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Brahms, Johannes (b Hamburg, 7 May 1833; d Vienna, 3 April 1897). German composer. The successor to Beethoven and Schubert in the larger forms of chamber and orchestral music, to Schubert and Schumann in the miniature forms of piano pieces and songs, and to the Renaissance and Baroque polyphonists in choral music, Brahms creatively synthesized the practices of three centuries with folk and dance idioms and with the language of mid and late 19thcentury art music. His works of controlled passion, deemed reactionary and epigonal by some, progressive by others, became well accepted in his lifetime. 1. Formative years. 2. New paths. 3. First maturity. 4. At the summit. 5. Final years and legacy. 6. Influence and reception. 7. Piano and organ music. 8. Chamber music. 9. Orchestral works and concertos. 10. Choral works. 11. Lieder and solo vocal ensembles. WORKS BIBLIOGRAPHY GEORGE S. BOZARTH (1–5, 10–11, worklist, bibliography), WALTER FRISCH (6– 9, 10, worklist, bibliography) Brahms, Johannes 1. Formative years. Brahms was the second child and first son of Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen (1789–1865) and Johann Jakob Brahms (1806–72). His mother, an intelligent and thrifty woman simply educated, was a skilled seamstress descended from a respectable bourgeois family. His father came from yeoman and artisan stock that originated in lower Saxony and resided in Holstein from the mid18th century. A resourceful musician of modest talent, Johann Jakob learnt to play several instruments, including the flute, horn, violin and double bass, and in 1826 moved to the free Hanseatic port of Hamburg, where he earned his living playing in dance halls and taverns. In 1830, as a condition for gaining citizenship (Kleinbürger), he joined the local militia as a horn player; he also became a member of a sextet at the fashionable Alster Pavilion. Later he played the double bass and occasionally the flute in the Hamburg Philharmonie, obtaining a regular position as a bass player in 1864 through the influence of his son. Brahms's parents were married in 1830. His elder sister, Elise (1831–92), experienced poor health throughout her life and was supported generously by Brahms, even after her marriage in 1871. The youngest child, Fritz (1835–86), became a musician; after attempting a career as a concert pianist and living in Venezuela, he settled in Hamburg as a music teacher. Although Brahms was not born into abject poverty, circumstances were precarious, because of Johann Jakob's inability to handle the family's hardearned income sensibly. The family moved

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  • Brahms,Johannes(bHamburg,7May1833dVienna,3April1897).Germancomposer.ThesuccessortoBeethovenandSchubertinthelargerformsofchamberandorchestralmusic,toSchubertandSchumannintheminiatureformsofpianopiecesandsongs,andtotheRenaissanceandBaroquepolyphonistsinchoralmusic,Brahmscreativelysynthesizedthepracticesofthreecenturieswithfolkanddanceidiomsandwiththelanguageofmidandlate19thcenturyartmusic.Hisworksofcontrolledpassion,deemedreactionaryandepigonalbysome,progressivebyothers,becamewellacceptedinhislifetime.1.Formativeyears.2.Newpaths.3.Firstmaturity.4.Atthesummit.5.Finalyearsandlegacy.6.Influenceandreception.7.Pianoandorganmusic.8.Chambermusic.9.Orchestralworksandconcertos.10.Choralworks.11.Liederandsolovocalensembles.WORKSBIBLIOGRAPHYGEORGES.BOZARTH(15,1011,worklist,bibliography),WALTERFRISCH(6

    9,10,worklist,bibliography)Brahms,Johannes1.Formativeyears.BrahmswasthesecondchildandfirstsonofJohannaHenrikaChristianeNissen(17891865)andJohannJakobBrahms(180672).Hismother,anintelligentandthriftywomansimplyeducated,wasaskilledseamstressdescendedfromarespectablebourgeoisfamily.HisfathercamefromyeomanandartisanstockthatoriginatedinlowerSaxonyandresidedinHolsteinfromthemid18thcentury.Aresourcefulmusicianofmodesttalent,JohannJakoblearnttoplayseveralinstruments,includingtheflute,horn,violinanddoublebass,andin1826movedtothefreeHanseaticportofHamburg,whereheearnedhislivingplayingindancehallsandtaverns.In1830,asaconditionforgainingcitizenship(Kleinbrger),hejoinedthelocalmilitiaasahornplayerhealsobecameamemberofasextetatthefashionableAlsterPavilion.LaterheplayedthedoublebassandoccasionallythefluteintheHamburgPhilharmonie,obtainingaregularpositionasabassplayerin1864throughtheinfluenceofhisson.Brahms'sparentsweremarriedin1830.Hiseldersister,Elise(183192),experiencedpoorhealththroughoutherlifeandwassupportedgenerouslybyBrahms,evenafterhermarriagein1871.Theyoungestchild,Fritz(183586),becameamusicianafterattemptingacareerasaconcertpianistandlivinginVenezuela,hesettledinHamburgasamusicteacher.AlthoughBrahmswasnotbornintoabjectpoverty,circumstanceswereprecarious,becauseofJohannJakob'sinabilitytohandlethefamily'shardearnedincomesensibly.Thefamilymoved

  • frequently,buttheirlivingquarters,thoughcrampedandofferinglittleprivacy,werealwaysinrespectableworkingclassneighbourhoods.Tensionovermoney,exacerbatedbythegreatdifferenceintheparents'ages,ledBrahms'sfathertoleavehiselderlywifein1864.Despitepersonaldifficulties,bothparentsweredevotedtotheirchildren,afeelingreciprocatedbyBrahms.Bothsonsweresenttogoodprivateelementaryandsecondaryschools,wheretheirstudiesincludedhistory,mathematics,French,EnglishandLatin.TheyoungBrahmsbecameavoraciousreader,borrowingbooksandbuyingsecondhandvolumes.Hiswellusedlibraryofover800titles(preservedintheGesellschaftderMusikfreunde,Vienna)includingpoetry,fiction,drama,history,art,philosophy,religionandtravel,testifiestoanabidingloveoflearning.Brahmswasgivenlessonsonthepiano,celloandhorn(thefamilyownedapianoandboughthimacello).FromtheageofsevenhestudiedthepianowithOttoFriedrichWillibaldCossel.Withinafewyearshewasacceptedforinstructioninthepianoandmusictheory,freeofcharge,byoneofHamburg'sleadingteachers,thepianistandcomposerEduardMarxsen,whoconveyedtohisyoungpupilaloveandknowledgeofthemusicofBachandtheVienneseClassicalcomposers.Brahms'sfirstdocumentedperformancewasasapianistinachamberconcertin1843heplayedantudebyHenriHerzandtookpartinaMozartpianoquartetandinBeethoven'sWindQuintetop.16.Hisfirsttwosolorecitals(in1848and1849)includedBachandBeethoven,andfashionablebravurapiecesthesecondperformancereceivedalaudatorypressnotice.Tocontributetothefamily'sincomeafterleavingschool,Brahmsgavepianolessons,earnedreasonablefeesplayingpopularmusicatprivategatheringsandinSchnken(respectableworkingclassplacesforeatingandentertainment),andaccompanyinginthetheatrehealsomadearrangementsforbrassbandsandtheAlstersextet,andforfourhandpiano(someofthelast,Anh.IV/6,werepublished,underthecommonpseudonymG.W.Marks,byCranzinHamburg).Theinfluenceoffolkandpopularmusic,apparentinhisowncompositions,haditsrootsintheseactivities.(TheallegationthatBrahmswassentasaboytoplaythepianoinsailors'barshasbeencalledintoquestionbytherecentresearchofKurtHofmanncommentsallegedlymadebyBrahmstoMaxFriedlaenderandSiegfriedOchsprovideabasisforthisassertion,buttestimonyfromthosewhoknewtheyoungBrahmsandhisfamilywellspeakstothecontrarylawscloselyregulatingtheseestablishmentsforbadeemploymentatsuchayoungage.)TheenthusiasmsofBrahms'sformativeyearswerethepoetryoftheGermanromantics,thenovelsofJeanPaulandE.T.A.Hoffmann,andthemusicofBachandBeethoven.HeimmersedhimselfinthepoetryofEichendorff,HeineandEmanuelGeibelheadoptedashispseudonymJohannesKreisler,jun.,afterthearchetypalemotionallyerraticyoungcomposerinHoffmann'sKaterMurrandFantasiestckeinCallotsManierwhosemusicisfragmentary,bizarreandpainfullyexpressiveandheincludedinhisfirstsoloconcertsaBachfugueandBeethoven'sWaldsteinSonata,thelatteraworkthat,togetherwiththeHammerklavierSonata,informstheopeningphrasesofhisCmajorPianoSonataop.1(1853).Intheearly1850sBrahmsassembledhisfavouriteremarksonlife,artandmusicbyprominentpoets,writers,philosophersandmusiciansinaseriesofchapbooksheentitledtheSchatzkstleindesjungenKreislers.Brahms'sloveoffolkloreincludingfolkpoetry,talesandmusicbeganduringtheseearlyyears.Bythelate1840shehadbeguntocompilemanuscriptcollections

  • ofEuropeanfolksongsanotebookofGermanfolkmaximsdatesfrom1855.Linkedtothisinterestwashislikingforpoemsandtalesfromtheageofchivalry.OvertheyearsheacquiredpopularbookssuchasTieck'sDieschneMageloneandtheoldGermanlegendsofFaustandSiegfriedHerder'scollectionsoffolksongs,ArnimandBrentano'sDesKnabenWunderhorn,andseveralvolumesbyJ.L.andW.C.GrimmtheNibelungenliedandtheEddaKretzschmerandZuccalmaglio'sDeutscheVolkslieder(thesourceforthemajorityofthefolkliketuneshearrangedforchoirandassolosongs)collectionsofoldEnglish,ScottishandDanishballadsandpopularliteraturefromaroundtheworldinGermantranslation.TheslowmovementofthePianoSonatainCop.1wasbasedonaGermanfolksongrecastbyBrahmsasaMinneliedthecomparablemovementintheF minorPianoSonataop.2(1852)wasinspiredbyagenuineMinneliedpoembyCountKraftvonToggenburg.WhenHungarianpoliticalrefugeesontheirwaytotheUSApassedthroughHamburgafterthesuppressionoftherevolutionsof1848,Brahmswasexposedtothestylehongrois,ablendingofHungarianmusicalgesturesandgypsyperformingstyle.Hislifelongfascinationwiththeirregularrhythms,tripletfiguresanduseofrubatocommontothisstylecanperhapsbetracedtohisencounteratthistimewiththeHungarianexpatriateviolinistEdeRemnyi.AnotherlastingimpressionwasmadebyJoachim'sperformanceofBeethoven'sViolinConcertowiththeHamburgorchestrain1848.TwootherworksthatgreatlyinterestedBrahmswereBeethoven'sFifthSymphonyandMozart'sDonGiovanni.AlthoughBrahms'sfirstextantworks(thesongHeimkehrop.7no.6andtheE minorScherzoforpiano,op.4)datefrom1851,hebegancomposingseveralyearsearlier.EvidenceexistsofaPianoSonatainGminor(mid1840s),aFantasiaonabelovedwaltzforpiano(by1849),atleastonepianotrioandaLiedDuetforcelloandpiano(by1851).DuringvacationsinWinsenanderLuhein18478hewroteseveralchoralworksandarrangedfolksongsforthemen'schoirheconducted.Hismusicalconfidante,LuiseJapha,recalledmanysongs.Byautumn1853,inadditiontothesonatasandsongsthatwerehisfirstpublishedworks,hisportfolioincludedastringquartetinBminorandaviolinsonatainAminor.AlltheseyouthfuleffortsfellvictimtoBrahms'sintenseselfscrutiny,whichhecontinuedtoexercisethroughouthislife.Aslateas1880hedestroyedthefirstmovementofanewlycomposedpianotrioinEaftershowingittofriends.BrahmsasayouthinHamburgwasrecalledbyacquaintancesasshyandreserved,thoughtfulandselfeffacingbuthewascandidandalreadyverymuchhisownperson.Slender,withdelicatefeatures,longfairhair,radiantblueeyesandahighvoice,heprojectedasomewhatandrogynousimage.Onealsodiscernsadualnatureinhisearlyworks:sensitivesettingsofpoemsabouttheproblemsofyoungmaidenscoexistwithhighlyenergeticinstrumentalallegrosandscherzossuggestiveoftheathleticprowessoftheteenageboy.Brahms,Johannes2.Newpaths.1853markedaturningpointinBrahms'spersonalandprofessionallife.OnreturningfromtheUSA,RemnyiresumedhiscollaborationwithBrahmswitharecitalinJanuaryandaconcerttourinnorthernGermanyfromApriltoJune.Amongotherplaces,theyvisitedGttingen,whereBrahmsbeganalifelongfriendshipwithJosephJoachim,andWeimar,wherehemetLiszt,whoplayedtheScherzoop.4atsight.

  • Brahms'sstayattheAltenburg,however,wasbrief(1224June).IsoondiscoveredthatIwasofnousethere,helatertoldRichardHeubergerthiswasjustat[Liszt's]mostsuccessfultimewhenhewaswritingthesymphonicpoemsandallthatstuff,andsoonitallcametohorrifyme.Brahmsconsideredhimselfamusicianofthefuture,andhismusicembodiedmuchthatwasprogressive,butheviewedthepathtothefuturedifferently.BrahmsreturnedtoGttingentospendthesummerwithJoachim,whorecognizedhisgeniusandencouragedhimtomeetotherprominentmusicians,especiallySchumann.AttheendofAugust,BrahmsdepartedonalongwalkingtourintheRhineland,makingtheacquaintanceofseveralmusicians(includingWasielewski,FerdinandHillerandFranzWllner).AtthecountryestateofthefinancierDeichmanninMehlemhestudiedSchumann'smusic,whichafewyearsearlierhehaddismissed,andon30SeptemberhepresentedhimselfatthehomeofRobertandClaraSchumanninDsseldorf.TotheSchumannsitseemedasifBrahmshadsprunglikeMinervafullyarmedfromtheheadofthesonofCronus,asRobertobservedinhislaudatoryessayonBrahms,NeueBahnen(NZM,xxxviii/Oct,1853,pp.1856).TheyoungeagleshowedtheSchumannspiecesforpiano(includingtheop.4Scherzo,theandantesfromthesonataop.5andthesonatasopp.1and2),duosforviolinandpiano,pianotrios,stringquartetsandnumeroussongs,everyworksodifferentfromtheothersthatitseemedtostreamfromitsownindividualsource.Brahms'splayingofhiscompositionswasonagrandscaleSchumannremarkedhowthepianobecameanorchestraoflamentingandloudlyjubilantvoices,makinghissonatassoundlikeveiledsymphonies.InOctoberBrahmscompletedthePianoSonatainFminorop.5andcontributedthescherzowoo2totheFAEviolinsonatawrittenwithSchumannandAlbertDietrichforJoachim.DuringthenexttwomonthshewenttwicetoLeipzig,precededbyenthusiasticlettersofrecommendationfromSchumann,topresenthiscompositionstopublishersandoverseetheirprintingwhilethereheperformedthesonatasopp.1and4inpublicandmetJuliusOttoGrimm,FerdinandDavid,Moscheles,Berliozand,again,Liszt.WhenhereturnedtoHamburgforChristmashewasabletoreporttheacceptanceofhisfirstfouropusesbyBreitkopf&HrtelandthenexttwobyBartolfSenff.ThenewyearfoundBrahmsatworkontheBmajorPianoTrioop.8.InMarch,onlearningofSchumann'snervousbreakdown,suicideattemptandremovaltoasanatoriumatEndenich,BrahmsreturnedtoDsseldorftoassistClaraSchumannwiththecareofherfamily,therunningofthehouseholdandtheorganizationofherhusband'slibraryandbusinessdealingsconcerninghismusic.HeremainedtherethroughoutSchumann'sprotractedillness,attendingtomattersinDsseldorfwhilesheresumedhercareerasaconcertpianistandreportingtoherfromEndenichontheconditionofherhusband,whomshewasnotallowedtovisit.Atthesametimeheconceivedastrongromanticpassionforher,despitethegreatdifferenceintheirages.TohimClaraSchumann,aswife,motherandmusician,representedallthatwasidealinwomanhood.InJune1854hededicatedtoherhisnewlycomposedVariationsonaThemebyRobertSchumannop.9thetheme,fromBunteBltterop.99,isjoinedbyvariationsthatdrawuponotherworksbySchumann(aswellasamelodybyClara)andareinitialledinBrahms'smanuscriptvariouslybythecalm,introspectiveBrahmsandthemercurialKreisler.Forherpart,Claradrew

  • sustenancefromBrahms'screativity,whichfilledavoidinherlifeafterthesuddenendofherhusband'sactivityasacomposer.Onapersonallevel,thoughfeelingacertainproprietaryrighttohisaffection,sheviewedhimmuchasamotherwouldadevotedolderson.AfterthedeathofSchumanninJuly1856,ClaraandBrahmstookatriptogetheralongtheRhineandintoSwitzerlandduringwhichtheynodoubtdiscussedtheirfutureandafterwhichtheywenttheirseparateways,henceforthtoremaintheclosestoffriends,despiteoccasionalintensedisagreements.Brahmssharedhisjoysandsorrowswithher,andsoughtbutdidnotalwaysheedherassessmentsofhisnewcompositions.HealsoneverforgotthedebtheowedtoRobertSchumann,andintherolesofcomposer,performer,arrangerandeditorhestrovetoperpetuatethelegacyofthemanwhohadchampionedhismusic.ThetwonaturesofBrahms'spersonality,revealedmusicallyintheSchumannVariationsandacknowledgedbyBrahmsinalettertoClaraSchumanninAugust1854,weredescribedbyJoachimaseinekindlich,genial,vorwiegendeinedmonischeauflauernde.ThisdualityisalsoevidentinthecontrastsbetweenthedemonicscherzosandthegentlertriosoftheearlypianosonatasandtheBalladesop.10,composedatthistime.Twolettersfrom1854offervividaccountsofBrahmstheselfstyled,nowconfidentyoungRomanticwholetnothinginterferewithhisart.InApril,JuliusGrimmwrotetoJoachim:

    BrKrisfullofcrazyideasastheArtistGeniusofDsseldorfhehaspaintedhisapartmentfullofthemostbeautifulfrescoesinthemannerofCallot,i.e.,allkindsofgrotesquevisagesandfacesofMadonnas.

    (ThereferenceistotheengravingsofJacquesCallotandE.T.A.Hoffmann'sFantasiestckeinCallotsManier.)ThefollowingOctoberJoachimcharacterizedBrahmsas

    egoismincarnate,withouthimselfbeingawareofit.Hebubblesoverinhischeerywaywithexuberantthoughtlessnessthethingsthatdonotarousehisenthusiasm,orthatdonotfitinwithhisexperience,orevenwithhismood,arecallouslythrustasideHewillnotmakethesmallestsacrificeofhisintellectualinclinationshewillnotplayinpublicbecauseofhiscontemptforthepublic,andbecauseitirkshimalthoughheplaysdivinely.

    Brahms'swithdrawalfromthebroaderstageofGermanmusicallifeinthelater1850swasnearlycomplete.AfterthepublicationofhisBalladesop.10inFebruary1856,hereleasednootherworksuntiltheendof1860.Inthe18556season,inneedofmoney,heresumedconcertactivities,playingsoloandchamberworksandforthefirsttimewithorchestra,inMozart'sPianoConcertok466andBeethoven'sfourthandfifthConcertos.Butduringtherestofthedecadehisappearancesweresporadic.Inautumn1857heacceptedawellpaid,threemonthpositionaspianoteacher,pianistandconductoroftheamateurchoralsocietyatthecourtinDetmold,aposttowhichhereturnedthefollowingtwoautumns.In1859hefoundedanamateurwomen'schoirinHamburgwhichheconductedforthenextthreeyears.Otherwisethemidandlate1850swereatimeofintenseselfscrutinyandmusicalstudy.Schumann'smentaldeteriorationcausedBrahmstopondertherelationshipbetweencreativityandinsanity.HisromanticinvolvementwithClaraSchumannand,inautumn1858,

  • withAgathevonSiebold(aprofessor'sdaughterinGttingen),forcedhim,atleasttohisownwayofthinking,tochoose(ashisheroKreislerhad)betweenthemarriedlifeofdiegutenLeuteandtheexistenceofechteMusikanten,whodrawinspirationfromthevenerationofidealizedwomenbutmustforgonormalintimaterelations.Duringthesummerof1855,withlittletoshowfromrecenteffortsatcomposition,BrahmswrotetoClaraSchumannthathefelthenolongerknewatallhowonecomposes,howonecreates.ButanexchangeofpolyphonicexercisesandcompositionswithJoachimsoonsharpenedhiscontrapuntalskillsrenewedstudyofearlymusicandfolksongforhisownedificationandinconjunctionwithhisconductingdutiesgroundedhisartintraditionandenrichedhismelodic,rhythmicandtexturalvocabulariesandworkonhisSturmundDrangPianoConcertoinDminorop.15andthetwoneoclassicalSerenadesopp.11and16(writtenforDetmold)initiatedhimintotheartoforchestration.ProductsofBrahms'sstudiesofcounterpointandearlymusicincludedBaroquestyledancepieces,preludesandfuguesfororgan,andneoRenaissanceandneoBaroquechoralworks(motetsandacanonicmass)thevariationsetintheB StringSextetop.18(1860),whichextendsthetraditionofthefolia,likewisetestifiestohisknowledgeandloveofearlierstyles.InspiredbyAgathevonSiebold,Brahmscomposedanumberofsongsandduetsin1858forhiswomen'schoirinHamburghewrotemanyoriginalworksandarrangementsoffolksongs.TheVariationsonanOriginalThemeop.21no.1andonaHungarianmelodyop.21no.2(bothforsolopiano)andthepassionateopeningmovementofthePianoQuartetinCminorop.60alsocomefromthisdecade.InJuly1862BrahmssentClaraSchumanntheprototypeofwhatbecamethefirstmovementofhisCminorSymphonyop.68(atthattimewithoutaslowintroduction).ThecompositionthatoccupiedBrahmsmostduringthe1850swastheDminorPianoConcerto.Theopeningofthefirstmovementwaswritteninspring1854aspartoftheopeningAllegroofatwopianosonata.Realizingthatitsgesturallanguageexceededthecapabilitiesoftwopianos,heattemptedtoorchestratethemovementduringthesummer,withtheassistanceofGrimm,JoachimandMarxsen.ItwasnotuntilFebruary1855thathethoughttorecastthesymphonicmovementasaconcerto,andnotuntilautumn1856thatrecompositionwascompleted.TheRondoFinalewasfinishedsoonafter,andtheAdagio,whichBrahmsdescribedasagentleportraitofClaraSchumannandwhoseopeningmelodyheunderlaidinhismanuscriptswiththetextBenedictus,quivenit,innomineDomini!(fromovertheentrancetothemonasteryinHoffmann'sKaterMurr,whereKreislerfinallyfoundpeace),waswrittenlateinDecember.ButformandorchestrationwerestillbeingsettledevenafterthefirstpublicperformancesatHanoverandLeipziginJanuary1859.Aftertheinvestmentofsomuchenergy,itwasakeendisappointmentforBrahmsthattheconcerto'spremireintheLeipzigGewandhauswasgreetedwithhostilitybybothaudienceandcritics.Theworkcannotgivepleasure,observedEdwardBernsdorf,theconservativecriticofSignalefrdiemusikalischeWeltsaveitsseriousintention,ithasnothingtoofferbutwaste,barrendrearinesstrulydisconsolateonemustswallowadessertoftheshrillestdissonancesandmostunpleasantsounds.AlthoughBrahmstriedtoappearphilosophicalaboutthefiasco,anoteofpainsoundedforthinhislettertoJoachim:

    myconcertoherewasabrilliantanddecidedfailure.Thefirstmovementandthesecondwereheardwithoutasign.Attheendthree

  • handsattemptedtofallslowlyoneupontheother,atwhichpointaquiteaudiblehissingfromallsidesforbadesuchdemonstrations.Inspiteofallthis,theconcertowillpleasesomeday,whenIhaveimproveditsconstruction.Ibelieveitisthebestthingthatcouldhavehappenedtomeitmakesonepullone'sthoughtstogetherandraisesone'scourage.Butsurelythehissingwastoomuch?

    Insteadofestablishinghimasacomposerofthefirstrank,theLeipzigperformancecastapalloverhiscareer,jeopardizingprospectswithpublishers.WhenBreitkopf&Hrtelrejectedagroupofworksin1860,includingthepianoconcerto,BrahmsturnedtothesmallSwisspublishinghouseofJakobRieterBiedermann,whichacceptedtheconcertoandsubsequentlypublishedmanysongsandchoralworks,includingtheGermanRequiem,andtotheGermanfirmSimrock,whicheventuallybecameBrahms'smajorpublisher.Duringthe1850sBrahms'soppositiontotheliteraryorientatedmusicofLisztandhiscirclegrew.InMarch1860,enragedbyaneditorialintheNeueZeitschriftfrMusikclaimingthatallseriousmusiciansofthedaysubscribedtothecauseoftheNewGermanSchool,BrahmscollaboratedwithJoachimtodraftamanifestodeploringtheMusicoftheFuture(i.e.thatofLiszt,butnotBerliozandWagner)asrunningcontrarytotheinnerspiritofmusic,thatis,totheneedofmusictoprogressaccordingtoitsownlogic.Prematurelyleakedtothepresswhilestillbeingcirculatedforthesignaturesofotherlikemindedmusicians,thedocument,publishedoverthenamesofonlyBrahms,Joachim,GrimmandBernhardScholz,wassoundlyridiculedandbecameanembarrassmenttoBrahms,whoneveragainexpressedhispositiononartisticmattersinsuchapublicmanner.Brahms,Johannes3.Firstmaturity.Duringthefirsthalfofthe1860sBrahmsproducedanillustriousseriesofchamberworks(twostringsextets,apianoquintet,twopianoquartets,ahorntrioandacellosonata)andpianopieces(variationsonthemesbySchumann,HandelandPaganini),aswellasnumeroussongsandsolovocalensembles(includingthePlatenandDaumerliederop.32andmostoftheMageloneRomancesop.33),and,onthelighterside,dancemusic(theWaltzesop.39).Brahms'sstudyofhismusicalheritagenowencompassedboththelargerformsandtheshortpopulardancesofSchubert.IninstrumentalmusictheimaginativeLisztianthematictransformationsthathadanimatedandunifiedthehighlyRomanticearlypianosonataswerereplacedbyabalanceofemotionalandintellectualelementsachievedthroughmotivicandthematicprojection(termeddevelopingvariationbySchoenberg)boldtonalshiftsandlargeclimaxesarereminiscentofBeethoven,butlong,evolvingmelodiesandmajorminorinflectionsrecallSchubertlndlerrhythmsandfolkmusicdronesattimesintroduceapopularelement.ThestyleBrahmsdevelopedduringthisperiodisinevidencefortherestofhiscareer.Inautumn1862BrahmsmadehisfirsttriptoVienna,where,withintroductionsinhandfromClaraSchumannandotherfriends,hewasrapidlyacceptedintotheforemostmusicalcirclesandperformedaseriesofsoloandchamberconcerts.HisrepertoryincludedtwoworkswithspecialappealforhisVienneseaudiences(bothcompletedin1861):theHandelVariationsop.24,withevocationsofvariationsetsbyBachandBeethoven,andtheGminorPianoQuartetop.25,witharondofinale

  • imitatingthecimbalomandfiddleplayingofthegypsies.AmongnewacquaintanceswerethepianistJuliusEpstein,theviolinistJosephHellmesberger(withwhosestringquartetBrahmsperformedhistwopianoquartets),OttoDessoff,directorofthePhilharmonicConcerts,thepianomakerJ.B.Streicher,andthepianistCarlTausig,withwhomBrahmssharedaspecialinterestinthemusicofWagner.BrahmshadlongcovetedtheconductorshipoftheHamburgPhilharmonischeKonzertgesellschaft,butinautumn1862hewaspassedoverinfavourofthebaritoneJuliusStockhausen(theposteludedhimagainin1867).Inspring1863heacceptedthedirectorshipoftheViennaSingakademie,whichheconductedforthe18634season,presentingacappellaRenaissanceworksaBachcantata,portionsofanotherandtheChristmasOratorioandworksbyBeethoven,MendelssohnandSchumann,andpiecesofhisown.Intheautumnof1862BrahmsmetWagner,wholistenedappreciativelytohisplayingoftheHandelVariations.Muchhasbeenwrittenaboutthedifferencesbetweenthesetwostrongmusicalpersonalitiesfromthelate1860sWagnerwroteanumberofhighlycriticalremarksaboutBrahms'smusic.CriticssuchasEduardHanslick,havinglittlesympathyforWagnerandhismusic,adoptedthebannerofBrahmsastheirstandard.Forhispart,BrahmsconsideredhimselfasupporterofWagner,tellingfriendsthatheunderstoodWagner'smusicbetterthananyone.HeevenhelpedtheavidWagneritesCarlTausigandPeterCorneliusprepareperformingmaterialsforWagner'sconcertsinViennaduringthe18623seasonin1870heattendedthefirstproductionsofDasRheingoldandDieWalkreinMunich.AlthoughBrahmspossessedakeendramaticinstinctandventuredtocomposesuchworksasthecantataRinaldoandtheAltoRhapsody,heneverfoundalibrettotohisliking.Duringthesummerof1864,whileonvacationinBadenBaden,BrahmsbecamefriendlywiththeconductorHermannLevi,whoremainedoneofhisclosestmusicalconfidantsintothemid1870s,whentheirfriendshipfounderedoverpersonalandartisticdifferences.HealsorenewedhisacquaintancewiththeengraverandphotographerJuliusAllgeyer.AllgeyerintroducedhimtotheworkofAnselmFeuerbach,whosecoollyclassicalpaintingswereamongBrahms'sfavourites.Forfivemoresummersduringtheyears186572BrahmsreturnedtoBadenBaden,takingroomsinthevillageofLichtenthal,ashortdistancefromthesmallhouseoccupiedbyClaraSchumannandherfamily,inordertocomposeamidstthenaturalbeautyoftheBlackForest.InfuturesummersheretreatedtocountrysettingsinGermany,SwitzerlandandAustriaforthesamepurpose.AlthoughBrahmscontinuedtospendasmuchtimeaspossibleinVienna,financialproblemspromptedhimtoundertakelengthyconcerttoursinGermany,Switzerland,Austria,Hungary,DenmarkandtheNetherlandsduringtheyears18659.Hisrepertorywasextensive,rangingfromBachtohisowncompositions,includingworksbyHaydn,Mozart,Beethoven,SchubertandSchumann,andmanylesserknownpiecesbyScarlatti,Couperin,Rameau,Gluck,Bach'ssonsandClementi.Inadditiontosoloconcerts,heperformedfrequentlywithJoachimand,withStockhausen,pioneeredthefullpresentationofthesongcyclesofBeethoven,SchubertandSchumann.InFebruary1865Brahmswasprofoundlyshakenbythedeathofhismother.SoonafterwardsheworkedontheGermanRequiemop.45,completingsixmovementsbytheendofthesummerof1866(thereisnodefiniteevidencethattheworkwasconceivedinthe1850safterthedeathofSchumannorthatthetextsofthese

  • movementswereassembledin1861).AfteraperformanceofthefirstthreemovementsinViennatomixedreactionson1December1867andthepremireofthesixmovementsinBrementotumultuousapplauseonGoodFriday1868,aseventhmovement,thesopranosoloIhrhabtnunTraurigkeit,wasaddedandthecompleteworkreceiveditspremireattheLeipzigGewandhauson18February1869.ThecriticalacclaimthatitreceivedanditsprogressthroughGermany,Switzerland,theNetherlands,EnglandandevenasfarasRussiaestablishedBrahmsasacomposerofmajorsignificance.In1868hecompletedRinaldoop.50,alengthycantatafortenor,malechorusandorchestra(onatextbyGoethe)thathehadbegunin1863.Otherworksforchoirandorchestrafollowed:theAltoRhapsodyop.53(1869,alsoGoethe),apersonalresponsetothemarriageofJulieSchumann,forwhomBrahmshadsecretlyharbouredanaffectiontheSchicksalsliedop.54(completed1871,Hlderlin)theTriumphliedop.55(187071,biblicaltexts),anexpressionofstrongpatrioticfeelingsaftertheGermanvictoryintheFrancoPrussianWaranddedicatedtoEmperorWilhelmIandlaterNnieop.82(completed1881,Schiller)andGesangderParzenop.89(1882,Goethe),theformeraresponsetotheprematuredeathofFeuerbach.Brahmsalsocontinuedtoworkintheintimategenres.In1868hesupplementedthesongsgatheringinhisportfoliosinceatleast1856toissuefivecollectionstotalling25songs(opp.43,469).TheLiebesliederWalzerop.52(1869,onlyricsbyGeorgFriedrichDaumer,oneofBrahms'sfavouritepoets)expressthejoyousexpectationoflovefulfilledtheLiederundGesngeop.57(1871,alsoonpoemsbyDaumer)isperhapshismostsensualcollectionofsongs.Suchpiecesasthepianowaltzesop.39,theLiebesliederWalzer,thefirsttwobooksofHungarianDances,andtheWiegenliedop.49no.4endearedBrahmstomusicmakingamateurs.Duringthe1860sBrahms'saffectionswerecapturedbyseveralyoungwomen.AswellashisinfatuationwithJulieSchumannin1869,hehadalmostproposedtoOttilieHauer,aViennesegirlwithwhomhespentmanyhoursin1863readingSchubert'ssongsandhisownandhisattractiontoElisabetStockhausen(latermarriedtothecomposerHeinrichvonHerzogenberg)wassostrongthathewithdrewfromgivingherpianolessons.Intheend,though,hemaintainedhispersonalfreedom,intheserviceofhismusicalaspirations.Hisfather'scasewasquitedifferent:alittleoverayearafterhiswife'sdeath,hemarriedCarolineSchnack,awidow18yearshisjunior.Brahmsappreciatedhercareofhisfatherandrespectedherashehadhisownmother,andinlateryearsprovidedherwithregularfinancialassistance.Brahms,Johannes4.Atthesummit.InNovember1872BrahmsconductedhisfirstprogrammeasdirectoroftheconcertsoftheGesellschaftderMusikfreundeinVienna,apositionheretainedforthreeyears.Hehadlongrestrainedhimselffromacceptinganysortofofficialposition,inordertoprotecthisfreedomtocomposehisworkinDetmoldhadleftmostofhisyearfree,andhistenurewiththeSingakademiehadlastedonlyoneyear.In1870hehaddeclinednominationasconductoroftheGesellschaftorchestra,buttwoyearslater,afterthedeathofhisfatherandasheapproachedhis40thbirthday,heacceptedthedirectorshipofbothorchestraandchoir.EarlierthatyearhemovedintolodgingsatKarlsgasse4,neartheMusikverein,whereheremainedfortherestofhislife,livingfirstintwomodestrooms,laterinthree.

  • AsmusicdirectorBrahmsreorganizedtheGesellschaftorchestra,replacingamateurswithprofessionalsfromthecourtoperaorchestra,anddemandedextrarehearsaltime.HebroughttohisVienneseaudiencesarichrepertoryofearlymusic:worksbyJ.G.Ahle,Eccard,IsaacandJacobHandlfourBachcantatas(bwv4,8,34and50)andtheStMatthewPassionandHandel'sDettingenTeDeum,theOrganConcertoinDminor,.theodeAlexandersFeastandtheoratoriosSaul,Alexander'sFeastandSolomon.AlsopresentedweresymphoniesbyHaydn,Mozart'soratorioDaviddepenitente,Cherubini'sCminorRequiem,Beethoven'sChoralFantasyandMissasolemnis,andworksbyMendelssohn,Schubert,FerdinandHiller,VolkmannandSchumann(DesSngersFluch,musictoManfred,Fantasyforviolin)andbyBrahms'scontemporariesBruch(Odysseus),Dietrich,Goldmark,JoachimandRheinberger.OfhisownworksheconductedtheGermanRequiem,theAltoRhapsody,theSchicksalsliedandtheTriumphlied.Thecriticscommentedontheseriousnessofhisprogrammesandthechoirinitiallyresistedhisrepertory.However,hisdeparturefromthepostwasamicableandheremainedongoodtermswiththeMusikvereinfortherestofhislife.FormanyyearsBrahmshadstruggledtomastertwogenresdominatedbyBeethoven:thestringquartetandthesymphony.Inthesummerof1873hecompletedthefirsttwostringquartets(op.51,inCminorandAminor)thatheconsideredworthyofpublication.Duringthewinterof18734headdedthefinalmovementstothePianoQuartetinCminorop.60,whichhehadbeguninthemid1850sandcontinuedtopolishthrough1875.AfterthreeseriouschamberworksinminorkeysthejoyousandbucolicStringQuartetinB op.67,writtenwhilehewasonvacationinZiegelhausennearHeidelbergin1875,providedawelcomecontrast.Brahmsresumedthecompositionofpurelyorchestralmusicin1873withtheVariationsonaThemebyHaydn,workingintheextendedformwithwhichhefeltmostcomfortable(thepiecewasfirstdraftedinitsversionfortwopianos).Nolessthanagrandsymphonywasnowexpectedofhim,andinsummer1876hebroughttocompletiontheSymphonyno.1inCminor,whichhadoccupiedhimatleastsince1862.Suchwashisstrivingforperfectionthatevenafterithadbeenperformedforanentireseason,toevermountingacclaim,herecasttheslowmovementbeforeallowingpublication.TheSymphonyno.2inDsoonfollowed(1877),itspastoralmoodstandingincleardistinctiontothedarkruminationsandmightyforcesofitspredecessor.Anotherpairofcontrastingorchestralworksdatefromthesummerof1880:thejocularAcademicFestivalOverture,basedonstudentsongs(fortheoccasionoftheconferralonBrahmsofanhonorarydoctoratebytheUniversityofBreslau),andtheTragicOverture,whosecompletionmighthavebeenpromptedbythedeathofthepainterFeuerbachinJanuary(although,fromthehandwriting,sketchescanbedatedaspre1872).Thesummersof18835werealsodevotedtoorchestralcomposition,yieldingSymphonyno.3inF(1883)andno.4inEminor(1885).ThreeconcertoscompleteBrahms'smatureorchestralworks:theViolinConcertoinD(1878),composedforandinclosecollaborationwithJoachimtheSecondPianoConcertoinB (1881),dedicatedtoMarxsenandtheDoubleConcertoforviolinandcello(1887),writtenforJoachimandRobertHausmann.WhilecompletingtheViolinConcertoBrahmsbeganworkontheViolinSonatano.1inG,whichhefinishedduringthefollowingsummer.Anillustriousseriesofsixchamberworksfollowed:PianoTriono.2inCandStringQuintetno.1inF(both

  • completedin1882)theCelloSonatano.2inF,theViolinSonatano.2inA,andthePianoTriono.3inCminor(all1886)theViolinSonatano.3inDminor(18868)andtheStringQuintetno.2inGmajor(1890).Duringthe1870sand80sBrahmsaddedtotheworksforsolopianotheeightKlavierstckeop.76(1871and1878)andthetwoRhapsodiesop.79(1879),andcontinuedtocomposechoralmusic(bothwithandwithoutpianoaccompaniment),quartetsandduosforsolovoiceswithpiano(mostnotablytheNeueLiebesliederWalzerop.65andZigeunerliederop.103),andsololieder.1874markedtheresumptionofBrahms'stravelsasconcertpianistandthebeginningofinvitationsasguestconductor.Theworksperformedweremostoftenhisown.Compositionswritteninspringandsummerwouldreceivetrialperformancesthefollowingautumnandwinteronlythenweretheysenttothepublisher.OverthenexttwodecadesBrahmsappearedinallthemajorcitiesinGermany,theNetherlandsandSwitzerland,andinBudapest,PragueandKrakw.From1881hedevelopedaspecialrelationshipwiththecourtorchestraatMeiningen,firstunderBlow,laterunderFritzSteinbach.Thishighlytrainedensembleof49playersgaveBrahmsanopportunitytohearNnie,theSecondPianoConcertoandtheFourthSymphonybeforetheirofficialpremires.BrahmswaswelcomedasanhonouredguestbyDukeGeorgIIIandhiswife,andwaspresentedwiththeMeiningenCommander'sCrossandGrandCross,yetcourtetiquettewaswaivedsothatthismanofthepeoplecouldresidethereassimplyandagreeablyaspossible.HeexpressedhisgratitudebydedicatingtheGesangderParzen(op.89)totheduke.In1882BrahmstouredwithBlowandtheMeiningenorchestra,presentinghistwopianoconcertosandtheAcademicFestivalOverturetoaudiencesinBerlin,KielandHamburg(withBrahmsandBlowsharingsoloistduties)subsequenttourstookthemtoBudapest,GrazandViennain1884(withthepianoconcertosandtheThirdSymphony)andtotheRhinelandandtheNetherlandsin1885(withtheFourthSymphony).Brahms'sperformingschedulewasattimesextremelyintenseduringthe1880sinthe18812season,forexample,heplayedhisSecondPianoConcerto22timesinasmanycitiesduringathreemonthperiod.AshisfamespreadacrosstheContinentandontoEnglandandtheUSA,Brahmswasrepeatedlyhonouredbyhispeersandaristocraticadmirers.InadditiontotheawardsfromBreslauandMeiningen,hereceivedtheBavarianOrderofMaximilianforscienceandart(1873,withWagner),theGoldMedalofthePhilharmonicSocietyinLondon(1877),aknighthoodinthePrussianOrderPourleMriteforscienceandart(1887),thehonorarypresidencyoftheTonknstlervereininVienna(1886),theKnight'sCrossoftheImperialAustrianOrderofLeopold(1889),thefreedomofHamburg(1889),honorarymembershipoftheBeethovenHausinBonn(1889),andtheAustrianOrderforArtandScience(1895).In1876hedeclinedanhonorarydoctoratefromtheUniversityofCambridgebecausehewasunwillingtotraveltoEngland.WiththeincomefromconcertappearancesandsizablehonorariafromthesaleofcompositionsBrahmshadmorethanenoughmoneytosupporthismodeststyleoflife,andheamassedasubstantialfortunethat,inlateryears,heallowedhispublisherSimrocktoinvestforhim.Sincetherewasnolongeranyneedforanofficialposition,heturneddownoffers,includingthatofmusicdirectorinDsseldorf(1876)andheadoftheCologneConservatory(1884).Brahmswasgenerouswithhismoney,helpinghisfamilyandaspiringyoungmusicians,andunderwritingscholarlyprojectsofGustavNottebohmandFriedrichChrysander.Hismostextravagant

  • expenditureonhimselfwasforeightlengthytripstoItalybetween1878and1893inthecompanyofvariousfriendsandcolleagues.Otherwisehelivedfrugally,takinghismainmealatthefavouritegatheringplaceforVienna'smusicians,theinnZumrotenIgel.YoungcomposerswithwhosemusicBrahmsfeltempathyalsoreceivedassistance.Asanadjudicator,herecommendedthatDvokshouldbeawardedtheAustrianStateStipendiumforseveralyears,encouragedSimrocktopublishhisworks,offeredfinancialsupporttohimandhisfamily,andevenhelpedwiththeproofreadingofhisscores.HealsorecommendedtoSimrockthemusicofWalterRablandGustavJenner,thelatterBrahms'sonlycompositionpupil(188995).Brahms'slargecircleoffriendsincludedmusicians,writers,artists,scholarsandmusiclovingmembersoftheprofessionalandwealthybusinessclasses.Intheyears187492ElisabetvonHerzogenberginLeipzigemergedasoneofBrahms'smosttrustedmusicaladvisers,whoaswellasClaraSchumannandTheodorBillrothofferedhimsensitiveandfrankassessmentsofhisworkshededicatedtheRhapsodiesop.79toher.Brahms'srelationshipswiththecomposersKarlGoldmarkandJohannStrausstheyoungerwerealwayscordialhetravelledinItalywithGoldmarkandspentvacationsinBadIschlneartheStrausses.Inthe1870sthebaritoneGeorgeHenschelwasofteninclosecontactwithBrahmsinlateryearstheyoungcomposerRichardHeubergerwasaregularmemberofBrahms'sViennacircle.Bothfriendswroteimportantmemoirs.WiththepoetKlausGroth,severalofwhoselyricshesettomusic,BrahmscouldshareanenjoymentoftheLowGermandialectoftheircommonancestralDitmarschhomelandwiththeSwisspoetandwriterJosefVictorWidmann,whounsuccessfullytriedtosupplyBrahmswithanoperalibretto,hecouldenterintodiscussionsofliterature,currentevents,scientificprogressandreligion,andenjoytravellinginItaly.TheGermanpoetandnovelistPaulHeyse(whowaslateraNobelprizewinner)andtheSwisswriterGottfriedKellerwerealsofriendsofBrahms,whosettheirpoems.InadditiontoFeuerbach,theartistsassociatedwithBrahmsincludedthecelebratedBerlinpainterandillustratorAdolfMenzel,thepsychologicalinterpreterofclassicalmythologyArnoldBcklin,andthepainter,engraverandsculptorMaxKlinger,whoillustratedtitlepagesforseveralofBrahms'sworksandwasinspiredbyhismusictocreateaseriesofetchings,engravingsandlithographsentitledBrahmsPhantasie(1894fig.4).TheBachbiographerPhilippSpitta,theHandelscholarFriedrichChrysander,theBeethovenspecialistGustavNottebohm,andthemusicarchivistsC.F.Pohl(biographerofHaydn)andEusebiusMandyczewski(editorofHaydnandSchubert)wereallfriendsofBrahms,whotookaninterestintheirresearch.TheprofessionalmeninBrahms'scircleincludedthesurgeonTheodorBillrothandthephysiologistT.W.Engelmann,bothcapableamateurmusicians(andthededicateesoftheStringQuartetsopp.51and67respectively).FromthebusinessandindustrialcommunityBrahmshadthefriendshipandsupportofRichardFellinger(ofSiemensBrothers),whosewife,Maria,sculptedandphotographedBrahmstheindustrialistArthurFaber,whowithhiswife,Bertha(aspecialfriendofBrahms'ssincethedaysofhiswomen'schoirinHamburg),caredforBrahmslikeafamilymemberandthesteelmagnateKarlWittgenstein,whosemusicalsisterssanginBrahms'sSingakademieandwhosedaughterMargaretStonboroughamassedthelargestprivatecollectionofBrahmsmanuscriptsinthe1920sand30s(nowintheLibraryofCongress,Washington).AlthoughBrahmslived

  • simplyandwaswaryofbeinglionized,heenjoyedtheattentionandfinefoodlavishedonhimbyhiswealthyadmirers.Thosesharinghiscompanywereregaledbyhisreparteeandreapedthebenefitsofaninquiringmindwithbroadinterestsandknowledge.ThepricklysideofBrahms'spersonality,usuallydirectedagainstthosewhoinvadedhisprivacyorlackedmodestyorsincerityintheirdealingswithhim,wasexperiencedbycloseacquaintancesaswell.ClaraSchumann,whoconfessedthatevenafter25yearsheremainedariddletoher,waswoundedmorethanoncebyhisgruffness.ButBrahmscouldbeatrueandloyalfriend,aswhenhesupportedAmalieJoachiminherdivorceproceedingsin1881,writingaletterhighlycriticalofherjealoushusband.Brahms'srelationshipwithJoachim,whosenaturewassodifferentfromhisown,wassuspended,untilhetenderedtheDoubleConcerto(1887)asapeaceoffering.Brahmsalsohadaspecialloveofchildren,whomheacceptedunconditionallyandenjoyedteasingandspoiling.InhislateryearsBrahms'sbachelorexistencewasbrightenedbyinfatuationswithtwoyoungsingers.HemetthecontraltoHermineSpies,astudentofJuliusStockhausen,in1883.Thisgifted,quickwittedwomanfromtheRhinelandinvigoratedthe50yearoldcomposerwithhermerrynatureandspiritedrenderingsofhissongs.Brahms'schangedmoodwasdiscernedbyBillrothinthesongsofopp.96and97.Forherpart,sheopenlyconfessedherJohannespassion,butbythistimeinhislifemarriagewasnotaseriousoption.Theartistryandbeautyofanothercontralto,AliceBarbi,capturedBrahms'sattentionin1890,andtheygreatlyenjoyedeachother'scompany(fig.5).ButBrahmswasalsocapableoftreatinglesstalentedandlessintelligentwomenwithrudeness.ThroughouthiscareerBrahmsdevotedmuchenergytopreparingarrangementsforpianofourhandsorfortwopianos.HistranscriptionsofSchumann'sPianoQuintetandPianoQuartet,threeoverturesbyJoachimandmostofhisownchamberandorchestralworksdemonstrateaspecialaffinityforthismedium,whichwasimportantforthedisseminationofmusicbeforetheageofthegramophone.HealsomadekeyboardarrangementsofworksbyBach,Chopin,Gluck,SchubertandWebercomposedkeyboardrealizationsforvocalduetsandtriosbyHandelorchestratedsixsongsbySchubertandmadepianoreductionsoftheorchestralaccompanimentstoSchubert'sMassinE (d950)andmanyofhisownchoralworks.Brahms'sstudyofearlymusicledhimtooverseeeditionsofworksbyC.P.E.andW.F.BachandFranoisCouperin.HeanonymouslypreparedaneditionofMozart'sRequiemforthecollectedworksandbroughtoutpreviouslyunpublishedworksbySchubertandSchumann.HealsoeditedSchubert'sninesymphoniesfortheGesamtausgabe,providededitorialassistanceforChopin'scollectedworksandhelpedprepareClaraSchumann'scollectededitionofherhusband'smusic.Brahms'sextensivecollectionofmusicalautographsandrareeditionsreflectsthedepthofhishistoricalinterests,aswellashistastesinmorerecentmusic.ChoiceitemsincludedearlyeditionsandmanuscriptsofDomenicoScarlatti'ssonatasmorethan60sheetsofBeethovensketchesandautographsofHaydn'sstringquartetsop.20,Mozart'sSymphonyno.40,severalSchubertsongsandhisQuartettsatzd703,Berlioz'sLamortd'Ophlie,Chopin'sEminorMazurkaandA Prelude,theoriginalversionofSchumann'sDminorsymphony(no.4),andexcerptsfromWagner'sTristanundIsoldeandDasRheingold.Brahmscopiedoutmusicthathecouldnot

  • acquireinmanuscriptorprint,assemblinglargecollectionsofEuropeanfolkmusicandRenaissanceandBaroqueartmusic.Hewasalsoaninveteratecollectorofpassagesinthemusicofhispredecessorscontainingparalleloctavesand5ths.Brahms'shistoricalawarenessfoundresonanceinhisownmusic.HischoralmusicdrewheavilyonthemodelsofRenaissanceandBaroquepolyphony,unitingoldmethodswithmodernmusicallanguageinworksthatrepresentapeakinmusicalhistoricism.Suchsynthesesarefoundinhisinstrumentalmusicaswell.Thedoublevariations(laHaydn)thatcomprisetheslowmovementoftheStringQuintetinF(op.88),forexample,arebasedontwoneoBaroquedances(asarabandandagavotte)thathehadcomposedinthemid1850s.HisHaydnVariationsop.56culminatewithasetofvariationsonagroundbass,andagrandlyscaledpassacagliaclosestheFourthSymphony.FolkmusicaswellinformsBrahms'smatureinstrumentalcompositions.Austrianlndlerstylemovementsareoftenencountered,andthestylehongroiscontinuestoexertitsinfluence.Brahms,Johannes5.Finalyearsandlegacy.Duringthe1890sdeathtookaterribletollonBrahms'scircleoffriends.In1892ElisabetvonHerzogenbergdiedattheageof45andinthefollowingyearHermineSpiessuccumbedat36in1894Billroth,BlowandSpittaalldiedwithinathreemonthperiod.Brahmshimselfwasbeginningtofeelhisage.Thoughinrobusthealth,latein1890andagainearlyin1894hedeclaredhisworkasacomposeratanendatleasttwosymphonicmovementsweresketchedbutleftincomplete.AtbothtimestheartistryofRichardMhlfeld,clarinettistofthecourtorchestrainMeiningen,stirredhimfromhislethargy,inspiringarichharvestofchamberworkswithclarinet(opp.114,115and120),thelastissuedin1895.In1891Brahmscollectedandpublished13canonscomposedfromthe1850sonwards,andin1894hegatheredinsevenvolumeshisarrangementsforvoiceandpianoof49Germanfolksongs.Hisfourcollectionsofshortpianopiecesopp.1169seemtorepresentasimilaractivity,thoughevidencesuggeststhatmostifnotallthepieceswererecentlycomposed.Brahms'smusiccontinueditstriumphantprogressthroughEurope.InJanuary1895hischamberandorchestralworksweresurveyedinafestivalofthreeconcertsinLeipzig,withEugend'Albertplayingbothpianoconcertos.ThefollowingSeptemberasimilareventtookplaceoverthreedaysinMeiningen.InOctobertheTriumphliedwasperformedwithBeethoven'sNinthSymphonytoopenthenewTonhalleinZrich.InJanuary1896Brahmsmadehislastappearanceonthepodium,conductinghistwopianoconcertosinBerlin,againwithAlbertassoloist.InMay1896,withthedeathofClaraSchumannimminent,BrahmssethisreflectionsonthemeaningoflifeanddeathtomusicintheVierernsteGesngeop.121.Inthewakeofherpassing(20May)hewrotehisfinalcompositions,the11ChoralePreludesfororgan(op.posth.122).AtthistimeBrahmsfirstcametorealizethathisowndayswerenumbered.Tofriendshedismissedhissallowcomplexionasbourgeoisjaundice,buthesurelyrecognizedthealarmingsymptomofcanceroftheliver,thediseaseofwhichhisfatherhaddied.Brahmswascaredforduringhisfinalmonthsbyhislandlady,CelestineTruxa,andbyloyalViennesefriends.Atoneofhislastappearancesinpublic,aperformanceoftheFourthSymphonybytheViennaPhilharmonicunderHansRichter(7March1897),hereceivedanovationaftereachmovement.Hediedon3April1897andwasburiedintheZentralfriedhofinVienna,

  • inagraveofhonourneartheremainsofBeethovenandSchubert.BecauseBrahmsdidnotleaveavalidwill,alengthylegaldisputeoverhisestateensued.PrivatecorrespondentswereallowedtoreclaimtheirletterstheremainingletterstoBrahms,mostofhisbooksandmusic,andalltheimportantmanuscriptswereacquiredbytheGesellschaftderMusikfreundeinVienna,aswashiswish.Brahms,Johannes6.Influenceandreception.Brahmsiseverywhere,observedthecriticWalterNiemannin1912whenassessingthecomposer'sposthumousinfluenceoncontemporarypianomusicinEurope.Indeed,fromabout1880Brahms'smusicwasapowerfulmodelforyoungercomposers.TheBrahmsfog,asWilhelmTappertdisparaginglycalledthisinfluencearound1890,hadpermeatedthemajorconservatoriesinAustriaandGermany,whereWagner'smusicwas,atleastofficially,disapprovedof.Furthermore,theexternalelementsofBrahms'sstylesuchastwoagainstthreerhythms,thickchords,andtriadicmelodieslentthemselvesreadilytoimitation.ComposerssuchasHeinrichvonHerzogenbergorthemoretalentedRobertFuchshaddifficultydevelopingbeyondtheBrahmsianidiom.Other,mostlyyounger,composers,includingZemlinsky,Reger,Schoenberg,Busoni,HindemithandWeill,absorbedBrahms'stechniqueswithgreateroriginalityintostylesthatbecametheearliestmanifestationsofmusicalmodernism.Brahms'smusicalsohadaprofoundinfluenceoutsideAustriaandGermany,especiallyinEngland,onHubertParry,Stanford,ElgarandVaughanWilliams.BrahmsisaudibleaswellinFrenchmusic,forexampleintherhythmicandtexturalaspectsofFaur.Furthertotheeast,SergeyTaneyev,whoproducedsymphonicandchambermusicwithastrongBrahmsianstamp,wasdubbedtheRussianBrahms.Wellintothelater20thcenturyadiversearrayofcomposersacknowledgedtheirindebtednesstoBrahms.ThecomplexmotivicandrhythmicstructuresofBabbittseektoextendBrahmsianpreceptstotheirlogicallimits.Ligeti'slyricalHornTrio(1982)isadirecthomagetoBrahms'strioop.40.BerioorchestratedtheClarinetSonataop.120no.1(19846),addingafewintroductorybarsofhisowntothefirsttwomovements.HiseffortrecallstheearlieroneofSchoenberg,whoin1937arrangedthePianoQuartetop.25forlargeorchestra.ThecriticalreceptionofBrahms'smusicwasuniqueamongthemajorClassicalandRomanticcomposers.Schumann's1853encomiumofBrahmsastheonedestinedtogiveexpressiontohisageinanidealfashionhadpowerfulrepercussions,bothnegativeandpositive.Formanyyearsafterwards,hewasjudgedbythestandardsandhopesexpressedbySchumann.Sometimeswillingly,sometimesnot,Brahmsbecamealightningrodinthemajormusicalaesthetictempestofthelater19thcentury.HewascastindirectoppositiontotheLisztiansandWagneriteshispreferredgenresofchambermusic,liederandsymphonyweresetagainstthemoremodernformsofmusicdramaandsymphonicpoem.AnunusualparadoxbecameapparentinreactionstoBrahms'smusicfromabouttheperiodoftheGermanRequiem.Evenashewasacknowledgedasamaster,andhisworksenteredthestandardrepertoryandthenthecanon,therewerestrongreservationsabouthismusic.Histechnicalprowesswasneverindoubt,buthis

  • musicwasfelttolacktrueoriginalityandexpressiveness.TheseviewswereheldevenbysuchstaunchalliesasHanslickandKalbeck.BeethovenwastheyardstickagainstwhichBrahmswasconstantlymeasured.ForLouisKhlerin1880,BrahmswouldneverriseaboveepigonalstatuswithoutspiritualqualitieshecouldbenokindofBeethoven.In1918PaulBekkeradvancedoneofthemaintheoriesofBrahmsreception,whichhadalreadybeenadumbratedasearlyas1879byWagner:Brahmswasessentiallyacomposerofchambermusic.ForBekker,Brahms'swasasmallscale,bourgeoismentality,incapableofthesocietyforming(gesellschaftsbildend)impulsethatledBeethoventowritetheNinthSymphony.Brahms'ssymphoniesweretoBekkernomorethanmonumentalizedchambermusic.Someyearslater,TheodorAdorno,andafterhimCarlDahlhaus,radicallyinvertedtheWagnerBekkercharacterizationfromadefecttoavirtue.ThechambermusicqualitiesofBrahms'ssymphonicmusicwerenowdeemedtobethemostforwardlookingaspectofhiswork.Accordingtothisview,theintricatetexturesandcontinuousmotivicvariationwereharbingersof20thcenturymusic,especiallythatoftheSchoenbergschool.ForAdorno,writingin1940,Brahms'smusicrepresentedthefirsttimeinWesternmusicthatthesubjectiveelementsofthematicdevelopmentdeterminedobjectiveformalstructures.Adornoanticipatedabetterknownarticulationofthisposition,anessaybySchoenbergthat,besideSchumann'sarticle,isthemostrenownedpieceofBrahmsreception.InBrahmstheProgressive,originallypreparedasaradiotalkfortheBrahmscentenaryof1933andrevisedin1947,Schoenbergadmiredthecompactrichnessofhisharmoniclanguageandhisabilitytospinthemes,sectionsandevenentirecompositionsfromafewsmallmotifs.ForSchoenberg,theseproceduresofStufenreichtum(abundanceofscaledegrees)anddevelopingvariationpavedthewaytowardsanunrestrictedmusicallanguageofthe20thcentury.HalfacenturyaftertheappearanceofSchoenberg'sarticle(inStyleandIdea,1950),suchspecialpleadingforBrahmsnolongerseemsnecessary.Hisworkscontinuetobemainstaysontheconcertstageandinrecordings.Therehavebeenimpressiveachievementsindocumentary,historicalandanalyticalresearch,andinperformingpractice,partlyresultingfromactivitiesoftheBrahmsanniversaryyears1983and1997.Allthisactivitysuggeststhatthespecialcombinationofbeautyandintegrityinhismusiccontinuestoexertconsiderableappealinapostmodernage.Brahms,Johannes7.Pianoandorganmusic.Brahms'searlyworksaredominatedbythepiano,theinstrumentonwhichhe,likemostcomposersoftheperiod,receivedhistraining.AsbothrecitalistandcomposerheseemedfromthestartintentontranscendingthevirtuosoandsalontraditionsthatdominatedEuropeinthe1830sand40s.Thefirstgroupofpianoworks,opp.4,2,1and5,completed(inthatorder)between1851and1853,displayanimpressivecommandofthekindofmotivicdevelopmentandlargescalestructuresBrahmsstudiedinBachandBeethoven,atalentforthethematictransformationandcolouristicharmonyofLisztandChopin,andastronglypoeticliteraryinclinationlikethatofSchumann.ThefirstmovementoftheFminorPianoSonataop.5drawsimaginativelyonallthesetraditions:thesonataformisbuiltbysubjectingaconcisemotiftoaseriesofmetamorphosesandwideranging

  • modulations,sothatweseemtobehearingthestoryofatheme.IntheScherzoop.4Brahmssoughttocompensatefortheinherentlysectionalnatureoftheformbyforgingclosethematicinterrelationshipsbetweenthesections.Theslowmovementsofthethreepianosonatasarecharacterpieces,orsongswithoutwords.TheyreflectthepredilectionforfolkmaterialsalsoevidentinBrahms'searlylieder.ThethemeoftheAndanteofop.1isVerstohlengehtderMondauf,whosetextBrahmsreproducedunderthenotesandidentifiedasanoldGermanMinnelied(thoughthemelodyisarecastingofoneprobablyinventedbyKretzschmerandZuccalmaglio,themoderncompilersofBrahms'ssource).TheAndantethemeofop.2bearsnowords,butBrahmstoldhisfriendDietrichthatitwasinspiredbythetextoftheGermanMinneliedMiristleide.Inop.5bothandantesarerelatedtopoemsbyC.O.Sternau,andportionsofthemovementsmayhavebeeninspiredbyafolklikemelodybySilcher,settoatextattributedtoWilhelmHauff.Theslowmovementsofopp.1and2arealsosignificantforbeingBrahms'sfirstminiexperimentsinvariationformeachconsistsofonlyafewvariationsonashorttheme.Boththemesalsohaveadialogicorcallandresponsestructureexploitedwithgreatfreedomandimagination,aswhenneartheendofthesecondvariationinop.1,alaconicfournotemotifinthemiddleregister,inahomophonicchoralstyle,isansweredbyasprinklingofpianisticfiligreefromonhigh.Brahmsreturnedtovariationforminthesummerof1854forthemoreextendedVariationsonaThemebySchumannop.9.Notsurprisingly,thebroadrangeofpianisticidiomsowesmuchtoSchumann'sownworks,towhichtherearealsomanyallusions.Themoodshiftsdramaticallyamongthe16variationsasareflectionofthetwodifferentpersonasimpliedinthemusic(Brahms,slower,moremeditativeKreisler,faster,moreimpulsive)andmadeexplicitintheautographmanuscript,whereBrahmsextendedthedoublebarsintoeitheraBorKr.Brahms'sfirstsetofsmallerpianopieces,theBalladesop.10,sharetheinterestinfolksources(thefirstisbasedontheScottishballadEdward)andSchumannesquestyleevidentinthesonatasandop.9.Aretrenchmentsetsinwiththepairsofgavottes,giguesandsarabandsthatcomprisewoo35andwereprobablyintendedaspartsofcompletesuitesinthemannerofBach.TheAminorSarabandwoo5isanexquisiteminiatureinroundedbinaryformcloselymodelledontheanalogousnumberinBach'sEnglishSuiteinGminor,andyetitshowshowwellBrahmscouldabsorbtheessenceofBach'sstructuresintohisowndevelopingstyle.Theretrospectivetrendofthemid1850scontinuesinfourorganworks(woo710),someofwhichoriginatedinthecourseofBrahms'scounterpointexchangewithJoachim.TheFugueinA minor(woo8),thegemofthegroup,isamasterfulsynthesisofBaroqueandRomanticprinciples.Aslow,highlychromaticsubjectundergoesstrictcontrapuntaltreatmentbyinversion,augmentation,diminutionandstretto,asitsimultaneouslyembarksonremoteharmonicjourneysthatcouldonlyhavebeenchartedinthemid19thcentury.AlsodatingfromthistimeisthemasterlyChoralePreludeonthePassionchoraleOTraurigkeit,oHerzeleid(woo7),towhichBrahmslateraddedanimposingfugue.ThetwosetsofVariationsinD(op.21nos.1and2)from18567showthatBeethovenianinfluenceswerebeginningtotemperBrahms'sRomanticapproachtothisform.TheVariationsandFugueonaThemebyHandel(op.24),whichlookstillfurtherbackintothemusicalpast,arethesuprememanifestationofthisneoclassical

  • orneobaroquetendency.Thecomposerhimselfvaluedthissethighly,callingithisLieblingswerk.EvenWagner,whoheardBrahmsplaythevariationsinViennain1862,isreportedtohaveexpressedadmirationforwhatmaystillbedonewiththeoldforms.TheHandelVariationstakeBach'sGoldbergandBeethoven'sDiabelliVariationsasthestartingpointforbuildingamonumentalandvariegatedstructureuponathemeoftheutmostsimplicity,heretheAirfromHandel'ssuiteinB .Fromtheviewpointofpianotechnique,theHandelVariationsaretheworkofacomposerwhohadforhistimeanexceptionalunderstandingofearlierkeyboardidioms.TheSchumannVariationsop.23,basedonamelodySchumannhadwrittendownnotlongbeforehissuicideattempt,maintainamorerestrictedrangeofexpressionandcharacterthantheearlierop.9setandassuchmaybesaidtopartakeofBrahms'sneoclassicismofthe1860s.Thefinalvariationisamajormodefuneralmarchintowhichisingeniouslywovenareturnoftheoriginaltheme.BycomparisonwithalmosteveryotherkeyboardworkofBrahms,theVariationsonaThemebyPaganini(op.35)placeanemphasisonextremevirtuosity.(ClaraSchumanncalledthemwitchvariationsandregrettedtheywerebeyondhercapacity.)Themoredidacticnatureofthesetissuggestedbyitsprincipaltitle:StudiesforthePiano.Aswiththetudesofothergreatcomposers,however,includingSchumann,Chopin,Liszt,andDebussy,techniqueisalwaysalliedwithpowerfulandwidelyrangingmusicalexpression.Acompletecontrasttothevariationsetsisofferedbythepianoworksofthe1860sbasedonpopulargenres.Theexuberantsetof16Waltzesop.39,writtenforpianofourhandsandadaptedalmostimmediatelyfortwohands,werecomposedinthespiritandonthescaleofSchubert'sdances,someofwhich(theLndlerd790)Brahmshadrecentlyeditedforpublication.DedicatedtoHanslick,theop.39setalsoconstitutesBrahms'saffectionatetributetothedanceformmostcloselyidentifiedwithhisadoptedcityVienna.Theseminiatures,mostlyinroundedorrecapitulatingbinaryform,unfoldagreatvarietyofexpression,fromthepropulsivestylehongroistoBiedermeiersentimentality.The1860salsosawBrahmspayingmoreconcentratedhomagetothegypsystyle:in1869SimrockissuedthefirsttwoofwhatweretobefourbooksofHungarianDancesforpianofourhandswoo1.(Brahmslaterarrangedtenofthedancesforsolopianoandthreefororchestra.)Thedancesarelargescalesectionalworksbasedmainlyonpreexistinggypsytunes,someofwhichBrahmsmayhaveknownasearlyas1853,whenhetouredwiththeviolinistEdeRemnyi.Brahmsmanagedtocombinefolkandhighartaseffortlesslyasheblendeddivergenthistoricalperiodsinotherworks.WiththeeightKlavierstckeop.76,mainlycomposedin1878,Brahmsenteredthelatephaseofhiswritingforpiano,dominatedbyshortercharacterpieces.ThissetalternatesbetweenworkslabelledCapriccioandIntermezzo.Theformertendtobefaster(sometimesmarkedagitato),withcontinuousrhythmicmotionthelatteraremorelyrical,butwithamelodicstylethatiseconomicalratherthanexpansive.ThetwoRhapsodiesop.79areBrahms'slargestindependent,singlemovementpianoworksaftertheScherzoop.4.Despitetheimplicationsofthetitle,bothpieceshaveclearformaldesigns.Onthelargestscale,no.1inBminorhasaternaryform,whileno.2inGminorisinafullyfledgedsonataform.TheGminorRhapsodybeginswithoneofthemoststriking(andmostanalysed)gesturesinallofBrahms'smusic,akindofdeceptivecadenceinwhichdeceptioncomesnotinthebass,whichbehaves

  • properly(DG),butinthemelody,whoseDE resolutionsendsthepiecespirallingoffintoaboldharmonicsequence.Amongthelatecollectionsopp.11619,Brahms'slastworksforpiano,theFantasienop.116,dubbedamultipiecebyonecritic,havethestrongestclaimtobeconsideredasacoherentwholebecauseofthematic,harmonicandstylisticconnections.Theset,dividedlikeop.76betweenintermezzosandcapriccios,beginsandendswithenergeticpiecesinDminorintheinteriorthereisagroupcentredonEmajor/minor.TheIntermezzoinEop.116no.4showshowfluidBrahms'sconceptionofstructurehadbecome.Thethreemainthematicunitsfallintoneitherconventionalternarynorrecapitulatingbinaryform,butratherarevariedcontinuouslysothatoneisjustifiedinspeakingofwhatSchoenbergcalledmusicalprose,adiscoursethatunfoldswithoutpatternedrepetition.InalettertohisfriendRudolfvonderLeyen,BrahmscalledthethreeIntermezzosop.117WiegenliedermeinerSchmerzen(lullabiesofmysorrow).Inthefirstpiecetheassociationwiththelullabyismadeexplicit:therhythmisasoftlyrocking6/8andBrahmsprefacedthemusicwithapairoflinesfromaScottishballad,astranslatedbyHerder,beginningSchlafsanftmeinKind(Sleepsoftly,mychild).IthasbeensuggestedthattheothertwointermezzosinthesetarealsorelatedtoScottishballads.InBrahms'slatepianopieceswebegintoseeabreakdownofthetraditionaldistinctionbetweenmelodyandharmonicsupport,betweenaboveandbelow.TheIntermezzoinFminorop.118no.4unfoldsasacanon,sometimesfree,sometimesstrict,betweenthehands.Thethematicmaterialisextraordinarilycompressed:inthemiddlesection,thecanonattheoctaveisbasedonnothingmorethanasustainedchordfollowedbyasinglenote.AstillstricterspatialsymmetrycharacterizestheharmonyandtextureoftheIntermezzoinEminorop.116no.5.Thetriadplayedbyeachhandinthefirstsixbarsisanexactmirrorofthatintheotherhand.Moreover,eachchordappearsonaweakbeatandresolvestobare,twonotedissonancesonstrongbeats.Brahmsthusreversedthetraditionalmetricalprocedureofassociatingthesuccessionweakstrongwithdissonanceconsonance.The11ChoralePreludesfororgan,composedinMayandJune1896,werepublishedposthumouslyin1902asop.122.Intimationsofthecomposer'smortalityareclearfromhischoiceofchorales,includingtwosettingsofOWelt,ichmussdichlassen.ThemodelsforthissetarethepreludesofBach'sOrgelbchlein,describedbyRegerassymphonicpoemsinminiature,inwhichthechoralemelodyremainsmostlyinthetoppart.Reger'sdescriptioncouldapplyequallywelltoBrahms.Theexpressiveseemsinseparablefromthestructuralinmomentsliketheachinglysustainedhalfdiminished7thchordthatprecedesthefinalcadenceinthefirstOWeltprelude,orinthecomplexmotivicdevelopmentthatsupportstheguilelessmelodyofOGott,dufrommerGott.TheselastworkscapturetheuniquesynthesisofhistoricalandmodernthatliesatthecoreofBrahms'smusicalpersonality.Brahms,Johannes8.Chambermusic.BrahmsrevivedchambermusicafterthedeathofSchumann,oneofitsgreatestRomanticpractitioners,anddefineditforthelater19thcentury.Across40years,fromthePianoTrioop.8(1854)totheClarinetSonatasop.120(1894),rangesacorpusof24completeworksthatisarguablythegreatestafterBeethoven.Formany

  • commentators,chambermusiccapturesBrahms'sbasiccreativepersonality,asthemusicdramadoesWagner's.Agoodnumberofcompositions,alldestroyedorlost,precededtheBmajor/minorPianoTrioop.8,whichinitsoriginalversionisanambitious,somewhatunevenattempttosynthesizeClassicalandRomantictraditions.ThemainthemeofthefirstmovementhasabreadthandtunefulnessreminiscentofSchubertthehymnlikethemeoftheAdagioseemsinspiredbyBeethovenandthepropulsiveScherzoisMendelssohnianinspirit.IntothemixcomesBaroquecounterpoint:thelargesecondgroupofthefirstmovementbeginswithaBachinspiredchromaticthemewhichintherecapitulationbecomesthesubjectofanelaboratefugato.WrittenduringBrahms'searliestandmostintenseinvolvementwiththeSchumanns,thetrioisalsorepletewithallusions.ThesecondthemeofthefinaleseemsbasedonthelastsongofBeethoven'scycleAndieferneGeliebte,aworkwhichalsohadparticularsignificanceforSchumann.Brahms'sslowmovementincludesanapparentreferencetothesongAmMeer(fromSchubert'scycleSchwanengesang),whosetextbyHeineaboutfrustratedlovemayhavehadspecialresonanceforBrahmsatthetime.In1889,afterSimrockboughtfromBreitkopf&Hrtelthepublishingrightsforthisandotherearlyworks,Brahmstooktheopportunitytoreviseop.8extensively.Heexcisedthefugato,removedthemostobviousallusionsandtighteneduptheformalstructures.Thisprocessincludedwritinganewcontrastingthemefortheslowmovementandanewsecondthemeforthefinale.Brahms'srevisions,althoughnotgreetedwithenthusiasmbysomeinhiscircle,bringthetriomoreintothestyleofhislaterchamberworks.

    TheB StringSextetop.18(185960)standsattheheadofagroupofsevenchamberworks,extendingtotheHornTrioop.40(1865).TogethertheycomprisewhatDonaldToveycalledBrahms'sfirstmaturity,inwhichtheinfluencesofhispredecessors,especiallyBeethovenandSchubert,wereabsorbedintoastyleofgreatoriginality.TheB SextetrepresentsaconsolidationinthespiritofthecontemporaneousorchestralserenadesandtheHandelVariationsforpiano.Themainthemeofthefirstmovementisastunefulasthatofop.8,butmorecompactandrestrained.BrahmsadoptedastreamlinedversionofthethreekeymodelofSchubert'ssonataforms:thetraditionaldominant,Fmajor,isdelayedbyamodulationfromtheinitialtonictoaremotekey(Amajor).Theslowmovement,whosedourthemeandchaconnelikebassrecallBeethoven's32pianovariationsinCminor(woo80),temperstheRomanticapproachtovariationformcharacteristicoftheearlypianoworks.BycontrastwiththeSextet,thepianoquartetsinGminorop.25andAop.26areunabashedlyinnovative.Botharemassiveinscale,lastingnearlythreequartersofanhourinperformance.Theexpositionofthefirstmovementofop.25hasnofewerthanfivethematicgroups,whichtraceapathfromthesombreopeningtoanexuberantDmajorclose.InastrikingtonalreversalthatmayowesomethingtothefirstmovementofSchubert'sGmajorStringQuartetd887,therecapitulationbeginsinGmajorwiththemiddleratherthantheinitialsegmentofthetripartitefirsttheme.IntheIntermezzoofop.25,Brahmsforthefirsttimesubstitutedfortheexpectedscherzoorminuetagentlermovementthatbecameahallmarkofhisworks.ThefieryrondofinaleallaZingareseconstitutestheearliestappearanceofthestylehongrois

  • (andoneofthemostsuccessful)inBrahms'schambermusic.ThefirstmovementoftheAmajorPianoQuartetisremarkableforthewayinwhichaprofusionoflyricalmelodiesisgeneratedbythekindofsmallscalemotivicmanipulationthatSchoenbergcalleddevelopingvariation.Theslowmovementisfullofstrikingtimbraleffects,amongthemanepisode(reminiscentofSchubert'sDieStadt,fromSchwanengesang)inwhichthepiano'ssweepingdiminished7tharpeggiosconfrontanimpassivefournotemotifinthestrings.TheFminorPianoQuintetop.34originatedin1862asastringquintetwithtwocellos(inimitationofSchubert'sidenticallyscoredwork)andwasalsoarrangedasatwopianosonata(op.34b).ItisperhapsthemosttightlyintegratedworkofBrahms'sfirstmaturity,especiallyinthewayharmonicandmelodicdetailsdeterminelargescalestructure.ThenoteD ,prominentintheopeningtheme(andrepresentingtheflattenedsixthdegree),isprojectedontothetonalschemeofthethreekeyexposition,whichmovestoC minor,thentoitsenharmonicparallelD major.AD Cmotivicfigureanditstranspositionspermeatethescherzo,especiallytheenergeticfinalcadences.ThecodaofthefinalebeginsinC minorandreturnstothetonicareawithaprominentdescentinthebassfromD toC.AlsoimportantintheFminorQuintetisthetechniqueofthematictransformation,wherebythemesretaintheirbasiccontourandlengthbutarealteredinmoodorcharacter.Inthedevelopmentsectionofthefirstmovement,thesinuousmaintheme,originallyplayedinstarkoctaves,isadjustedinrhythmandtexturetoyield,inTovey'saptphrase,theliltofanancientballad.ThefirstmovementoftheGmajorSextetop.36isjustlyadmiredforitseleganttonalandmotivicsymmetries.Themainthemeswiftlyoutlineskeysthatlieamajor3rdoneithersideofthetonic:E andBmajor.ThetautfugalfinaleoftheEminorCelloSonataop.38,basedonathemethatrecallsthetwomirrorfugues(Contrapunctusnos.16and17)ofBach'sArtofFugue,showshowfarBrahmshadadvancedsincethePianoTrioop.8intheintegrationofstrictcontrapuntaltechniqueandsonataform.BrahmswrotetheHornTrioop.40forthenaturalorWaldhorn,whosetimbreandcapabilitieslendtheworkanunforgettablesoundanduniqueformalqualities.FortheonlytimeinthefirstmovementofaninstrumentalworkBrahmsabandonedsonataform,asifsensingthatarelaxedrondostructuremightallowthehornabroaderrangeofexpression.TheHornTrioisalsocharacterizedbymotivicconnections,andevendirectthematicrecalls,amongthefourmovements.AfteraneightyearhiatusinchambermusicaperiodmarkedmainlybylargechoralworksBrahmsreturnedtoitin1873withtherevisionandcompletionofthetwostringquartetsop.51,inCminorandAminor,begunsomeyearsearlier.TheCminorQuartetreflectsanewstylisticphase,characterizedbymotivicdensityandformalcompactness.Thefirstmovementchurnswithchromaticturbulence,rarelysettlingdownintostablekeyareasorbroadthemes.ItslanguageresemblesthatoftheFirstSymphonyinthesamekey,whichwasgestatingatthistime.Themovementsarelinkedthematicallyinawaythatlendstheworkabreathlessunity.TheAminorQuartetismoreovertlylyrical,butstillconcentratedintechnique.TheAndante,whosethemeisgeneratedfromtheconstantrhythmicmetricdisplacementoftheintervalofa2nd,wasjustlysingledoutbySchoenbergasamiracleofmusicaleconomy.

  • In1875BrahmsattackedmoreunfinishedchambermusicwiththePianoQuartetinCminorop.60,begunin1855inC minor.Theearlydateofatleastthefirstmovementmayaccount(aswiththeoriginalversionoftheBmajorTrio)fortheoddlyexperimentaltreatmentofsonataform.Thesecondgroup,inthekeyofE ,isbuiltasaquasiindependentthemeandvariations.Intherecapitulation,inacaseprobablyuniqueinthehistoryofsonataform,thisgroupistransposednottotheexpectedtonic,buttothedominant,Gmajor.

    InthelastStringQuartet(no.3inB ,op.67)Brahms'swritingforthemediumbecomesespeciallytransparent.Formalandthematicstructuresarecorrespondinglylucid,andofteninnovative.Inthefirstmovement,thesonataexpositionisarticulatednotonlybyconventionalharmonicandmelodicproceduresbutalsobymetricalones.Themainthemeiscastinabuoyant6/8,thesecondinamorehesitant2/4.Thetransitionbetweenthemismadebyaseriesofstrikinghemiolas.ThefinalerepresentsthefirsttimeBrahmsendedamultimovementworkwithasetofvariations,hereexploitedtocreateanewkindofcyclicunity.Afterthesixthvariation,theopeningthemeofthefirstmovementreturnssuddenlyandmanagesasifbymagictointegrateitselfintothevariationstructure.Inthefinalbarsitiscombinedwiththeoriginalvariationthemeinseeminglyeffortlesscounterpoint.Intheinterregnumbetweenhissymphonicperiods,Brahmscompletedthreechamberworks,theViolinSonatainGop.78,thePianoTrioinCop.87andtheStringQuintetinFop.88.ThepastoralfirstmovementoftheViolinSonatarepresentsakindofexpressiveoverflowfromthefirstmovementoftheSecondSymphony.Asinthesymphony,amoresombretoneisstruckbytheslowmovement,especiallythefuneralmarchinthepiandanteepisode,andbythefinale,whichbeginsintheminormodewithacitationofBrahms'ssongRegenlied,andintowhichthemainthemeoftheslowmovementmomentarilyreassertsitself.IntheStringQuintetop.88Brahmsinnovatedathreemovementformatinwhichacentralrondostructurecombinesthefunctionsofaslowmovementandscherzo.ThethemeoftheGraveedappassionato,adaptedfromakeyboardsarabandof1854(woo5),alternateswithanAllegrettovivacebasedonagavottefromthesameperiod(woo3).LikethefinaleoftheCelloSonataop.38,theQuintet'slastmovementintegratessonataandcontrapuntalform,hereinamorejovialspirit.Thefirstgroupisafugalexposition,withaBaroquestylesubjectinbusyquavers.Forthesecondgroup,thesubjectretreatstoaninnerparttoaccompanyanexpansivemelody.Brahmsachievedaremarkablenewlevelofeconomicallyricisminthenextfourworks,theCelloSonataop.99,theSecondViolinSonataop.100,theThirdPianoTrioop.101andtheThirdViolinSonataop.108.Theopeningthemeofop.99consistsessentiallyofatwonotefigure(CF)whoseintervallicandrhythmicstructure(semiquaverminim)evolvesrapidlybymeansofdevelopingvariation.Theprocessissocontinousthatitalsoenvelopsthesecondgroup,derivedfromthesamematerial.Inallfourworksthehighlyconcentratedapproachmakesforverybriefstructures:thefourmovementsofop.108altogetherlastjustover20minutes,barelylongerthanthefirstmovementoftheFminorPianoQuintet.ThefirstmovementoftheGmajorStringQuintetop.111,aworkwithwhichBrahmsinitiallythoughttotakeleaveofcomposition,seemstopressagainstthelimitsofchambermusic.Thepowerfulopeningtremolosannounceasymphonicmanner,andthemaintheme,introducedbythecello,isoneofthemostexpansiveinallBrahms,

  • withanambitusandharmonicscopethatinvitecomparisonwiththeathleticmelodiesofRichardStrauss.Verydifferentinmoodarethoseinthefinalgroupofchamberworks:theClarinetTrioop.114,theClarinetQuintetop.115andthetwoClarinet/ViolaSonatasop.120.Althoughthetimbreoftheclarinetimpartsareflectivequalitycriticshaveusedthewordautumnalthereisnothingretrospectiveaboutthecompositionaltechniques.Structuralfluidityisespeciallyevidentinthefirstmovements,wheretheconventionalboundariesofsonataformbecomeblurred.WiththeexceptionoftheClarinetQuintet,theexpositionsarenotrepeated.Brahmsbuiltcomplexthematicgroups,inwhichtheopeningideas,harmonicallyandformallyambiguous,areatthesametimeintroductoryinnatureandintegraltotheexposition.Inop.120no.1theinitialunisonflourishcouldbeineitherFminororD major.Whenthefirstthemereappearsattheendofthethedevelopment,itisharmonizedintheremotekeyofF minor.Therecapitulationproperbeginswiththeappearanceonthetonicofwhatwasthecontrastingpartofthefirstgroup.Withthesekindsoftechniques,thelatechamberworksachievebothcontinuityandclarityinawaythatisuniqueinthehistoryofmusic.Brahms,Johannes9.Orchestralworksandconcertos.InhisarticleNeueBahnen,SchumannhintedthatitwasBrahms'sdestinytocomposefororchestra.BythetimeofBrahms'sdeathin1897,thispredictionhadbeenfulfilledwiththecreationoftwoserenades,fourconcertos,asetofvariations,twooverturesandfoursymphonies.TheDminorPianoConcertoisoneofthemostpowerfulstatementsafterBeethoveninwhatCarlDahlhauscalledthesymphonicstyle,whichaimedformonumentaleffectsachievedbyorchestralmeansasymphonycouldnotbemerelythetranscriptionofasonataandwasdefinedbymomentsliketheopeningoftheNinthSymphony.ThefirstthemeoftheconcertorecallsBeethoven'sNinthinitsangularity,rhythmicenergyanduseofathrobbingtimpanipedalpoint.BrahmsalsoexploredthetonalrelationshipbetweenDminorandB majorcharacteristicoftheNinth.ThefirstmovementoftheConcerto(markedMaestoso)isdistinctivefortheampledimensionsoftheorchestralexposition,itsharmonicrangeandpianowritingthat,unlikethatofmostconcertosoftheperiod,isvirtuosowithoutbeingflashy.TheturbulentfirstmovementhasoftenbeenassociatedwithSchumann'sattemptedsuicide.TheAdagiomovement,inbroadternaryform,isareflectivecounterpart:BrahmscalleditagentleportraitofClaraSchumann.Strikingly,itisinthesameunusualtimesignatureasthefirstmovement,6/4,andthereareclearthematiclinks.Therondofinaleshowsaverydifferentspirit.Itsformalstructureismodelledclosely,evenslavishly,onthefinaleofBeethoven'sThirdPianoConcertoinawaythatmightbecalledneoclassical.Itisthisneoclassicalimpulsethatcomestotheforeinthenextorchestralworks.InthefirstmovementoftheFirstSerenadeop.11,written(afterseveralmetamorphosesofmedium)forfull[grosses]orchestra,theangryDpedalpointoftheFirstConcertohasgivenwaytoapastoraldronetheferocioustrillsandchromaticismyieldtoathemebouncinggentlyamongthenotesoftheDmajorscale.ThemodelsfortheFirstSerenadeareinHaydnandinearlyBeethoven(especiallytheSecond

  • Symphony,inthesamekey).Theapparentsimplicityofthework,however,concealssophisticatedBrahmsiantechniquesofmotivicdevelopmentandflexiblephrasestructure.TheSerenadeincludestwoscherzosandapairofexquisiteminuets.IntheminuetstheoriginoftheSerenadeasachamberworkisespeciallyapparent.TheexpansiveslowmovementistheonlyoneinBrahms'sworkstousefullsonataform.UnlikeitsDmajorcounterpart,theSecondSerenadeop.16inAwasconceivedforasmallorchestra,distinctive(likethefirstmovementoftheGermanRequiem)inhavingnoviolins,ascoringthatgivesprominentmelodicrolestothewindinstrumentsandviolas.TheSecondSerenadehasfivemovements,includingtwoinnerdancemovements,ascherzoandaminuet.Thedarklyhuedslowmovementisnoteworthyforitsrichcounterpoint,expansiveternaryformandharmonicadventurousness.In1862BrahmsplungedbackintothesymphonicstylewiththefirstmovementofwhateventuallybecamehisCminorSymphony.Butonceagainthesymphonicenginestalled.Heseemstohavemadenosubstantialprogresswiththeworkoverthenext14years.In1873hereturnedtoorchestralwritingwithvirtuallysimultaneousversionsfortwopianosandfororchestraoftheVariationsonaThemeofHaydnop.56,basedontheStAnthonychoraleforwindinstruments(apiecenolongerfirmlyattributedtoHaydn).TheHaydnVariationsisthefirstorchestralworkinwhichBrahmsmaybesaidtohaveassimilatedfullyearliermodelsandinfluences.Thereareeightvariations,plusafinaleintheformofapassacagliawith17variationsandacoda.AlthoughthetechniquesowemuchtoBrahms'sforebears,whatisnewandgenuinelysymphonicisthewaythecounterpointisrealizedthroughtheorchestra,notonlyinthestrictdevicesofcanonandinvertiblecounterpointbutalsointhepolyphonicmovementoftheparts.ApassagelikethePresto(eighthvariation),withitseeriepedalpointsspreadoutoversixoctaves,alsoindicatesanewlevelofsophisticationinBrahms'sorchestration.ThecompletionandpremireoftheFirstSymphonyin1876wasamilestoneforBrahmsandforsymphonicmusicgenerallyinAustroGermanlands.Althoughitwasnotuniversallyloved,thesymphonywasacknowledgedasthemostsignificantsinceSchumann.ItadherestothestandardfourmovementformatandassuchwassometimesconsideredtocontributelittletothedevelopmentofthegenreafterBeethoven'sNinth.Infact,BrahmsadaptedwithgreatoriginalitythemodelofBeethoven'sFifthSymphony,whichlikewiseprogressesfromstruggleinCminortowardstriumphinCmajorbymeansoflinksbetweentheindividualmovements.InBrahms,thesetechniquesincludethematicmotivicconnectionsinvolvingespeciallythefiguresofadescending4thandachromaticrising3rd,aswellasaharmonictonalschemeinwhichthekeysofthesuccessivemovementsdepartfromandreturntoCbymajor3rds:CEA C.FromBeethoven'sNinthSymphonyBrahmstookovertheideaofgivingbothoutermovementsslowintroductions.Theintroductiontothefinalerevisitstheturbulentmoodofthefirstone,thenbringsforthtwonewelements(ahorncallandachoralelikepassage)thatpointtowardsresolution,whichcomeswiththefamousfirstthemeofthemovementproper,aCmajormelodyreminiscentofBeethoven'sOdetoJoytheme.TheFirstSymphonyisspecialinitscombinationofcontrapuntaldensity,fluidphrasestructure,andsoaringlyricism.Themainthemeofthefirstmovementisactuallyacomplexofthreedifferentmotifspresentedsimultaneously,thenimmediately

  • developed.Thephrasesgeneratedareofirregular,constantlychanginglengths.Atcertainmomentsandtheirraritymakesthemespeciallypowerfulthemomentumofthismotivicstyleletsuptoyieldbroadermelodies,asintheG tuneinthedevelopmentofthefirstmovementand,moreprominently,intheCmajorthemeofthefinale.TheSecondSymphonyinDop.73,composedlessthanayearafterthecompletionoftheFirst,isoftendescribedasitssunnycounterpart.Theworkindeedradiatesawarmthandtunefulnessabsentinpartsoftheearlierwork.ButasBrahmshimselfacknowledged,theSecondSymphonyalsohasamelancholyside.Thelyricalopeningthemeofthefirstmovementunravelsalmostatonceintoadarkpassagefortimpaniandtrombones.Thevoiceofmelodiccontinuityisreassertedofteninthismovement,however,firstbytheviolinmelodythatfollowstheunravellingandagainbythesecondgroupandthelargecoda.Thepensiveslowmovement,inBmajorandinamodifiedsonataform,isdominatedbyamotivicallyrich,metricallyambiguousmainthemeremarkableforitscombinationoftunefulnessanddevelopingvariation.Thesecondhalfofthesymphonydistinctlybrightensinmood,althoughittoocontainssombremomentsofteninvolvingthetrombonesthatevoketheexpressiveworldofthefirsttwomovements.TheAllegrettorecaststhetraditionalscherzotrioalternationintoarondolikestructurethatisoneofBrahms'smostoriginalcreations.AlthoughthefinaleendsthesymphonyinajubilantblazeofDmajor,itglancesbackatthemoodoftheearliermovements,especiallyinthehauntingpassageattheendofthedevelopmentsection(whosechainsofdescending4thsMahlerrecalledhisFirstSymphony)andinthesyncopatedepisodeforbrassinthecoda.Twoconcertosandtwooverturesseparatethefirsttwosymphoniesfromthesecondpair.Temperamentally,theViolinConcertoop.77isinmanyrespectsacompanionpiecetotheSecondSymphony,withwhichitsharesthekeyofDandafirstmovementin3/4timebuiltfromtriadicallyorientatedthemesthatfurnishenergeticdevelopmentaswellasgentlelyricism.TheelegiacopeningritornellooftheAdagio,scoredforwoodwindandsolooboe,introducesoneofBrahms'smostclassicallypoisedslowmovements.TheexuberantrondoisoneofBrahms'sgreatestessays,andcertainlyhismostvirtuoso,inthestylehongrois.TheAcademicFestivalOvertureop.80andtheTragicOvertureop.81arecounterpartstoeachother,somewhatlikeasatyrplayandatragedy.IntheAcademicFestivalOvertureabouthalfadozenpopulartunesandstudentsongs,includingtheRkcziMarchandGaudeamusigitur,arewovenintoasophisticatedlargescalebinaryformconsistingofathreekeyexpositionandarecapitulationthatincorporatesdevelopmentalelements.Beyonditstitle,theTragicOverturehasnospecificprogrammeornarrative.ThisimposingmovementisinthespiritofDminorpredecessors,includingBeethoven'sNinthandBrahms'sownFirstPianoConcerto.Itisinabroadsonataform,inwhichtherecapitulationbeginswiththetransitiontothesecondgroup.Theovertureisremarkableforitsmotivicconcentration,especiallythewayinwhichallthethematicmaterialseemstobegeneratedfromtheboldopeningmottoofadescending4th.TheB PianoConcertoop.83istheOlympiansuccessortoBrahms'sfirsteffortinthegenre.(HisfriendTheodorBillrothremarkedthatthetwoworksstoodinthe

  • relationshipofyouthtoman.)Theinterpenetrationofsoloandorchestralparts,aswellastheadditionofascherzotothenormalthreemovementdesign,bringsop.83closertothegenreofsymphonythananyothermajorconcertoofthe19thcentury.Thepianomakesanearlyappearance(asinBeethoven'sFourthandFifthConcertos),respondingtoanevocativehorncall,thenembarksonafullyfledgedcadenza.AllofthisisapreludetoBrahms'smostexpansiveconcertomovement.Thescherzoisanintense,compactsonataforminDminor,whichflowsintoaradianttrioinDmajor:itisasiftheworldsoftheearlierDminorConcertoandthemorerecentViolinConcertoareputsidebyside.Amasterpieceoftonepainting,theAndanteisalmostadoubleconcertoforsolocelloandpiano.Thepianonevertakesupthecello'sopeningmelodydirectly,respondinginsteadwithapparentlyimprovisatorygarlandsoffigurationthat(beingbyBrahms)areinfactthematic.Thefinale,asonatarondo,encompassesagreatrangeofmoods,fromthegypsyswaggerofthefirstepisodetotheclownishrompofthecoda.WithhisThirdSymphonyop.90Brahmsachievedanewlevelofcoherenceinalargescaleorchestralwork.Itistheshortestofthefoursymphonies,lastingonlyhalfanhourinmostperformances.Thedurationsoftheindividualmovementsareclosertobeingequalthaninanyoftheothers.Thecompactdimensionsandbalancedproportionsseemintendedtopointupprocessesthatextendovertheentirework.TheseincludethemostdirectthematicrecallinanysymphonicworkbyBrahms:theopeningmottoandthemereturntransfiguredattheendofthefinale.Coherenceisalsoimpartedbyharmonicdevices,suchasthefrequentjuxtapositionofFmajorandFminor.Thetonalschemeisuniqueinthegenre:outermovementscentredonFandinnermovementsonC,thuscreatingaplateauofharmonictensioninthedominantthatimpliesalargescalesonataformoverthewholework.InmanywaystheFourthSymphonyop.98,composedsoonaftertheThird,representsthesummitofBrahms'sachievementinthegenre.Thefinale,intheformofapassacagliawithaterseeightbarthemeand30variations,ishismostthoroughgoingattempttosynthesizehistoricalandmodernpractice.Whileobservingthestricturesoftheostinatosubject,hecreatedcontinuitybyarrangingthevariationsingroupsaccordingtofiguration,thematicstyle,dynamicsandharmony.AsintheThirdSymphony,tonalrelationships,hereinvolvingEandC,extendovertheentireworkatbothlargerandmoredetailedlevels.ThefourmovementsareinEminor,Emajor,CmajorandEminor,respectively.Atthebeginningoftherecapitulationinthefirstmovement,aCmajortriadthathadbeenonlyadiscreetharmonyattheopeningbecomesabroadarpeggiounderthesustainedfourthnoteofthetheme.IntheAndante,thePhrygianinflectionsofthethemecontinuallybringC(asflattenedsixth)intoplay.Inthefinale,whoseostinatothemesuggestsasingleharmonicframework,variations268arebroughtdeftlyintothekeyofCmajor.TheFourthSymphonyisalsoremarkableforwhatEdwardT.Conecalledharmoniccongruence,wherebytheverticalandhorizontaldimensionsofthemusicarefashionedfromthesamebasicmaterial.Thisprincipleisadumbratedbythedescendingchainofmelodic3rdsthatshapesthemaintheme.Hereandelsewhereinthefirstmovement,theaugmentedtriadformsasignificantelementonboththethematicandtheharmonicaxes.CongruenceofthistypeforeshadowsremarkablySchoenberg'sconceptoftheunityofmusicalspace,inwhichthereisnoabsolutedown,norightorleft,forwardorbackward.

  • Brahms'sfinalworkinvolvingorchestraisthemuchunderratedConcertoforViolinandCelloop.102,whichwascomposedin1887inpartasagestureofreconciliationwithJoachimafteralongperiodofcoolrelations.Thereisnoapparentprecedentfortheuseofthesetwoinstrumentsinaconcerto,thoughBrahms'sworkisclearlyindebtedtoMozart'sSinfoniaconcertanteforviolinandviolak320dandtoBeethoven'sTripleConcerto.Theopeningofthefirstmovementisdominatedbytwocadenzas,oneforeachinstrument,correspondingtothetwomainthemesoftheexposition.Becauseofthesubsequentinterpenetrationofsoloandorchestra,thedialogicaspectofthesolopartsandthenatureofthethematicmaterial,thestandarddemarcationpointsinthesonataformareblurredtoanevengreaterdegreethanisnormalinBrahms.ThecentralAndantemovementisbuiltfromoneofBrahms'smostexpressivemelodies,which,whenplayedbythetwosoloistsinoctaves,almosttakesonaPuccinianintensity.Thefinaleisasonatarondointhegypsystyle.ThemanyorchestrasthatplayedBrahms'smusicinhislifetime,oftenunderhisbaton,variedwidelyinsize.ThelargestwastheViennaPhilharmonic,whichhadabout100playersatthetimeofthepremiresofthesecondandthirdsymphonies.ThesmallestwerethecourtorchestrasatKarlsruheandMeiningen,whichgavethepremiresoftheFirstandFourth,respectivelytheyhad49players,withonlynineortenfirstviolins.Especiallyinthesesmallergroups,thebalancebetweenstringsandwoodwindbrasswasmoreeventhaniscommontoday.TwobasictrendsininterpretationofBrahms'sorchestralmusiccanbegleanedfromsurvivingevidence.OnewasthatofHansRichter,conductoroftheViennaPhilharmonic,whosestraightforward,moreliteralapproachwasinheritedinpartbyFelixWeingartner.Theotherwastheheavilynuancedstyle,withrhythmicinflectionandtempofluctuation,ofHansvonBlow,passedontoFritzSteinbach.AlthoughnotalwayscontentwitheitherRichterorBlow,BrahmsapprovedofbothWeingartnerandSteinbach.Thissuggeststhathehadnofixedideaofhowhissymphoniesshouldsound,puttinghistrustinthemusicianshipofthebestconductors.Brahms,Johannes10.Choralworks.LargescaleworksforchorusandorchestraoccupyasignificantnicheinBrahms'soutput.AttheheadofthisgroupformanyitstandsatthecentreofBrahms'sentireoutputistheGermanRequiemop.45,composedmainlybetween1865and1867,withthefifthmovementaddedin1868.TheGermanRequiemwasthefirstworkinwhichBrahmsfulfilledSchumann'smandate(madeinthearticleNeueBahnen)todirecthismagicwandwherethemassedforcesofchorusandorchestramaylendhimtheirpower.Schumann'sowncontributionstothechoralorchestraltradition,composedwithinthelastdecadeofhislifeandincludingsuchworksasSzenenausGoethesFaust,servedasinspirationsforBrahms,wholikewiseturnedforhistextstohighqualityGermanpoetryandtothescriptures.Althoughitfallsintothetraditionofthesacredoratorio,theRequiem,whichemploysbaritoneandsopranosoloists,belongstonoestablishedgenre.Itisnotaconventionalrequiemmass,sinceitavoidstheliturgicalLatintext.Brahmsassembledhistextsforthesevenmovementsfrom15passagesinMartinLuther'stranslationoftheBible.Thefocusislessondeaththanonconsolationfortheliving.

  • ThetextsarestrikingforavoidingaltogetherthenotionofredemptionthroughChrist,whoisnotmentionedatall.ThereligioussentimentisthusmoreuniversalBrahmssaiditcouldbecalledahumanrequiemthandenominational.ThechoralwritingintheRequiemdisplaysgreatdiversityandhistoricalawareness.Atonetexturalextremeisthestark,sombrehomophonyattheopeningofthesecondmovement(DennallesFleisch)attheother,theelaborateneoHandelianfuguesthatclosethethirdandsixthmovements(atHerr,dubistwrdigandDerGerechtenSeelen,respectively).Thefirstpartofthefourthmovement(WielieblichsinddeineWohnungen)evokestheliltofaViennesewaltz(fig.10).Inthesixthmovement,atundderZeitderletztenPosauneandTod,woistdeinStachel?,Brahmscomposedpassagesasexplosivelydeclamatoryasanythinginthe19thcentury.InmanywaystheRequiemsetthestylisticparametersforthechoralorchestralworksthatfollowed.TheTriumphliedop.55(1871),whichemploysdoublechorusandabaritonesoloist,isoftencalledneoHandelianbecauseofitscontrapuntaltextures,broadsequencesandfrequentinterjectionsofHallelujah.Suchalabeltendstomasktheoriginalfeaturesofthisseldomperformedwork,includingthesophisticatedpolyphonicwritingandthemasteryoftimbreevidentinBrahms'sdeploymentofthemassedforces.Thenationalistic,celebratoryTriumphliedis,however,theanomalyamongthepostRequiemworks,whichotherwisedealwiththegeneralthemeofthealienationfeltbyanindividual(orbyhumanity)towardsthehigherpowersthatcontrolexistence.Betweenthem,theAltoRhapsodyop.53(1869)andRinaldoop.50(completed1868)mayprovidetheclosestapproximationofhowanoperabyBrahmswouldhavesounded.IntheRhapsody,BrahmsshapedthreestanzasfromGoethe'sHarzreiseimWinterintoacompact,quasitheatricalscena.Anorchestralritornelloisfollowedbyarecitativeandaria(orarioso)forcontralto,whoisthenjoinedbyamen'schoirforachoralelikefinale.ThepsychologicalevolutionoftheprotagonistfromsolitarydespairtotheprayerofconsolationintheFatherofLoveistracedbytheincreasingregularityofthephrasestructureandmelodicstyle,andbyaharmonictrajectoryfromachromaticallyinflectedCminortowardsaradiantCmajor.Rinaldo,whichBrahmscalledacantata,isasettingofastillmoreovertlydramaticpoembyGoethe,itselfbasedonanepisodefromTorquatoTassoaboutaCrusaderknight(solotenor)whoispersuadedbyhiscrew(men'schorus)toleavetheenchantressArmidaandreturntowar.BrahmsskilfullyinterwoveroundedformssuchasRinaldo'srecitativeandlargescaleternaryariawithmoreopenendedonesthatconveythehero'sincreasingdoubts.FriedrichHlderlin'spoemHyperionsSchicksalslied,setbyBrahmsasSchicksalsliedop.54(186871),maybesaidtoreversethepatternoftheHarzreisefragment:here,thetroublefreelifeofthegodsonhigh(stanza1)iscontrastedwiththetormentedexistenceofmortalsbelow(stanzas23).Toavoidendinginthedarkermood,Brahmsbroughtbackthemusicoftheelegiacorchestralintroduction.ThetonalschemeoftheSchicksalslied,E majorCminorCmajor,isdistinctiveinBrahmsasanexampleofprogressivetonality.ForthetextofNnieop.82(1881),amusicalmemorialtohisfriendtheneoclassicalpainterAnselmFeuerbach,Brahmsturnedtoadistinguishedearlierneoclassicist,Schiller.Liketheothershorterchoralorchestralworks,thisonetouchesonthethemeofhumandestiny,heretheephemeralnatureofbeauty.Sincethetoneis

  • moreuniformlyelegiac,oneofBrahms'sremarkableachievementsinNniewastocreatesomuchvarietyofexpression.Thiswasdoneinpartthroughstronglycontrastingchoraltexturesandkeyareas:thefugalopeningandclosingsectionsinDencloseacentral,morehomorhythmicsegmentinthe3rdrelatedkeyofF .TheGesangderParzenop.89(1882),whosechromaticandturbulentDminortonalityseemstorevisittheworldsofBeethoven'sNinthandBrahms'sFirstPianoConcerto,isasettingforsixpartchorus(withdividedaltosandbasses)ofamonologuefromGoethe'sdramaIphigenieaufTauris.AsintheSchicksalslied,themortalsandimmortalsareseparatedbyanunbridgeablegulf.Theoverallformisarondo,achievedbyrepeatingtheopeningstanzaanditsmusicinthemiddleofthework.ThecodacontainsoneofBrahms'smoststrikingharmonicpassages,acycleofmajor3rds(DF B D)inwhicheachstepfunctionsasanaugmented6thchordofthenext.(Webernadmiredthisprogressionasthebeginningofthechromaticpathtothe20thcentury.)Brahmsalsocomposednumeroussmallerscalesacredandsecularworksforwomen's,men'sandmixedchoirs.Theearliestextantcompositions,writtenforhischoirsinDetmold,HamburgandVienna,reflecthisinterestsinhistoricalstylesandhisexchangeofcounterpointexerciseswithJoachim.ThefragmentaryMissacanonicawoo18(1856)andthetwoLatinpiecesforGoodFriday,OboneJesuandAdoramusteop.37nos.1and2(1859),wereinspiredbylateRenaissancemusic.IntheindependentKyriewoo17(1856)abassocontinuoaccompaniesBaroquestylepolyphony.TheGeistlichesLiedop.30(1856)combineschoralelikemelodywithstrictcanonicprocedures,Classicalclosedformandafreepolyphonicaccompaniment.IntheReginacoeliop.37no.3(1863)amelodyemploying18thcenturydancerhythmsissunginduetwithitsinversionandispunctuatedbychoralresponses.ThetechniquesofearlymusicoccuraswellintheTwoMotetsop.29(185660):inno.1,EsistdasHeilunskommenher,afourpartchoraleissucceededbyanelaboratefugalvariationonthechoralemelodyinno.2thefirstandthirdpartsofBrahms'ssettingofversesfromPsalmliarecanonic(astileanticoaugmentationcanonandagroupcanoninsicilianostyle),thesecondandfourthpartsfugal(angularBachianversustriumphantHandelian/Beethovenian).Twoworksfromautumn1858employorchestralforces.IntheAveMariaop.12sweetlyflowingpassagesofparallel3rdsin6/8recallearlierMariansettings,butthestructureisthatofaminiaturesonatamovement.InthemajesticBegrbnisgesangop.13Brahmsmarshalledanimpressivearrayofhistoricaltextures:darklyhuedsolochoralesingingwithchoralresponse,instrumentalostinatoaccompanyingchoralpsalmodyandcanonictriosonatatexturewithobbligatowindsreminiscentofBach'scantatas,allunitedbyritornellosofwoodwindandlowbrassintoaClassicalrondostructure.ForestmysteryandtheripplingmusicofwindandwaterinfusetheVierGesngeop.17forwomen'schoir,harpandhorns(1860),acycleofRomantictonesketchesthatopenswithamovementinCmajorthatismoreessencethansubstanceandculminateswithafatefuldactylicdirgeinCminorrepletewithhowlinghounds,restlessghostsandsweepingwind.Inbetweenaretwomoresongsofloveanddeath,anAndanteandascherzolikeAllegretto,bothinE .ChiastictonalplanningandafinalchoralelikesongonthethemeofhumanredemptioninthesevenstrophicMarienliederop.22(1859)mayhavebeeninspiredbyBach'scantatas.

  • Brahms'sloveoffolksongisevidentinthe14arrangementsoftraditionalsecularandsacredtunesformixedvoicespublishedintheDeutscheVolksliederwoo34(1864)andintheLiederundRomanzenop.44(185960),originalcompositionsonfolksongtextsandfolkinfluencedpoetry.Thoughcastinsimplestrophicform,theseminiaturesaboundinartifice,movingattimesasclosetomadrigalastofolksong.Amongtheeightopusespublishedbetween1874and1891mostofthe13Canonsop.113,twoofthesevenLiederop.62(nos.6and7)andtherichlycontrapuntalchoralemotetOHeiland,reissdieHimmelaufop.74no.2werecomposedbetween1858and1869.ThemotetWarumistdasLichtgegebenop.74no.1(1877),oneofBrahms'sfinestacappellaworks,drawsextensivelyonmaterialoriginallycomposedfortheMissacanonicaof1856,settoanassemblageofbiblicalpassagescraftedbyBrahms.Anxioushomophonicqueries(Warum?)punctuatingadenselychromaticfugaltexturegivewaytoimitativeentriesascendinginsixparts,ashumankindliftsitshandstoGod.AsteadilyprogressingmelodyunderlaidwithimitativevoiceseffectivelyconveysthepatienceofJob.ThemotetclosespeacefullywithacantionalsettingoftheLutheranchoraleMitFriedundFreud.InspiredbythepolychoralcompositionsofSchtz,thethreeFestundGedenksprcheop.109(completed1889),intendedascelebratorypiecesforthecommemorationofGermannationalfestivalandmemorialholidays,revealBrahms'sfearofthedivisionsbetweenVolkandReichincreasinginGermanyatthetimeandhisabidingfaithinthestrongarmedmanBismarck,whokeepethhispalaceinpeace.Simplechoralesingingjuxtaposedwithmorelearnedresponsesinthefirstpiecesuggestsdisparateculturallevels,buteventuallyallareunitedinastrongsocietyblessedbytheLordwithpeace.Inthesecondnumberpolyphonicdisunityleadingtodissonantdesolationiscounteredbyconfident,militaristicorder.WiththefinalpieceBrahmswarnedhisfellowGermansagainstforgettingthelessonsofhistory.AnelaboratesevenfoldAmen,eachstatemententeringonadifferentdiatonicpitch,celebratesthediversityoffuturegenerations,beforeclosingonaunifiedplagalcadence.InthetriptychofMotetsop.110acentralfourpartcantionalhymnderivingfromthechoraleEsistgenugisflankedbytwopiecesfordoublechoirs.Thesituationhereispersonalratherthancommunal:thewretched,sorrowfulman,deceivedbythefalserichesoftheworld,facesdeath,seekingcomfortandsalvationinGod.Thesevenliederformixedchoirop.62(18734)employcantionaltextureandstrophicform,asbefitstheirlegendaryandfolkthemes.Eachoftheseseeminglysimplesongsischaracterizedbyoneortwoverysophisticateddevices,forexample,therestrictedchordalmovementsofthedelicatelybuddingyoungheartthatisgraduallyopenedbyLoveinaseriesoftend


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