Bridge Abutment Design

T Christie, M Glendinning, J Bennetts, S Denton 1

DESIGN ILLUSTRATION – BRIDGE ABUTMENT DESIGN T Christie, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Bristol, UK M Glendinning, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Cardiff, UK J Bennetts, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Bristol, UK S Denton, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Bristol, UK

Abstract This paper provides a calculation showing how the heel length and overall length of the base

slab of a conventional cantilever gravity abutment can be determined in accordance with the

requirements of the Eurocodes and relevant non-contradictory information[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6]

.

Sliding resistance, bearing resistance and overturning stability are all considered.

The calculations illustrate the requirements of the Eurocodes in regard to loading, partial

factors, combination of actions and other issues which require a somewhat different approach

from that used with pre-Eurocode designs.

Notation The symbols used in the calculations are as for the Eurocode and PD 6694-1. Other symbols

are defined in the text of the calculations or identified in the Figure 1.

The Design Problem An 8m high, 12m wide abutment of a multispan continuous bridge is shown in Figure 1. It is

required to determine the heel length (Bheel) and the overall base length (B) of this abutment

necessary to satisfy the requirements of sliding resistance, bearing resistance and overturning

stability specified in the Eurocodes. The abutment is subject to three notional 3m wide lanes

of traffic surcharge.

The characteristic actions and soil parameters applied to the abutment are as follows:

Permanent actions

Weight of steel beams 50 kN/m

Weight of concrete deck 72 kN/m

Weight of surfacing 36 kN/m

Actions for traffic group gr2

Maximum vertical traffic reaction Vtraffic 100 kN/m

Uplift due to traffic on adjacent span Utraffic 30 kN/m

Braking and acceleration action Hbraking 50 kN/m

UDL surcharge (from PD 6694-1 Table 5) h 20Ka kN/m²

Line load surcharge (from PD 6694-1 Table 5) F 2 x 330 Ka kN/lane


Soil parameters:

Granular backfill

Weight density γbf 18 kN/m²

Angle of shearing resistance 'bf 35

Clay foundations

Weight density 18 kN/m²

Undrained shear strength cu 100 kN/m²

Angle of shearing resistance ' 27

Critical state angle of shearing resistance 'cv 23

Overburden pressure (q) = γbf x Zq q 12 kN/m²

The initial dimensions of the foundations are to be based on traffic load group gr2 in which

the characteristic value of the multi-component action is taken as the frequent value of Load

Model 1 in combination with the frequent value of the associated surcharge model, together

with the characteristic value of the braking and acceleration action, (see the UK National

Annex to BS EN 1991-2:2003, NA.2.34.2).

Wind is not required to be considered in combination with traffic model gr2 and thermal

actions are not considered to be significant and are therefore neglected in these preliminary

calculations.

The water table is well below foundation level and need not be considered, but it is required

to check sliding resistance and bearing resistance at STR/GEO for both the drained and the

undrained condition.

As no explicit settlement calculation is to be carried out at SLS it is required to be

demonstrated that a sufficiently low fraction of the ground strength is mobilised (see BS EN

1997-1:2004, 2.4.8(4)). This requirement will be deemed to be satisfied if the maximum

pressure at SLS does not exceed one third of the characteristic resistance (see PD 6694-1,

5.2.2).


Transverse Dimensions

Abutment width Wabut = 12m

Notional lane widths Wlane = 3m

The traffic on the third

notional lane is subject to

a 0.5 lane factor so that the

effective number of lanes Nlane

used in the surcharge

calculation is 2.5 (see UK

National Annex to BS EN 1991-

2:2003, NA 2.34.2)

Figure 1. Base slab design for a gravity cantilever bridge abutment

Methodology for Preliminary Design Calculations are carried out "in parallel" for the SLS characteristic combination of actions and

for STR/GEO Combinations 1 and 2, using Design Approach 1 (see BS EN 1997-1:2004,

2.4.7.3.4.2). Partial factors on actions are taken from the UK National Annex to BS EN

1990:2002, Table NA.A2.4 (B) and (C), partial factors for soil parameters are from the UK

National Annex to BS EN 1997-1:2004, Table A.NA.A.4 and ψ factors from the UK National

Annex to BS EN 1990:2002, Table NA.A2.1. The preliminary calculations are carried out on

a "metre strip" basis

The following procedure was used for the preliminary design:

1. Calculations were carried out "in parallel" for the SLS characteristic combination and for

STR/GEO Combinations 1 and 2. This allowed a side-by-side comparison of the three limit

states to be made and repetitive calculations to be minimised.

2. The following actions were calculated:

(a) The total horizontal action on the wall (H) due to active earth pressure, traffic

surcharge (factored by ψ1) and braking and acceleration (see Table 1).

.

(b) The minimum vertical reaction due to deck reaction (VDL;inf) and uplift caused by

traffic on remote spans (U) (see Table 2).

(c) The maximum vertical reaction due to the weight of the deck and traffic (see Table

3).

Bheel

B

Z

Y= 1.5

Zq

X=0.25

P


(d) The vertical pressure exerted by the backfill and the base slab (γbfZ). (For

convenience in these preliminary calculations, the density of the concrete in the base

slab and abutment wall was considered to be the same as the density of the backfill

(γbf)).

3. The length of the heel (Bheel) required to provide enough weight to resist sliding for the

drained foundation was found as follows:

The sliding resistance due to the weight of the deck less traffic uplift (Rvx) was taken

as (VDL;inf - U)tan'cv. The required sliding resistance due to the weight of the backfill

and abutment was therefore H-Rvx. The weight of the abutment and backfill required

to provide this resistance was therefore equal to (H-Rvx)/tan'cv and this had to equal

BheelγbfZ. The required value of Bheel therefore equalled (H-Rvx)/(γbfZtan'cv) and this

equals (H-Rvx)/(μγbfZ) as in Table 2.

4. As it was recognised that the loads on the toe and the use of the correct density of concrete

would increase the sliding resistance, the selected figure of Bheel in Table 2 was taken as

slightly less than the figure of Bheel obtained from the calculation.

5. For undrained foundations the total overall base length for sliding, (B1) was taken as Hd/cu;d

as in Table 2 (see BS EN 1997-1:2004, Equation 6a).

6. The required overall base length is also dependent on other factors such as the requirement

to keep the load within the middle third at SLS and within the middle two-thirds at ULS, the

bearing resistance for the drained and undrained condition and in some circumstances

(although not for this structure) for resistance to overturning. In all these calculations the

eccentricity of the vertical action is required. To obtain this it is convenient to take moments

about the back of the heel (point P on Figure 1) rather than the centre of the base, because the

bearing resistance calculations are iterative, but the moments about the back of the heel do not

alter with varying toe lengths, provided the value of Bheel is not changed. This allows multiple

iterations to be carried out with minimal change to the data.

7. Moments about P were calculated (see Tables 4 and 5). The distance of the line of action

from P is eheel, where eheel = M/V and M is the total moment about P and V is the total vertical

load. It can be shown that to satisfy the SLS middle third condition (see PD 6694-1, 5.2.2),

the overall base length (B2) must be 1.5 eheel, and to satisfy the ULS middle two-thirds

condition (see BS EN 1997-1:2004, 6.5.4), the overall base length (B3) must be 1.2 eheel (see

Table 5).

8. To determine the overall base length (B) required to provide adequate bearing resistance for

the undrained and drained conditions, an iterative calculation with increasing values of B was

carried out, starting with the maximum value of the base length found from the sliding

calculations (i.e the largest of B1, B2, or B3) and increasing progressively until the bearing

resistance for the undrained and drained conditions drained and the toe pressure limitation at

SLS were all satisfied.


9. The selected value of B and the calculations in Table 6 and 7 are based on the final

iteration, that is the minimum value of B necessary to satisfy the bearing resistance

requirements. The calculations largely replicate the equations given in BS EN 1997-1:2004,

Annex D.

Notes

The abutment is assumed to be transversely stiff and so the traffic loads can be

distributed over the whole width of the abutment (see PD 6694-1, Table 5 Note C)

For convenience in the preliminary design, the density of the concrete in the base slab

and wall is considered to be the same as the density of the backfill (bf).

It should be noted that the same partial factor G is applied to the vertical and

horizontal earth pressure actions (see PD 6694-1, 4.6). This is only likely to be

relevant in a sliding resistance calculation if STR/GEO Combination 1 is more critical

than Combination 2.

In these calculations a model factor, Sd;k = 1.2 has been applied to the horizontal earth

pressure at ULS in order to maintain a similar level of reliability to previous practice

(see PD 6694-1, 4.7).

In Tables 1 to 7 the figures given in the SLS column are the characteristic values of

material properties and dimensions and the characteristic or representative values of

actions per metre width. The figures in the STR/GEO columns are the design values

unless otherwise indicated.


Horizontal actions

SLS

STR/GEO

Comb.

1

Comb.

2

Height of abutment Z Z 8.00 8.00 8.00 m

Partial factor on soil weight G;sup 1.00 1.35 1.00

Backfill density = γbf;k G;sup bf,d 18.0 24.3 18.0 kN/m3

'bf;k = 35; Partial factor M on tan('bf;k) M 1.00 1.00 1.25

tan-1

(tan('bf;k)/M) = 'bf;d 'bf;d 35.0 35.0 29.3

Active pressure coefficient Ka incl. (M)

(1-sin'bf;d)/(1+sinbf;d) Ka 0.27 0.27 0.34

Model factor Sd:K Sd:K 1.00 1.20 1.20

Design active pressure action

bf;dKaSd;KZ²/2 = Hap;d Hap;d 156 253 237 kN/m

Surcharge UDL = hWlaneNlane/Wabut

= (20Ka) x 3 x 2.5/12 = h;ave h;ave 3.39 3.39 4.29 kN/m2

Surcharge UDL action h;ave x Z = Hsc;udl Hsc;udl 27.1 27.1 34.3 kN/m

Surcharge Line Load/m = F Ka Nlane / Wabut

= 2 x 330Ka x 2.5/12 = Hsc;F

Hsc;F 37.3 37.3 47.2 kN/m

Combined surcharge/m Hsc;udl + Hsc;F =

Hsc;comb Hsc;comb 64.4 64.4 81.6 kN/m

Partial factor on surcharge γQ γQ 1.00 1.35 1.15

1 = 0.75 for surcharge in traffic group grp2 1 0.75 0.75 0.75

Design surcharge = Hsc;d = Hsc;comb.ψ.γQ Hsc;d 48.3 65.2 70.4 kN/m

Characteristic braking action Hbraking;k Hbraking;k 50.0 50.0 50.0 kN/m

Partial factor on braking Q Q 1.00 1.35 1.15

Braking action /m Hbraking:d= Hbraking;k Q Hbraking;d 50.0 67.5 57.5 kN/m

TOTAL DESIGN HORIZONTAL

ACTION Hd = Hap;d + Hsc;d + Hbraking;d Hd 254 386 365 kN/m

Table 1. Horizontal actions


Minimum vertical actions and sliding

resistance

SLS

STR/GEO

Comb.

1

Comb.

2


Characteristic deck weight 50+72+36 = 158 VDL;k 158 158 158 kN/m

Inferior partial factor on deck weight G;inf 1.00 0.95 1.00

Inferior weight of deck VDL;inf;d 158 150 158 kN/m

Uplift from traffic Uk 30.0 30.0 30.0 kN/m

Superior partial factor on uplift Q;sup 1.00 1.35 1.15

1= 0.75 for vertical traffic actions in traffic

group grp2 1 0.75 0.75 0.75

Factored uplift from traffic Uk.Q = Ud Ud 22.5 30.4 25.9 kN/m

Minimum vertical loads from deck and

traffic Vx;d = VDL;inf;d – Ud Vx;d 136 120 132 kN/m

'cv;k = 23; Partial factor M on tan('cv;k) M 1.00 1.00 1.25

Coefficient of friction tan('cv;k)/M = d d 0.42 0.42 0.34

Sliding resistance due to Vx d.Vx;d = Rvx;d Rvx;d 57.5 50.8 44.9 kN/m

Horizontal action from Table 1, Hd Hd 254 386 365 kN/m

Reqd resistance from backfill [Hd – Rvx;d] Rreq 197 335 320 kN/m

Density of backfill (Table 1) bf;d b;df 18.0 24.3 18.0 kN/m3

Frictional shear stress due to backfill: [dbf;d

Z] 61.1 82.5 48.9 kN/m2

Required Bheel= Rreq / (d bf;d Z) Bheel;req 3.22 4.06 6.55 m

SELECTED VALUE OF HEEL Bheel

Rounded down, see Methodology para. (4) Bheel 6.25 6.25 6.25 m

cu;k = 100; Partial factor M on cu;k cu 1 1 1.4

Undrained shear strength cu:d = cu;k /cu cu:d 100.0 100.0 71.4 kN/m2

OVERALL BASE LENGTH B1 = Hd/cu;d B1 2.54 3.86 5.11 m

Table 2. Minimum vertical actions and sliding resistance


Maximum vertical actions

SLS

STR/GEO

Comb.

1

Comb.

2


Selected value of Bheel (Table 2) Bheel 6.25 6.25 6.25 m

Partial factor on steelwork G;sup G;sup 1.00 1.20 1.00

Weight of steelwork = 50G;sup 50.0 60.0 50.0 kN/m3

Partial factor on concrete G;sup G;sup 1.00 1.35 1.00

Weight of concrete = 72G;sup 72.0 97.2 72.0 kN/m3

Partial factor on surfacing G;sup G;sup 1.00 1.20 1.00

Weight of surfacing = 36G;sup 36.0 43.2 36.0 kN/m3

Superior weight of deck/m VDL;sup;d VDL;sup;d 158 200 158 kN/m

Characteristic vertical action from traffic

Vtraffic;k Vtraffic;k 100.0 100.0 100.0 kN/m

Partial factor on traffic Q Q 1.00 1.35 1.15

1 = 0.75 for vertical traffic actions in traffic

group grp2 1 0.75 0.75 0.75

Design traffic action/m

Vtraffic;d =Vtraffic;k Q Vtraffic;d 75.0 101 86.3 kN/m

Density of backfill bf;d (Table 1) bf;d 18.0 24.3 18.0 kN/m3

Selected width of heel Bheel (Table 2) Bheel 6.25 6.25 6.25 m

Design weight of backfill/m

Vbf;d = bf;d Z Bheel Vbf;d 900 1215 900 kN/m

TOTAL MAXIMUM VERTICAL LOAD

Vmax;d = VDL;sup;d + Vtraffic;d+ Vbf;d Vmax;d 1133 1517 1144 kN/m

Table 3. Maximum vertical actions


Moments about the underside of the base

due to horizontal actions

SLS

STR/GEO

Comb.

1

Comb.

2

Active Pressure action Hap;d including Sd;K

(Table 1) Hap;d 156 253 237 kN/m

Lever arm = Z/3 2.67 2.67 2.67 m

Active Moment Map;d = Hap;d Z/3 Map;d 416 674 633 kNm

Surcharge UDL action Hsc;udl (Table 1) Hsc;udl 27.1 27.1 34.3 kN/m

Lever arm = Z/2 4.00 4.00 4.00 m

Hsc;udl x Z/2 = Msc;udl Msc;udl 108 108 137 kNm

Surcharge Line Load Hsc;F (Table 1) Hsc;F 37.3 37.3 47.2 kN/m

Lever arm = Z Z 8.00 8.00 8.00 m

Hsc;F Z = Msc;F Msc;F 298 298 378 kNm

Combined surcharge moment Msc;udl + Msc;F Msc;comb 406 406 515 kNm

Q for surcharge Q 1.00 1.35 1.15

1 = 0.75 for surcharge in traffic group grp2 1 0.75 0.75 0.75

Design surcharge moment Msc;combQ1 Msc;d 305 412 444 kNm

Braking action/m Hbraking;d (Table 1) Hbraking;d 50.0 67.5 57.5 kN/m

Lever arm for braking (Z-Y) = La;b = 8 - 1.5 La;b 6.50 6.50 6.50 m

Braking moment Mbraking;d = Hbraking;d x La;b Mbraking;d 325 439 374 kNm

MOMENT DUE TO HORIZONTAL

ACTIONS,

Mhor;d = Map;d + Msc;d + Mbraking;d Mhor;d 1046 1525 1451 kNm

Table 4. Moments about the underside of the base due to horizontal actions

T Christie, M Glendinning, J Bennetts, S Denton10

Moments about the back of the heel

SLS

STR/GEO

Comb.

1

Comb.

2

Width of heel Bheel Bheel 6.25 6.25 6.25 m

Distance of deck reactions

behind front of wall X X 0.25 0.25 0.25 m

La;deck = Bheel - X La;deck 6.00 6.00 6.00 m

Superior weight of deck VDL;sup;d (Table 3) VDL;sup;d 158 200 158 kN/m

Deck Moment VDL;sup;d La;deck = Mdeck;d Mdeck;d 948 1202 948 kNm

Traffic Load Vtraffic;d (Table 3) Vtraffic;d 75.0 101 86.3 kN/m

Traffic Moment Vtraffic;d La;deck = Mtraffic;d Mtraffic;d 450 608 518 kN/m

Weight of backfill Vbf;d (Table 2) Vbf;d 900 1215 900 kNm

Backfill moment Vbf;d Bheel/2 = Mbf;d Mbf;d 2813 3797 2813 kN/m

Total Moment about heel due to vertical

actions Mvert;d = Mdeck;d + Mtraffic;d + Mbf;d Mvert;d 4211 5607 4278 kNm

Moment about base due to horizontal

Actions (Table 4) Mhor;d 1046 1525 1451 kNm

Total design moment about heel

Mvert;d+ Mhor;d = Mheel;d Mheel;d 5257 7131 5729 kNm

Total vertical load Vd (Table 3) Vd 1133 1517 1144 kN/m

Line of action in front of heel eheel

= Mheel / V eheel 4.64 4.70 5.01 m

Total length B2 required for middle third at

SLS = 1.5 eheel (see PD 6694-1 5.2.2) B2 6.96 m

Total length B3 for middle two thirds at ULS

= 1.2 eheel (see BS EN 1997-1 6.5.4) B3 5.64 6.01 m

Table 5. Moments about the back of the heel (Position P on Figure 1)


Bearing Resistance – undrained foundation SLS

STR/GEO

Comb.

1

Comb.

2

Geometry of foundation (m)

Final B (found iteratively) B 8.60 8.60 8.60 m

Heel length Bheel (Table 2) Bheel 6.25 6.25 6.25 m

Transverse width of foundation L L 12.0 12.0 12.0 m

Inclination 0o

0o

0o

Partial factors

F applied to G 1.00 0.95 1.00

M applied to tan 1.00 1.00 1.25

M applied to cu cu 1.00 1.00 1.40

M applied to c c 1.00 1.00 1.00

Properties of foundation material

Weight density d (including G) d 18.0 17.1 18.0 kN/m3

Angle of shearing resistance d d 27.0 27.0 22.2

Cohesion intercept cd cd 0 0 0

Undrained shear strength cu;d cu;d 100.0 100.0 71.4 kN/m2

Applied action

Horizontal actions Hd (Table 1) Hd 254 386 365 kN/m

Vertical action Vd (Table 3) Vd 1133 1517 1144 kN/m

Moment about P = Mheel;d (Table 4) Mheel;d 5257 7131 5729 kNm/m

Mheel;d/V = eheel eheel 4.64 4.70 5.01 m

Eccentricity about centre line e = eheel - B/2 e 0.34 0.40 0.71 m

Overburden pressure qd 12.0 12.0 12.0 kN/m2

Effective foundation dimensions (m)

Effective foundation breadth B = B-2e B 7.92 7.80 7.19 m

Effective area for 1m strip design A = B A 7.92 7.80 7.19 m2

Effective transverse width L = L L 12.0 12.0 12.0 m

Undrained bearing resistance

(Annex D to BS EN 1997-1 D.3)

Bearing parameters for undrained

foundations

bc = 1-2/(+2) bc 1.00 1.00 1.00

sc = 1+0.2(B/L) sc 1.13 1.13 1.12

ic = ½{1+(1-Hd/Acu;d)} ic 0.91 0.86 0.77

R/A = (+2)cu;dbc sc ic + qd R/A 543 509 328 kN/m2

Vd /A Vd /A 143 195 159 kN/m2

Ratio R/V R / Vd 3.79 2.62 2.06

Settlement check Not critical

(see Table 7)

1/3(R/A) at SLS characteristic 181 kN/m2

Max toe pressure (1+6e/B)Vd / B 163 kN/m2

Table 6. Bearing Resistance – undrained foundation


Bearing Resistance – drained foundation

SLS

STR/GEO

Comb.

1

Comb.

2

Effective foundation dimensions

B from Table 6 B 7.92 7.80 7.19 m

L from Table 6 L 12.0 12.0 12.0 m

A per metre width from Table 6 A 7.92 7.80 7.19 m2

Other geometry, partial factors, foundation

properties and actions are as Table 6

Bearing parameters for drained

foundations

Nq = etand

tan2 (45+d /2) Nq 13.2 13.2 7.96

Nc = (Nq-1)cot d Nc 23.9 23.9 17.1

N = 2 (Nq-1) tan , where /2 (rough

base) N 12.4 12.4 5.68

bc = bq – (1-bq)/Nc tan d bc 1.00 1.00 1.00

bq = b = (1 - tan d) bq , b 1.00 1.00 1.00

sq = 1 + (B / L) sin d, for a rectangular

shape sq 1.30 1.29 1.23

s = 1 – 0.3 (B/L), for a rectangular shape; s 0.80 0.81 0.82

sc = (sq Nq – 1)/(Nq – 1) for rectangular,

square or circular shape sc 1.32 1.32 1.26

m = (2+B/L)/(1+B/L) m 1.60 1.61 1.63

iq = [1 – H/(V + Acdcot d)]m

iq 0.67 0.62 0.54

ic = iq – (1 – iq)/Nc tan d ic 0.64 0.59 0.47

i = [1 – H/(V + Acdcot d)]m+1

i 0.52 0.47 0.36

R/A = (Equation from BS EN 1997-1 D.4)

cd Nc bc sc ic 0.00 0.00 0.00

qd Nq bq sq iq 137 128 62.7

0.5 d B N b s i 367 311 110

R/A = sum of above R/A 504 439 172 kN/m2

Vd /A Vd /A 143 195 159 kN/m

Ratio R/V R / Vd 3.52 2.25 1.08

Resistance to limit settlement at SLS

1/3 (R/A) at SLS characteristic 168 Limits kN/m2

Max toe pressure (1+6e/B) Vd/B 163 satisfied kN/m2

Table 7. Bearing Resistance – drained foundation


Final Design After the preliminary design has been completed a final design should be carried out as given

below:

1. Select the final dimensions based on the preliminary values: Bheel = 6.25m and B = 8.6m.

As the weight on the toe has not been included in the preliminary design, Bheel has been

"rounded down" and the overall length (B) may need to be "rounded up".

2. The final selected base slab dimensions should be verified using the correct concrete

densities, the loads on the toe and other relevant combinations of actions.

Details of the final design calculations are not included in this paper.

Conclusions It is difficult to generalise about which combination of actions or which limit states are critical

on the basis of calculations for a single bridge because the critical combination is often

determined by the ratio of the bridge span to the abutment height or the ratio of traffic action

to the soil actions. It is however clear that horizontal earth pressures are generally critical for

STR/GEO Combination 1 regardless of the bridge proportions because G for soil is higher

than Ka;d /Ka;k for most realistic values of '. Also, for undrained sliding resistance

Combination 2 is always likely to be critical because M on cu is higher than Ka;d /Ka;k for all

realistic values of ', and it is also higher than Q on surcharge braking and acceleration.

For drained sliding resistance, in the calculations presented in this paper, Combination 2 was

more critical than Combination 1, primarily because the effects of G on the weight of soil

were favourable for sliding resistance and unfavourable for horizontal pressure and therefore,

to some extent, cancelled each other out in Combination 1. It was however apparent from the

calculations that Combination 1 could be critical for sliding for low abutments supporting

long spans where braking and acceleration actions were large and earth pressures were small.

For bearing pressure, Combination 2 was found to be significantly more critical than

Combination 1 for both drained and undrained foundations and as M effects tend to

predominate in bearing resistance calculations it seems probable that Combination 2 will be

critical for bearing resistance in most typical abutments and retaining walls. It was also

apparent from supporting calculations that the limitation on toe pressure at SLS is quite severe

and that in many cases where it is required to be applied, it will dictate the length of the base.

Additional explicit settlement calculations may therefore result in shorter base lengths being

required.

Overturning was not found to be an issue for the abutment illustrated in this paper and

although it needs to be verified, it appears that it is unlikely to affect the proportions of typical

gravity abutments as bearing failure under the toe would normally precede overturning.


References

[1] PD 6694-1 Recommendations for the design of structures subject to traffic loading to

BS EN 1997-1: 2004, BSi, London, UK

[2] BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005 Eurocode - Basis of structural design Incorporating

corrigenda December 2008 and April 2010, BSi, London, UK

[3] BS EN 1991-2:2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures – Part 2: Traffic loads on

bridges, Incorporating Corrigenda December 2004 and February 2010, BSi, London,

UK

[4] BS EN 1997-1:2004 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design – Part 1: General rules,

Incorporating corrigendum February 2009, BSi, London, UK

[5] NA to BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005 UK National Annex for Eurocode – Basis of

structural design, Incorporating National Amendment No.1, BSi, London, UK

[6] NA to BS EN 1991-2:2003 UK National Annex to Eurocode 1: Actions on structures –

Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges, Incorporating Corrigendum No. 1, BSi, London, UK

Documents

Bridge Abutment Design