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MINISTRY OF BASIC EDUCATION, SPORT AND CULTURE
COMPENSATORY TEACHING
FACILITATORS WORKSHOP
2001
1
HOW WE LEARN:
THE ROLE OF THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
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HOW WE LEARN.INTODUCTION:
We know there is an interplay between what we have inherited form our bloodline, what happens during or after birth and ourenvironment (Nature and Nurture). But, we have to know what happens with all the stimuli from the environment that bombards us,and why some of us cannot cope with it.
The brain is the centre where all stimuli is received, processed and given meaning to. Learning is a process of sensory input,
processing of information which takes place in the brain and output which is in the form of any kind of motor movement (speech,writing, performance,.
INPUT PROCESSING: OUTPUT:Eyes The Central Nervous System, Movement (e.g. speechEars production, writing,Tactile (touch) performing a task, etc.)Kinesthetic (feeling of movement)
Not nearly all of the functions of the brain have been explored, but a number of advances have been made over years. It is known thatthe brain can be roughly divided into structurally functional areas, that these areas work in an integrated fashion and that it can bedetermined by technical devices and substance injections. Usually the functional areas are numbered.
Studies include imaging of the brain to determine activity or increased blood-flow during particular tasks to show the involved areasof the brain. These scans can also indicate diseased areas like brain tumors, and structural abnormalities. The following are acronymsfor brain imaging: CT is an X-ray type of scan of brain structures and then imaged on a computer, EEG, EP & MEG graphs forelectrical brain activity of different brain structures, MRI applies a strong magnetic field to the brain to study smaller brain structuresand nuclei, PET, CBF and SPECT are all used in the imaging for region blood metabolism where activities take place.
We will try and give simple pictures and descriptions of the areas and functions of the brain, hemispheric dominance, and neuro-biochemistry.
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Hemispheres
The brain is divided into a left hemisphere and right hemisphere. These two sides are connected by the corpus callosum. (see later)
3
LEFT RIGHT
C o r p u s
C a l
l o s u m
Right Brain functions
NON-VERBAL Gestalt/ Holistic images, shapes,
pictures) Sense of continuation of existence
over time (past, present, future) 3-Dimensional images / depth Colours and hues Pitch, accent, sound, melodies Non-verbal language (body-
language/ read between the lines)/ hidden communication
Left Brain functions
VERBAL Realistic Detail as in words, analysis Logical sequence/order as letters in
words, numbers, sequential facts, etc Read Speak Write Speaking
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We tend to develop our left hemisphere more that the right hemisphere due to ourexposure to language. Instead we should integrate functions of both hemispheres, e.g.use more melodies in teaching, use colours, visualise pictures in your mind, think of ourselves another time or place, try to read what people think by watching their bodylanguage and facial expressions,. That is why teachers should integrate brain functions
when teaching.
The two halves of the brain are further divided into four parts: (The right side issimilar to the left side)
The Pre-frontal Lobes
The Parietal Lobes
The Occipital Lobes
The Temporal Lobes
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Inside the brain The Cortex Process information. Decision and initiation of
concrete action Receptive language and
speech functions Storing and recalling
Eye
Pre-frontal cortex: Planning Insights
Empathy
Introspection
Intuision Decision on action
Control of
The Limbic system :
Biochemical centre.
Control pain sensation.
Emotional arousal.
Plays a role in:memory(hippocampus), instinctivebehaviour, impulse control,
perseveration, frustrationtolerance, temperature, hunger,arteries, etc
The Hind-brain: Movement Balance Muscle tone & control in
keeping the posture correct Arouse and relax muscle
groups to perform amovement.
The Brainstem Respiratory Functions Cardiovascular functions Sleep and consciousness Contain cell-bodies for
sendingneurotransmitters tohigher brain centres
Reticular Activating System(RAS) Carry ascending and
descending neurons andCranial nerves
Alertness andwakefulness
May involve motivationto do something.
Pons
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The Limbic System Parts
1. Hippocampus & Amygdala
2. Basal Ganglia
3. Thalamus
Main Functions: Memory
The right side: memory forspatial orientation/position, etc.
The left side: memory for verbalmaterial
In lesser degree in right side:memory for sentences (contentscan be visualised).
Memory for acquiring motorsequences
Involved in neurochemistry The Am dala is associated
Main Functions: Motor functions, posture,
muscle tone, normal movement If damaged (twitches, jerks,
tremors) Sequencing of movement,
smooth movements (e.g. as intalking)
Main Functions:
The General Post Office Receives, sends, selects,
integrates messages to and frombrain areas.
Is the centre of arousal Works with the somato-sensory
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Olfactory
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Pre-frontal lobe
S u p p
l e m e n
t a r y m o t o r
P r e - m o t o r c o r t e x
M o t o r c o r t e x
S o m a t o s e n s o r y c o r t e x
Parietal lobe
P r i m a r y a r e a
A s s o c
i a t i o n a r e a
Auditoryassociation
Brocasarealeft side
Wernickes area left
side
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
Visual cortex
Primary area
Association area
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468
9
10
1147
4645
44
321
57
4340
4142
38
22
2137
39
1918
17
6
24
33
2511
10
9
8
4 57
3123
26
29 30
12
3 1 2
19
18
17
181937
20
36
4827
3528
34
38
Brodmans Cortical Areas
9
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Frontal Lobe Areas
Frontal Lobe problems Irritability and labile emotions, depression and flatness of affect, lack of motivation, difficulty with attention and concentration no:
10) A peculiar sense of humour Brocas aphasia (problems in motor production of speech) Memory problems and other higher cognitive functions, e.g. reflection, meta-cognition , abstract thinking, planning, programming,
judgement, verification
10
46
8 64
45 44
47
11
Frontal Lobe Functions
There is reciprocal connections with motor-sensory (no 4)and emotional areas.
Responsible for controlling contro-lateral movements (6)
Articulation /Speech production (no 44) and writing in thedominant hemisphere.
Eye movements (no 8) This lobes functions are critical to personality and
behaviour, abstract thinking, planning, programming,memory, judgement, verification and higher mental
43
10
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Difficulty in distal movement such as writing, speech, eye-movements, face, etc. (fine motor movements) as well as speed andstrength of movement. (no 4)
Poor body and limb movement (parietal cortex) (nos 4, 6, 8), to alter movements, or to make a series of smooth movements(nos : 5, 7).
Cannot plan movement, but know how it should be done ( no: 6) A learner has difficulty to learn through movement. No voluntary gaze (nos : 8, 9) Total inhibition or no inhibition of response (inappropriate or uninhibited behaviour) (nos: 9, 10, 11) Aphasia ( a language disorder) (no: 44). Cannot put matter into series, sequential order (no: 46). Cannot put letters or sounds into sequence to form a word, or words into
sentences, counting in correct order or tell a story in a sequence of events. Problems with orientation in space (no: 47). Cannot find his/her way from one place to another, cannot read maps, difficulty to
write between lines, turns letters and numbers upside-down . Problems with association (integrated function) Problematic social behaviour (no: 11) Does not know ethics in behaviour, hyper-active and uncontrollable, impulsive behaviour,
seen as naughty or unmannered. Poor olfactory discrimination (no: 45). Cannot learn through tasting and smelling
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The Parietal Lobe Areas
Parietal Lobe problems Problems to discriminate tactile stimuli (e.g. through touch) (nos: 1, 2, 3). Inability to attach meaning to sensory Visual and tactile impressions (agnosia) (nos: 5, 7, 37) Left side: Cannot deal with or manipulate objects intelligently (constructional apraxia) (nos 7, 40) Left side: Language and Math problems (nos: 39, 40) Short term memory problems (nos: 37, 40)
32
1
5
7
404339
37
Parietal Lobe Functions Receives and identifies sensory information from
tactile (touch/skin) receptors (nos: 1, 2, 3, 5, 7) Processes visual and auditory sensations and Praxes
(perception of speed and movement?) (nos: 7, 22,37, 39, 40)
Reaction to pain sensation (no: 43 ??) Awareness of and response to illness (nos 7, 40
right) Naming body parts (no:5, 7) Tone, melody, rhythm, tempo (nos: 42,22 right) Identif meanin of non-verbal sounds (nos 42, 22
22
12
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Problems with body image ( no: 7) Cannot name body parts, own or others gender, poor human figure drawings. Left-right confusion, (no: 7, 40) Child will have difficulty identifying left and right on his/her own body (laterality), confuse
directions, b/d/p confusion, and reads or writes in the wrong direction . Right hemisphere : Spatial problems (no 7, 40) (see frontal lobe spatial problems as well) Problem with eye-movement (nos: 7, 40) Mis-reaching objects (nos: 5, 7) In either or both hemispheres: Right-left disorientation, finger agnosia (through finger touch) , astereogosis (touching solid
objects) In dominant hemisphere: Alexia (inability to read), agraphia (inability to write), anomia (difficulty to recall the names of things),
ideomotor and kinesthetic apraxia (difficulty to execute a task or movement on command), dyscalculia (loss of ability to docalculations)
In the non-dominant hemisphere: impaired spatial abilities, denial of illness (anosognosia), inability to recognise body parts(autopagnosia), dressing oneself, constructional and kinesthetic apraxias (difficulty in completing a task or , to execute a task ormovement on command) left-side spatial neglect.
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The Occipital Areas
Occipital Lobe problems
Disturbed spatial orientation (see frontal lobe and parietal lobe problems) Visual illusions Visual hallucinations Blindness Hysteria symptoms
17
181921
20
Occipital Lobe Functions Processing of visual images (no:
17) Perception, integration, imprinting
of visual information Selection, interpretation and
memory/recall of visualinformation (nos: 18, 19, 20, 21,37)
Right lobe: Perceptual organisation Left Lobe: Visual language
reception Naming, using, recognition of
objects no: 18, 19, 20, 19 left &corpus callosum)
Recognising drawn objects (nos:18, 19, 20, 21 right)
Face recognition (nos:18, 19 right)
Associate colour with objects (nos:18, 19 right)
Naming colours (nos: speech areas+ 18, 19, 37)
Recognising hues (Nos: 18, 19,
22
37
14
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15
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The Temporal Lobe Areas
Temporal Lobe Problems
Memory impairment (bilateral) (no 21) Left side: Language comprehension (no.: 22) Control of sexual and aggressive drives (Limbic system) Wernickes aphasia (dominant hemisphere) when speech is fluent and spontaneous, but incoherent and non-sensical Klver-Bucy syndrome (placidity, apathy, hyper sexuality, visual &auditor agnosia, amnesia, aphasia, dementia, seizures) Aprosody (non-dominant hemisphere)( cannot inflect own speech with affect or comprehend inflections of other speech)
41
4252
38
Temporal Lobe Functions Hearing, sound discrimination, language skills (no:
41). Selection of auditory input, e.g. organising verbal
information into categories (no: 38) Differentiation of sound sequences, pitch and
rhythm (Left lobe: Wernickes area forinterpretation, speech comprehension and memory.
Right lobe: non-verbal perception, e.g. melodies)(nos: 22, 42)
Long term memory (especially hippocampus) (no:21 - see Occipital lobe)
Sexual and aggressive behaviour Left side: Comprehension of Language (no: 22) Interpretation of gustatory and olfactory sensations Major component of limbic system
22
21
Wernickes area
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Integrated Functions of the Temporal, Occipital and Parietal lobes
Translation of information Memorising Comprehension, association and expression Organisation of complex, simultaneous responses, e.g. essay writing which involves strings of thoughts, language, encoding into
equivalent graphemes, recall of the letter symbols, verify correct spelling and syntax, transferring these into kinesthetic patterns activation of different nerves and muscle groups and motor movement (writing)
Internal spatial organisation according to body-in-space awareness and spatial orientation according to input from auditory, visualand tactile-kinesthetic modalities.
17
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Example of areas that function for Language
Hear and comprehend word:
Spoken word Areas 41, 42 Wernicke (area 22)
Speak
Cognition Wernicke Broca Face Cranial nerves
Read
41
4252
22Wernickes area
44Brocas area
4
321
39 F a c e
19 18
17
18
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Written word Area Areas 18, 19 Area 39 Wernicke
19
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Major structures involved in Reading and Spelling
Left hemisphere only Phonetic reading and spelling
Right hemisphere only Grapheme reading and spelling
Broca left & Wernicke right Phonetic spelling - grapheme reading
Wernicke - left & Broca right Phonetic reading grapheme spelling
Weak left or right Broca Poor phonetic or grapheme spelling
Weak left or right Wernicke Poor phonetic or grapheme reading
20
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Hemispheric dominance
The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum. The dominant hemisphere isthe hemisphere that is organised to express language. The left hemisphere is regarded asthe dominant one in 97% of the population, including 99% of right-handed persons and60 70% of left-handed persons. Language dominance is therefore not completelysimilar to hand dominance. There are also cases of mixed dominance for language, as inthe case of hand-dominance.
Normally, in a right-handed person the left hemisphere is dominant and the motorpathways cross through the corpus callossum.
Hand-dominance and WritingLeft-handed person Right-handed person
LEFT RIGHT
C o r p u s
C a l l o s u m
motor area
somato-sensory area
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Hearing
Lift up yourhand
LEFTRIGHT
C o r p
u s
C a l
l o s u m
LEFT RIGHT
C o r p u s
C a l
l o s u m
4, 6 4, 6
22, 39, 40 22, 9, 40
Hearing and Performing an action: Damage to pathways
22
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23
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Smelling and identifying: Damage to pathways
Vision
Vision also has a crossed system, therefore there may be eye-dominance too.
LEFT
RIGHT
LEFT RIGHT
C o r p u s
C a l
l o s u m
22, 39, 4022, 39, 40
rose
24
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The right sides of the eyes will see one part of an image and send messages to the right,back side of the brain. The left side will see the other part and send messages to the left,back side of the brain
Vision, and damage to pathways
LEFT
RIGHT
man
25
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Brain Biochemistry
Brain biochemistry refers to substances in the brain that transmits messages (impulses) toareas of the brain . The substances are called neuro-transmitters or neuro-messengers
Chemical neurotransmission:Without going into detailed descriptions and intricate processes, nerve impulses areconverted into a chemical signal in the pre-synaptic neuron. This is a release of neurotransmitters by the pre-synaptic neuron and the detection of this transmitter byreceptor proteins. At the synapse where two neurons meet, messages are carried over acleft to enter the next neuron through receptors.
Receptors are proteins in the pre-synaptic or post-synaptic neuronal membrane, andspecifically recognise neurotransmitters.
There are basically three types of neurotransmitters that can be found in a single neuron: monoamines ( dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonine, acetylcholine,
histamine) amino acids peptides
Alterations in the amounts of released neurotransmitters can influence learning,behaviour or other conditions.
Dopamine imbalances are linked to schizophrenia, Parkinsons disease Manic-depressive mood disorders.
An imbalance in Norepinephrine has been linked to depression . An imbalance in Serotonin has been linked to mood disorders, anxiety disorders
(including obsessive-compulsive disorders), violence and schizophrenia Acitylcholine has been linked to movement disorders (Parkinsons disease,
Huntingtons chores and Tardive dyskinesia) as well as mood and sleep disorders,depression.
Histamine has been linked to allergic reactions, sedation, weight gain, hypotension. Certain Amino-acids have been linked to anxiety, epilepsy, Huntingtons chorea,
Parkinsons disease. Different Peptides have been linked to regulation of pain, mood, eating an movement
disorders,
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Neuro- endocrinology
Hormonal messages are carried from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland whereadditional hormones are secreted, e.g. cortisol (or blocked) and so on.The hormone vasopressin is involved with blood-pressure, fluid and electrolyte balance.It can be stimulated by pain, stress and certain drugs and is inhibited by alcohol.Endocrine disorders can be seen in some psychiatric patients, e.g. Cushings syndrome,depression and suicide attempts, hypomania, emotional lability, , disturbance of thegrowth hormone.
Pons
Dopaminergic pathways:
Noradrenergic pathways:
Serotenergic pathways:
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Psycho-immunology The immune system reciprocally interacts with the nervous and endocrine systems.Damage to parts of the limbic system and the pituitary gland can result in dysfunction inthe immune system.
It is thought that either an infection may influence the immune response negatively orthat an abnormal immune system allows the infection to develop.
Symptoms may include depression, insomnia, emotional lability, nervousness, andconfusion. T-cell prolifiration was found to proliferate in bereaved persons. Stress,loneliness and poor coping skills is another cause