Britain had secured coaling-stations all over the

world. As a vessel could not steam much more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km) without

replenishing her bunkers, there had to be coaling-stations at intervals of 3,000 miles (4,800

km) or so along the great ocean trade-routes.

Government The countries of the Empire, aside from the United Kingdom, were divided

into five groups, as far as government was concerned: (1) The Dominions, (2) The Indian

Empire, (3) The Crown Colonies, (4) The Protectorates, (5) The Mandated Territories.

After Acts of Union between England and Scotland as Great Britain in 1707 and between

Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, the United Kingdom was a unitary state of the British

Isles. Until 1920, it was the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with only one

parliament at Westminster for the whole nation which then included all of Great Britain and

Ireland. In 1920, a separate parliament was set up in Northern Ireland, overseen by a

Governor, though it continued to be represented at Westminster also. In 1921, the southern

part of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom to become the Irish Free State a self-

governing Dominion. In 1927, the United Kingdom was restyled as the United Kingdom of

Great Britain and Northern Ireland to reflect these changes. Great Britain continued to be

governed under a single parliament at Westminster while Northern Ireland had self-

government. The Irish Free State was renamed as Eire in 1937 as it had adopted a quasi-

republican constitution. In 1949, it became the Republic of Ireland and it severed all links

with the British Empire. In 1972, owing to an escalating violent situation, self-government in

Northern Ireland was suspended and replaced with direct rule from Westminster. The

United Kingdom had once again become a single unitary state with only one parliament at

Westminster. This changed in 1999, in a response to growing nationalist aspirations, as self-

government was restored to Northern Ireland and given to Scotland and Wales. For the first

time since 1707, Scotland was given a full parliament while Wales and Northern Ireland

received less powerful assemblies.

However, they all continued to be represented in the United Kingdom parliament at

Westminster also. The United Kingdom, though officially still a unitary state, is now looking

more like a federation, though England still does not have its own self-government.

The Dominion of Canada, the Common-wealth of Australia, the Dominion of New Zealand,

the Union of South Africa, and the sovereign state of Eire (Irish Free State) were self-

governing Dominions under the Crown. Northern Ireland was also self-governing, but it

differed from its sister Dominions in that it sent elected representatives to the Imperial

Parliament at London. In the Dominions, the governmentwas modelled after that of the

United Kingdom, the King being represented by a Governor-General or a Governor. Each had

a Parliament consisting of two Houses. The Parliament of each Dominion was supreme, but

all owed allegiance to the King of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Newfoundland was a

self-governing Dominion until 1933 when it reverted back to being a colony for economic

reasons. Malta and Southern Rhodesia, though not having full Dominion status, were mostly

self-governing. The Kings title throughout the Empire was by the Grace of God, of Great

Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith,

Emperor of India.

Dominion status came to an end in 1948 as the Dominions were restyled as Commonwealth

Realms. By 1953, the Monarchs title was changed to reflect this: by the Grace of God, of

the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and of Her other Realms and

Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith. Distinct variations of

this title were adopted in each of the overseas Realms. Even though the Dominions were

self-governing (fully self-governing after 1931), the United Kingdom parliament still had the

final control over their constitutions. This ended in the Union of South Africa when it became

a republic in 1961 and in Canada, Australia and New Zealand in the 1980s. Since then, they

have become completely independent nations. In the Indian Empire, the King of Great

Britain was also Emperor of India. In the Imperial Cabinet there was an official known as the

Secretary of State for India, who was assisted by an Advisory Council. The government was

known as the British Raj. While the Secretary and his Council had control over all matters

relating to India, they did not attempt, unless under unusual circumstances, to interfere with

the actions of the Indian Government. The King was represented by the Viceroy, or

Governor-General, who was assisted by a Council of State and a Legislative Assembly, the

latter almost wholly elective after 1935. The actual work of government in India was carried

on by the Viceroy (Governor-General) and an appointed Executive Council. The country was

divided into fifteen provinces, with a Governor or an Administrator in each. They were

assisted by a Legislature largely composed of native members after 1935. In fact, the form of

government after 1935 resembled in many ways that of Canada. In response to the growing

Indian Nationalist movement, the endeavour after 1935 was to try to allow the natives of

India the utmost freedom possible, and to give them a large share in the conduct of

government. The relations of the Indian Government to the various native states differed

widely. Except in matters pertaining to war and to a standing army, they were allowed

largely to govern themselves, the British Governmentbeing represented in each state by a

Resident. The Indian Empire came to an end with independence on August 15, 1947.

In general, Crown Colonies were those parts of the Empire which did not have self-

government. Owing to an unsuitable climate or to a large native population, few Europeans

made permanent homes in the Crown Colonies, however, they developed and controlled the

resources of them. Some of the smaller Crown Colonies, however, were purely naval or

military posts, important for the protection of the trade-routes of the Empire. In every

Crown Colony was a Governor, representing the King. In some cases, as in Gibraltar and St.

Helena, the Governor had absolute powers. In others, as in Ceylon and the Straits

Settlements, he was assisted by a Council nominated by the Crown. In a third group, which

included most of the British West Indies and Malta, the laws were made by a Legislature

wholly or partly elected by the people. By the 1930s, in every case, except in the naval and

military colonies, the tendency was to give the natives an ever-increasing share of power as

they showed increasing ability for self-government. Eventually, many of the Crown Colonies

gradually became self-governing as they moved towards independence. Most of the Crown

Colonies gained independence in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Crown Colony status came

to an end in 1998 when the few remaining colonies were restyled as British Overseas

Territories (e.g. Bermuda, the

http://www.atlasofbritempire.com/images/7474624ca18055bd569af4d8b19ab4b1.gif

Falkland Islands, Gibraltar).

In the Protectorates, such as Somaliland, Bechuanaland, and Nyasaland in Africa, the natives

were ruled by their own chiefs under the supervision of British officials. Protectorates

tended, as they developed, to become Crown Colonies, just as Crown Colonies, such as were

formerly the states of the Australian Commonwealth, became self-governing Dominions.

Most of the remaining Protectorates gained independence in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.

The last British Protectorate gained independence in 1978 (British Solomon Islands).

At the conclusion of the First World War, certain territories captured from the enemy were

assigned by the League of Nations to the United Kingdom, France, Japan, and others of the

allied powers. In this way it had fallen to the United Kingdom to be responsible for the

government of large territories in Africa, as well as in Asia and in the SouthSeas. Tanganyika,

Cameroon, and Togoland in Africa, and Palestine, Trans-Jordan and Iraq in Asia were

included in these Mandated Territories, as they were called. For the most part, these new

portions of the Empire were governed as Crown Colonies. Further, under the League of

Nations, mandates were given to the British Dominions also. The Commonwealth of

Australia had control of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and other islands in the

South Pacific; the Dom-inion of New Zealand controlled former German Samoa and other

islands; the Union of South Africa had the mandate for the govern-ment of Southwest Africa.

In all cases of mandated territory, the government had to be carried on in strict accordance

with certain regulations laid down by the League of Nations.

In 1946, the League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations and League of Nations

Mandates became United Nations Trust Territories. They continued to be governed by the

administering powers as Crown Colonies, but under the supervision of the United Nations

Trusteeship Council. The last Trust Territory gained independence in 1990 (Southwest Africa

Namibia).

http://www.atlasofbritempire.com/

Module 12

The Victorian Age

1837-1901

Source: http://www.strangehistory.net/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/victoria.jpg

I. General features of the age

Visual support The Victorian Age.wmv https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wtXLi5c7sP4

List the most important innovations of the Victorian age.

Queen Victoria (1819-1901) was the first English monarch to see her name given to the period of her reign whilst still living. The Victorian Age was characterised by rapid change and developments in nearly every sphere - from advances in medical, scientific and technological knowledge to changes in population growth and location. Over time, this rapid transformation deeply affected the country's mood: an age that began with a confidence and optimism leading to economic boom and prosperity eventually gave way to uncertainty and doubt regarding Britain's place in the world. Today we associate the nineteenth century with the Protestant work ethic, family values, religious observation and institutional faith.

For the most part, nineteenth century families were large and patriarchal. They encouraged hard work, respectability, social deference and religious conformity. While this view of

nineteenth century life was valid, it was frequently challenged by contemporaries. Women were often portrayed as either Madonnas or whores, yet increasing educational and employment opportunities gave many a role outside the family.

Politics were important to the Victorians; they believed in the perfection of their evolved representative government, and in exporting it throughout the British Empire. This age saw the birth and spread of political movements, most notably socialism, liberalism and organised feminism. British Victorians were excited by geographical exploration, by the opening up of Africa and Asia to the West, yet were troubled by the intractable Irish situation and humiliated by the failures of the Boer War. At sea, British supremacy remained largely unchallenged throughout the century.

During the Victorian heyday, work and play expanded dramatically. The national railway network stimulated travel and leisure opportunities for all, so that by the 1870s, visits to seaside resorts, race meetings and football matches could be enjoyed by many of this now largely urban society. Increasing literacy stimulated growth in popular journalism and the ascendancy of the novel as the most powerful popular icon.

The progress of scientific thought led to significant changes in medicine during the nineteenth century, with increased specialisation and developments in surgery and hospital building. There were notable medical breakthroughs in anaesthetics - famously publicised by Queen Victoria taking chloroform for the birth of her son in 1853 - and in antiseptics, pioneered by Joseph Lister (1827-1912). The public's faith in institutions was evident not only in the growth of hospitals but was also seen in the erection of specialised workhouses and asylums for the most vulnerable members of society.

Source

http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Victorians/article.html

II. Arts and Architecture in theVictorian Age

The Gothic Revival. In reaction to the classical style of the previous century, the Victorian age

saw a return to traditional British styles in building, Tudor and mock-Gothic being the most

popular. The Gothic Revival, as it was termed, was part spiritual movement, part recoil from

the mass produced monotony of the Industrial Revolution. It was a romantic yearning for the

traditional, comforting past. The Gothic Revival was led by John Ruskin, who, though not

himself an architect, had huge influence as a successful writer and philosopher.

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Extravagant... Most popular architectural styles were throwbacks; Tudor, medieval,

Italianate. Houses were often large, and terribly inconvenient to live in. The early Victorians

had a predilection for overly elaborate details and decoration. Some examples of large

Victorian houses are Highclere Castle (Hampshire) and Kelham Hall (Nottinghamshire).

Highclere Castle

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cid=Wb8OHC5LtnPOmM&tbnid=i-

Kelham Hall,

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... and simple. In late Victorian times the pendulum, predictably, swung to the other extreme

and the style was simpler, using traditional vernacular (folk) models such as the English

farmhouse. This period is typified by the work of Norman Shaw at 'Wispers' Midhurst,

(Sussex).

The Arts and Crafts movement. Another name that has to be mentioned in the context of

Victorian art and architecture is that of William Morris. Neither artist nor architect, he

nevertheless had enormous influence in both arenas. Morris and his artist friends Rossetti

and Burne-Jones were at the forefront of the movement known as 'Arts and Crafts'. Part

political manifesto, part social movement, with a large dollop of nostalgia thrown in, the