BRICKS AND FIRAUN

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Were Burnt Bricks Used In Ancient Egypt In The Time of Moses?

M S M Saifullah, Elias Karim & Abdullah David

Islamic Awareness, All Rights Reserved.

First Published: 10th November 2000

Last Updated: 2nd November 2005

ssalamu alaykum wa rahamatullahi wa barakatuhu:

Introduction

the Qur'an (28:38) the Pharaoh, who is boastful and mocking, asks his associate Haman to

uild a lofty tower.

Pharaoh said: "O Haman! light me a (kiln to bake bricks) out of clay, and build me a lofty palace

(Arabic: Sarhan, lofty tower or palace), that I may mount up to the god of Moses: but as far as I

am concerned, I think (Moses) is a liar!" [Qur'an 28:38]

he command of the Pharaoh was but a boast, but a new question now arises: Were mud brick

ver burnt (baked) in Egypt at this time? In several articles by Christian missionaries the point

peatedly made that Egyptians did not construct buildings out of baked bricks during this per

or example, in the article Tower of Burnt bricks in Egypt? we read:


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This command of Pharaoh is a problem for the authenticity and accuracy of the Qur'ansince at the

time of Moses Egyptians didn't construct buildings out of burnt clay, i.e. this is a historical

contradiction.

nd, in their "Comparative Index to Islam" under Baked [Burnt] Bricks they again charge that

e Qur'an makes a historical error concerning the use of baked bricks:

However, the Qur'an makes an historical error when it claims that the Egyptians used baked bricks.

Except for some minor ruins at Nebeshehand Defenneh, baked [or burnt] bricks were not used in

Egypt before the Roman period (Manual of Egyptian Archaeology, G. Maspero, H. Grevel, p. 4).

We would like to examine these statements in the light of Egyptology to see whether the Qur'a

atement of using burnt bricks in Egypt during the time of Moses is indeed a historical

ontradiction.

Hieroglyphic Evidence

he first thing to establish is whether there exist any hieroglyph that mentions the burning of

icks in ancient Egypt. A good place to start isDie Sprache Der Pharaonen Groes

andwrterbuch gyptisch, a concise Egyptian-German dictionary. Under the entry "Ziegel

rennen" (i.e., "to burn bricks"), we see:[1]

Figure 1: Hieroglyph entry for "to burn bricks".

fact, a papyrus of the 19th Dynasty contains accounts of brick making and records the numb

f bricks produced by various workmen but unfortunately does not state the length of time

quired to make bricks. The same papyrus contains the word "gash"which Adolf Erman and

ermann Grapow in 1931 in their bookWrterbuch Der Aegyptischen Sprache stated it mean

o burn bricks". But the damaged state of the text made it impossible for them to be sure of th

eaning.[2]

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Figure 2: Entr y in " Wrterbuch Der Aegyptischen Sprache" showing t he hieroglyph "t o burn bricks".

hat the burnt bricks were used in Ramesside buildings is not surprising as we shall soon see.

ow early does the history of using burnt brick in Egypt go back to?

Evidence Of Burnt Brick In Egypt

he use of burnt brick in Egypt did not become common until the Roman Period. However, th

enough evidence to show that burnt brick was known in Egypt from a very early date. Long

ars of baked clay were employed in the Predynastic grain-kilns at Abydos and Mahasna, and

hile these cannot be called bricks, they show a knowledge of the effect of baking on ordinary

ud. It is impossible that early Egyptians were unaware of the fact that mud-bricks could be

ardened by burning, since they could have observed this process in any building which, by

cident or design, was gutted by fire.[3] There are several examples of accidental production o

urnt brick. They occur in the 1st Dynasty tombs at Saqqara, due to their having been burnt by

underers; and similar cases must have been fairly common. There is no evidence, as yet, tha

gyptians deliberately prepared burnt bricks for use in buildings during the Predynastic Period

e Old Kingdom. However, there are examples of glazed tiles, appearing in a highly develope

chnique in both the 1st and 3rd Dynasties. This proves that the Egyptians during the advent o

ld Kingdom Period were well aware of glazing as a method of decoration and protection.[4] T

rliest example of the use of burnt brick comes from the Middle Kingdom fortresses in Nubia

hich they were used as paving-slabs measuring 30 x 30 x 5 cm.[5] The next instance of the bu

ick is recorded in the New Kingdom Period, when they occur in conjunction with funerary

ones in the superstructures of the tombs at Thebes.[6] Burnt brick as a constructional material

so appears at Nebesheh and Defenneh dated to Ramesside times to which we will now turn o

tention.

he assertion of the missionaries that burnt bricks were not used in Egypt during the time of



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oses is allegedly based on the bookManual Of Egyptian Archaeology. Although this book i

entioned, it is never once referenced completely or quoted accurately, and furthermore, the y

f publication is always conspicuously absent. The exact details of our copy at least is Gaston

aspero (Trans. by Amelia B. Edwards),Manual of Egyptian Archaeology and Guide To The

udy Of Antiquities In Egypt, 1895, New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by the Author, H.

revel & Co.: London.

his revised edition of Sir Gaston Camille Charles Maspero's (1846 -1916) book was originall

ublished back in 1885. The very fact they had to go back so far indicates to the reader that no

cent works acquainted with archaeology make such claims and it is for this reason perhaps t

e date of publication is notably absent.[7] Whatever the reason for the omission, the omission

onsistent.

simple examination ofManual Of Egyptian Archaeology shows that the Christian missionar

tation is grossly misleading. According to the missionaries:

Except for some minor ruins at Nebeshehand Defenneh, baked [or burnt] bricks were not used in

Egypt before the Roman period(Manual of Egyptian Archaeology, G. Maspero, H. Grevel, p. 4).

he actual quotation reads:

Burnt bricks were not often used before the Roman period (Note 4), nor tiles, either flat or curved.[8]

he actual quotation should also be understood with reference to its notes, as it is in Note 4 th

e are provided with the most useful data concerning the usage of baked brick architecture in

ncient Egypt:

(4) They are found of Ramesside age at Nebesheh and Defenneh; even there they are rare, and

these are the only cases I have seen in Egypt earlier than about the third century A.D.[9]

hus, although rare, baked bricks were manufactured in ancient Egypt but their use did not

ecome common until the Roman period. The interested reader should consult Tanis, II, by W

. Flinders Petrie and F. Ll. Griffith[10] for further information concerning the true nature and

mportance of these discoveries.



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bout fifty years after the reign of Tutankhamen, Ramesses II ruled c. 12791212 BCE, durin

gypt's 19th Dynasty. A statue of King Ramesses II was excavated from Nebesheh, a site in t

ile Delta. Furthermore, one of the earliest tombs to be opened at Nebesheh was built of red

aked bricks, again dated to Egypt's 19th Dynasty:

The earliest tomb opened, was one built of red baked bricks, No. 35, almost at the extreme east of

the cemetery... This tomb was of Pa-mer-kau, according to the two limestone ushabti found in it;

and from a statue in the temple, representing Merenptah, son of Pa-mer-kau, and bearing the

cartouche of Ramessu II., it may be dated to the nineteenth dynasty. The style of the two ushabti

also exactly accords with that period; and some fragments of wrought granite found in this tomb,

again agree to a Ramesside period.

The employment of red brick in this tomb, and in the next to be described, which is also Ramesside,

is of great importance. Hitherto I had never seen any red brick in Egypt of earlier times than the

Constantine period; and it appeared to be a test of that age. Now we see from these cases, and

from the discovery of red brick beneath the black mud brick of the twenty-sixth dynasty, at

Defenneh, that baked brick was introduced in the Rammesside times in the Delta...[11]

a-mer-kau's son Merneptah bears a name that was common at the time, particularly so becau

e king's son was also called Merneptah. Both Ramesses II and his son Merneptah are Pharao

f Egypt's 19th Dynasty (the New Kingdom Period), and both kings are commonly associatedith the Exodus.[12]

urthermore, the burnt brick remains discovered at Nebesheh and Defenneh cannot simply be

garded as "minor" and unimportant based on the whims and desires of the uninformed Chris

issionaries.[13] As we have seen, both Petrie and Griffith consider the employment of the red

ick during the 19th Dynasty of great importance.

hus, the earliest example of Egyptians deliberately preparing burnt brick date from the Midd

ingdom. From the extensive study of brick architecture in Egypt, Spencer concludes that:

From the foregoing, it must be concluded that burnt brick was known in Egypt at all periods, but

used only when its durability would give particular advantage over the mud brick.[14]

s for the less extensive use of burnt bricks in early Egypt, this more due to the issue of

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onomics than the lack of knowledge. Barry Kemp says:

The widespread preference for unfired soil architecture was thus through choice rather than

ignorance.[15]

factor inhibiting the use of burnt brick could presumably be the cost of fuel needed for firin

rom the ongoing discussion it is clear that the burnt brick was known in all periods (i.e., Old,

iddle and New Kingdom Periods) in Egypt. To claim that the mention of burnt bricks during

e times of Moses is a historical contradiction is simply a case of sheer ignorance and shows

oor understanding of construction techniques employed throughout the ancient Egyptian peri

he missionaries contradicting themselves when faced with hard facts is not too surprising. Th

rst stated that the mention of burnt brick is a "problem for the authenticity and accuracy of th

ur'an"since at the time of Moses "Egyptians didn't construct buildings out of burnt clay." W

esented with the evidence that the burnt brick was known in Egypt in all periods, that is even

efore the arrival of Moses in Egypt, their tune suddenly changed. The missionary Vargo agre

at the "firing bricks was known throughout Egyptian history is hardly surprising" as "Egypti

ere a sophisticated people." If this was indeed that case why is he contradicting himself by

aiming that "the Qur'an makes an historical error when it claims that the Egyptians used bak

icks" when he himself agrees that burnt brick was known "throughout Egyptian history"? It

ear that the contradiction is in the stance of the missionaries rather than in the Qur'an.

ealising that it is a factual error to state that burnt bricks were not used in ancient Egypt at th

me of Moses, the missionaries move horizontally and adopt a different, although similarly

isleading approach: could brick conceivably be used to build important monuments? The

issionary Vargo confidently states that, "bricks were not used to construct important

onuments!" The evidence for such a claim comes in the form of a citation from Earl Baldwin

mith, Professor of Art and Archaeology at Princeton University,

Although Egypt had an old and fully developed tradition of brick architecture, she never evolved, as

did Mesopotamia, a monumental style in this material. While brick continued to be the most

common building material throughout Egyptian history, it was used more for practical construction

than for important monuments. (Egyptian Architecture as Cultural Expression, American Life

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Foundation, 1968, page 7.)

perfunctory glance at the citation reveals that the missionary has grossly misunderstood a

mple English sentence. Professor Smith states that brick was "used more for practical

onstruction than for important monuments." Nowhere does Smith state, indicate or imply tha

ricks were not used to construct important monuments!" in the quoted citation. Yet again, th

issionaries have engaged in the misrepresentation and subsequent distortion of the source

aterial.

et us now discuss the accuracy of the ancient Egyptian chronology proposed by the missiona

Moses & Burnt Bricks

ven more problematic for the Christian missionaries, however, is the period in which these

aked brick structures at Nebesheh are dated to Egypt's 19th Dynasty, the period of history in

hich Moses is usually associated. Given the fact (and Vargo's own admission!) that the burnt

ick was known "throughout Egyptian history" one does not have to even worry about the iss

f in which period of the Egyptian history Moses was present. Vargo, using the New Chronolo

oposed by David Rohls in his book theA Test of Time,[16] goes on to discuss the period in

hich Moses existed. Fortunately, we have A Waste of Time homepage on the web that includ

collection of articles written by scholars of Egyptology such as Professor Kenneth Kitchen a

ell as amateurs. If the missionaries are sincere in advocating a new ancient Egyptian

hronology, one would expect them to be working assiduously toward persuading the scholars

gyptology and their own evangelical brethren to take Rohl's work seriously, before moving o

asty and unsubstantiated accusations as have been discussed above.

Conclusions

lthough rare, baked bricks were manufactured in ancient Egypt but their use did not become

ommon until the Roman period. In fact, that the scholars of Egyptology have concluded that

urnt brick production was known in Egypt at all periods. Specifically, when durability was

quired, burnt bricks were able to provide a qualitative advantage as compared to their mud

ick counterparts, and it was in this setting that the burnt brick was used. It is also important

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ote that the ancient Egyptians were not ignorant behind the processes and specific

anufacturing requirements in the production of burnt bricks, however, it would appear that th

ost of fuel for firing was prohibitive and this could be one of the reasons for the preference of

nfired soil architecture.

s early as the Thinite Period (c. 3150 c. 2700 BCE) during the 1st Dynasty, we have seen

vidence of accidental production of burnt bricks at the Saqqara tombs due to the fire damage

used by the plunderers. There are examples of glazed tiles, appearing in a highly developed

chnique in both the 1st and 3rd Dynasties. Presently, the earliest known surviving example o

e deliberate use of burnt brick is observed during the Middle Kingdom Period (c. 2040 c.

674 BCE) which covers the 11th & 12th Dynasties, at the fortresses in Nubia; these fortresse

ere constructed from paving-slabs measuring 30 x 30 x 5 cm. Moving on to the New Kingdo

eriod (c. 1552 c. 1069 BCE) which covers the 18th 20th Dynasties, we can observe thaturnt bricks occur in conjunction with funerary cones in the superstructures of the tombs at

hebes. Furthermore, burnt brick as a constructional material also appears at the Nebesheh and

efenneh tombs, the former is dated to the 19th Dynasty. Both Ramesses II and his son

erneptah were the Pharaohs of Egypt's 19th Dynasty (the New Kingdom period), and both

ngs are commonly associated with the Exodus.

ow that it has been clearly established that the burnt brick production was well known to thencient Egyptians for a considerable time (spanning numerous dynasties) before the advent of

oses, it has become obvious that the missionaries have failed to identify a proper context wi

hich we can identify and appropriately categorise burnt brick usage in subsequent dynasties.

herefore, it is somewhat perplexing that the missionaries boldly asserted that ancient Egyptia

uring the time of Moses did not construct buildings out of burnt clay. Realising that this is qu

mply a factual error, the missionaries backtracked on their original position and accepted tha

urnt brick production was known throughout ancient Egyptian history, but contend that such

aterials would never have been used to construct important monuments (e.g., the Pharaoh's

onstruction of a lofty tower). Regrettably, this statement is based on a gross misreading of wh

as in all respects a straightforward English sentence. Combined with their reliance on unprov

ncient Egyptian chronologies, the missionaries misrepresent and distort source material and f

substantiate their claim that the Qur'an is in error.



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nd Allah knows best!

eferences & Notes

] R. Hannig,Die Sprache Der Pharaonen Groes Handwrterbuch gyptisch - Deutsch (28

50 v. Chr.), 2000, Verlag Philipp Von Zabern: Mainz, p. 1570; Also see the older edition of t

me book by R. Hannig,Die Sprache Der Pharaonen Groes Handwrterbuch gyptisch -

eutsch (2800-950 v. Chr.), 1995, Verlag Philipp Von Zabern: Mainz, p. 895.

] A. Erman & H. Grapow, Wrterbuch Der Aegyptischen Sprache, 1931, Volume 5, J. C.inrichs'sche Buchhandlung: Leipzig, 156, 7; Also see A. J. Spencer,Brick Architecture In

ncient Egypt, 1979, Aris & Phillips Ltd.: UK, p. 4.

] A. J. Spencer,Brick Architecture In Ancient Egypt, 1979, op. cit., p. 140; B. Kemp, "Soil

ncluding Mud-Brick Architecture)", in P. T. Nicholson & I. Shaw (Eds.),Ancient Egyptian

aterials And Technology, 2000, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge (UK), p. 79.

] W. M. F. Petrie,Abydos: Part II, 1903, Egyptian Exploration Fund & Trbner & Co: Lond

25 and p. 48. Petrie comments on the importance of these discoveries by saying (p. 48):

Several objects have placed the history of art and products in an entirely new light, change some of

the ideas hitherto accepted.

At the beginning of the 1st Dynasty we meet with the art of glazing fully developed, not only for

large monochrome vessels, but for inlay of different colours... It was also used for relief work, and

in the round... and on the great scale for the coating of wall surfaces.

] G. A. Reisner, N. F. Wheeler & D. Dunham, Uronarti Shalfak Mirgissa, 1967, Second

ataract Forts: Volume II, Museum of Fine Arts: Boston (USA), pp. 118-119 and Plate XLIX

. J. Spencer,Brick Architecture In Ancient Egypt, 1979, op. cit., p. 140; "Brick Construction

. Arnold (S. H. Gardiner and H. Strudwick [Trans.]), The Encyclopaedia Of Ancient Egyptia

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rchitecture, 2003, I. B. Tauris: London, p. 34.

] L. Borchardt, O. Knigsberger & H. Ricke, "Friesziegel in Grabbauten",Zeitschrift Fr

gyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde, 1934, Volume 70, pp. 25-35; A brief discussion of

ese bricks at Thebes is also available in A. J. Spencer,Brick Architecture In Ancient Egypt,

979, op. cit., p. 140.

] We are not suggesting that recent publications are of more authority, but rather, we wish to

ghlight our concern for the way in which certain Christian missionaries often misuse and abu

ference materials.

] G. Maspero (Translated by Amelia B. Edwards),Manual of Egyptian Archaeology And Gu

o The Study Of Antiquities In Egypt, 1895, New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by the Autho

. Grevel & Co.: London, p. 4; For a similar statement see "Brick And Brick Architecture" in

Redford (Ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, 2001, Volume I, Oxford Univer

ress: Oxford (UK), p. 199.

] ibid., p. 334.

0] W. M. F. Petrie & F. Ll. Griffith, Tanis, Part II, 1888, Trbner & Co: London.

1] ibid., pp. 18 -19.

2] Readers are requested to read the paper Qur'anic Accuracy Vs. Biblical Error: The Ki

nd Pharaohs Of Egypt for details of the period of Egyptian history in which Moses is

ommonly associated.

3] The importance of the discovery of burnt bricks in Nebesheh can be judged by the fact th

mentioned by numerous scholars. See G. Maspero (Translated by Amelia B. Edwards),Man

f Egyptian Archaeology And Guide To The Study Of Antiquities In Egypt, 1895, op. cit., p. 33

. Lucas,Ancient Egyptian Materials & Industries, 1948, Third Edition (Revised), Edward

rnold & Co.: London, p. 64; A. J. Spencer,Brick Architecture In Ancient Egypt, 1979, op. ci

141; B. Kemp, "Soil (Including Mud-Brick Architecture)", in P. T. Nicholson & I. Shaw

Eds.),Ancient Egyptian Materials And Technology, 2000, op. cit., p. 79 and p. 103 for the

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ference of W. M. F. Petrie.

4] A. J. Spencer,Brick Architecture In Ancient Egypt, 1979, op. cit., p. 141.

5] B. Kemp, "Soil (Including Mud-Brick Architecture)", in P. T. Nicholson & I. Shaw (Eds.

ncient Egyptian Materials And Technology, 2000, op. cit., p. 79; A similar observation was aade by Baldwin Smith. See E. B. Smith,Egyptian Architecture As Cultural Expression, 193

. Appleton-Century Company: New York & London, p. 7.

6] D. M. Rohl,A Test Of Time, 1995, Volume I: The Bible - From Myth To History, Random

ouse UK Ltd.: London.

Refutation Of External Contradictions In The Qur'an
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