bone physiology.pdf

8/14/2019 bone physiology.pdf

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Labs 9 12Bone Physiology and Anatomy

and Skeletal SystemPlease refer to the bone list for

markings to learn


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TODAY through 1/28

In the next 3 lab periods: Learn to identify all the bones and

markings on your bone list

Do all exercises Laboratory 9 - 12

Today: Please start by labeling the skeletondrawing with names of all bones as you

compare drawing to real skeleton. SkipOssification and Activity 4 in Lab 9 fornow (well do it on Tuesday after we talkabout it in class).


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Classification of Bones

206 bones in the adultAxial - long axis of thebody (skull, vertebralcolumn and rib cage)Lab 9 and 10

Appendicular upper andlower limbs and limb

girdles (hip andshoulders) Lab 11Shapes: Long, Short, Flat

or irregularTypes:

Spongy (cancellous) Compact (lamellar,

haversian)

Axial Appendicular


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Bone MarkingsBulges, depressions, and holes that serve as sites of

attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons, jointsurfaces, conduits for blood vessels and nerves.

Muscle/Ligament attachment sites

Tubercle small rounded projection Epicondyle raised area above a condyle Spine sharp, slender projection Process any bony prominence Tuberosity rounded projection Crest narrow, prominent ridge of bone Trochanter large, blunt, irregular surface Line narrow ridge of bone

Form Joints Head bony expansion on a narrow neck Facet smooth, nearly flat articular surface Condyle rounded articular projection Ramus armlike bar of boneHead bony

expansion carried on a narrow neck Depressions (blood vessels and nerves to pass)

Sinus cavity within a bone Fossa shallow, basin-like depression Groove furrow Fissure narrow, slit-like opening Foramen round or oval opening through a bone

Major markings for femur include the head, greater andlesser trochanters, gluteal tuberosity, lateral and

medial condyles and epicondyles, linea aspera, patellarsurface, and the intercondylar notch


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Bone Markings

Table 61 (2 of 2)


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Growth inLength of

LongBone

Figure 6.9


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80 bones

make upthe axialskeleton


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SkullCranial and Facial Bones: 22 bones that

enclose and protect the brain and serve

as attachment sites for head and neckmuscles.

Cranial: made of mainly Flat bones Connected by interlocking joints called

sutures except for the mandible (TMJ) Divided into vault (calvaria) and base with

over 85 openings for blood vessels andnerves. You do not have to learn all ofthem!

Facial Bones: Framework of face Cavities for sense organs (eyes, ears,

tongue) Provides openings for air and food Secures teeth Anchors facial muscles


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Skull = 22 bones

Associated = 7 bones


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Cranium: Frontal Bone

Figure 7.2a

Forms the anterior portionof the cranium

Articulates posteriorly withthe parietal bones via thecoronal suture

Markings you need to know: supraorbital foramen

frontal sinuses (internal and

lateral to the glabella )


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Parietal Bones

Four sutures mark the

articulations of the parietalbones Coronal suture

articulation betweenparietal bones andfrontal bone anteriorly

Sagittal suture

where right and leftparietal bones meetsuperiorly

Lambdoid suture where parietal bonesmeet the occipitalbone posteriorly

Squamosal orsquamous suture where parietal andtemporal bones meet

Parietal bone coversparietal and temporal lobesof brain

Figure 7.3a

O i i l B


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Occipital Bone

Forms most of skulls posteriorwall and base

Joints include lambdoid(parietal) and occipitomastoid(temporal)

Major markings you need toknow:

foramen magnum (spinalcord exit)

occipital condyles (articulatewith atlas)

Superior and inferior nuchalline which secure many backand neck muscles

Figure 7.2b


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Occipital bone Parietal bones (2)


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Temporal Bones

Divided into four major regions: squamous (by squamous

suture) tympanic (surrounds

external ear canal) mastoid petrous (base with

sphenoid supports temporallobe of brain, houses ear

cavities visible frominside)Major markings you need to know:

external acoustic (auditory)meatus

styloid process

zygomatic process

mastoid process mandibular fossa

jugular foramen


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Temporal bones

(2)


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Sphenoid Bone

Figure 7.6a

Butterfly-shaped bone that spans thewidth of the middle cranial fossa

Forms the central wedge thatarticulates with all other cranial bones

Consists of a central body (w/sphenoidsinuses) and 3 processes:

greater wings lesser wings pterygoid

Major markings you need to know:sella turcicaoptic foramengreater winglesser wingsuperior orbital fissureforamen ovaleforamen rotundumforamen spinosum


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Sphenoid


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Ethmoid Bone

Deepest of the skull bones; lies between the sphenoid and nasalbones Forms most of the bony area between the nasal cavity and the

orbits Major markings you need to know: the cribiform plate (roof of

nasal cavities with opening for olfactory nerves), crista galli (dura

attaches here), perpendicular plate (forms nasal septum)


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Ethmoid


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Skull: Other Bones

Zygomatic: Irregularly shaped bones(cheekbones) that form the cheeks and the

inferior-lateral margins of the orbits

Nasal bones thin medially fused bones thatform the bridge of the nose

Lacrimal bones contribute to the medialwalls of the orbit and contain a deep groovecalled the lacrimal fossa that houses thelacrimal glands

Palatine bones two bony plates that formthe posterior portion of the hard palate, thepostero-lateral walls of the nasal cavity, and a

small part of the orbits

Vomer plow-shaped bone that forms part ofthe nasal septum

Inferior nasal conchae paired, curved bonesin the nasal cavity that form part of thelateral walls of the nasal cavity


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Orbits Bony cavities in

which the eyes arefirmly encased andcushioned by fattytissue

Formed by partsof seven bones frontal, sphenoid,zygomatic, maxilla,

palatine, lacrimal,and ethmoid


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Nasal Cavity

Constructed of bone and hyalinecartilage

Roof formed by the cribriformplate of the ethmoid bone

Lateral walls formed by thesuperior and middle conchae of theethmoid, the perpendicular plate of

the palatine bone, and the inferiornasal conchae of ethmoid

Floor formed by palatine processof the maxillae and palatine bone

Nasal septum divides nasal cavity:vomer inferiorly, ethmoid bone

superiorly + septal cartilage. Nasal septum has mucus secreting

epthelia, nasal conchae increase airturbulence traps more particles.


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Facial Bones: Mandible and Its Markings

There are 14 facial bones

The mandible (lower jawbone) isthe largest, strongest bone ofthe face

Forms chin

Anchors the lower teeth

Mandibular foramen exit for

sensory nerves from teeth wheredentists inject novocaine

Markings to Know: body

mandibular foramen

mental foramen

mandibular notch

alveolar process (margin)

condylar process (has mandibularcondyle at its superior end)

coronoid process

ramus


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Maxillary Bones

Medially fused bones that make upthe upper jaw and the central portionof the facial skeleton

Facial keystone bone that articulateswith all other facial bones except themandible

Holds the upper teeth

Palatine process fuses to form hardpalate (roof of the mouth)

Maxillary sinuses largest ofparanasal sinuses

Markings to know:

palatine process infraorbital foramen


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P l


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Paranasal Sinuses

Mucosa-lined, air-filled sacs found in five skull bones thefrontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and paired maxillary bones

Air enters the paranasal sinuses from the nasal cavity and mucusdrains into the nasal cavity from the sinuses

Sinuses lighten the skull and enhance the resonance of the voiceand the mucous membrane moistens, cleans.


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Sinuses


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Vertebral ColumnFormed from 26 irregular bones (vertebrae)

connected in such a way that a flexible curvedstructure results

Cervical vertebrae 7 bones of the neck Thoracic vertebrae 12 bones of the torso Lumbar vertebrae 5 bones of the lower

back Sacrum bone inferior to the lumbar

vertebrae that articulates with the hipbones

Posteriorly concave curves cervical andlumbar (develop as you hold head up, stand up)

Posteriorly convex curvatures thoracic andsacral

Abnormal spine curvatures include scoliosis(abnormal lateral curve), kyphosis

(hunchback), and lordosis (swayback)


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General Structure of Vertebrae

Body or centrum disc-shaped,

weight-bearing region Vertebral arch composed ofpedicles and laminae that, alongwith the centrum, enclose thevertebral foramen

Vertebral foramina make upthe vertebral canal through which

the spinal cord passes Spinous processes project

posteriorly, and transverseprocesses project laterally

Superior and inferior articularprocesses protrude superiorlyand inferiorly from the pedicle-

lamina junctions Intervertebral foramen lateral

openings formed from notchedareas on the superior and inferiorborders of adjacent pedicles


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Vertebra

Markings to Know:

body

vertebral foramen

spinous process

superior and inferior articular processes

vertebral arch (lamina and pedicle)

transverse process

intervertebral foramen

transverse foramen (cervical vertebra only)

dens (axis only) sacral foramina and sacral canal (sacrum only)


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Vertebrae

Bodies get larger as you descend (moreweight)

Foramen get smaller as you descend(less information in spinal cord)

Shape of spinous process helps toidentify vertebrae from each region:


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Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae

Table 7.2.2

C vic l V t b


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Cervical Vertebrae

Seven vertebrae (C1-C7) are thesmallest, lightest vertebrae

C3-C7 are distinguished with anoval body, short spinousprocesses, and large, triangularvertebral foramina

Each transverse process containsa transverse foramen

The atlas has no body and nospinous process

It consists of anterior and posteriorarches, and two lateral masses

The superior surfaces of lateralmasses articulate with the occipitalcondyles

The axis has a body, spine, andvertebral arches as do othercervical vertebrae

Unique to the axis is the dens, orodontoid process, which projectssuperiorly from the body and iscradled in the anterior arch of theatlas

The dens is a pivot for the rotation ofthe atlas

C i l V t b Th A i


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Cervical Vertebrae: The Axis(C2)

Figure 7.16c


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Cervicalvertebrae (7)

Vertebral Column:


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Vertebral Column:Intervertebral Discs

Cushion-like padcomposed of twoparts

Nucleus pulposus

inner gelatinousnucleus that givesthe disc its elasticityand compressibility

Annulus fibrosus surrounds the nucleuspulposus with a collarcomposed of collagen

and fibrocartilage

R i l Ch t i ti f


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Regional Characteristics ofVertebrae

Table 7.2.1


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Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae

Table 7.2.2

T oracic


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T oracicVertebrae

There are twelve vertebrae(T1-T12) all of which articulatewith ribs

Major markings include twofacets and two demifacets on

the heart-shaped body, thecircular vertebral foramen,transverse processes, and along spinous process

The location of the articulatefacets prevents flexion andextension, but allows rotationof this area of the spine


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Thoracicvertebrae

(12)


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Lumbar Vertebrae

The five lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5)are located in the small of theback and have an enhancedweight-bearing function

They have short, thick pediclesand laminae, flat hatchet-shapedspinous processes, and atriangular-shaped vertebralforamen

Orientation of articular facets

locks the lumbar vertebraetogether to provide stability


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Lumbar

vertebrae (5)


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SacrumSacrum

Consists of five fusedvertebrae (S1-S5), whichshape the posterior wall ofthe pelvis

It articulates with L5superiorly, and with the

auricular surfaces of the hipbones Major markings include the

sacral promontory,transverse lines, alae, dorsalsacral foramina, sacral canal,and sacral hiatus

Coccyx (Tailbone) The coccyx is made up of

four (in some cases three tofive) fused vertebrae thatarticulate superiorly withthe sacrum


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Sacrum and Coccyx

V b l C l Li


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Vertebral Column: Ligaments

Anterior and posteriorlongitudinal ligaments continuous bandsdown the front andback of the spinefrom the neck to thesacrum

Short ligamentsconnect adjoining

vertebrae together


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Bony Thorax (Thoracic Cage)

The thoracic cage is composed of thethoracic vertebrae dorsally, the ribslaterally, and the sternum and costal

cartilages anteriorly

Sternum


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Sternum(Breastbone)

Sternum: A dagger-shaped, flat bone that lies in theanterior midline of the thorax

Results from the fusion of three bones the superior manubrium, the body, and theinferior xiphoid process

Anatomical landmarks include the jugular(suprasternal) notch, the sternal angle, andthe xiphisternal joint

Ribs There are twelve pair of ribs forming the

flaring sides of the thoracic cage. total =24

All ribs attach posteriorly to the thoracicvertebrae

The superior 7 pair (true) attach directlyto the sternum via costal cartilages

Ribs 8-10 (false) attach indirectly to thesternum via costal cartilage Ribs 11-12 (floating) have no anterior

attachment


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Ribs and Sternum

parts of a rib head (capitulum), neck,body, tubercle


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Ribs(24)

Appendicular


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AppendicularSkeleton

The appendicular skeleton ismade up of the bones of thelimbs and their girdles

Pectoral girdles attach theupper limbs to the body trunk

Pelvic girdle secures the lowerlimbs

The pectoral girdles consistof the anterior clavicles andthe posterior scapulae

They attach the upper limbs

to the axial skeleton in amanner that allows formaximum movement

They provide attachmentpoints for muscles that movethe upper limbs

Cl i l (C ll b )


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Clavicles (Collarbones) Slender, doubly curved long

bones lying across thesuperior thorax

The acromial (lateral) endarticulates with the scapula,and the sternal (medial) end

articulates with the sternum Provide attachment points for

numerous muscles, and act asbraces to hold the scapulaeand arms out laterally away

from the body

Scapulae (Shoulder


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Scapulae (ShoulderBlades)

Triangular, flat bones lying onthe dorsal surface of the ribcage, between the second andseventh ribs

Scapulae have three borders

and three angles Major markings:

inferior and superior angles

acromion process

coracoid process

lateral (axillary) border

vertebral (medial) border

superior border spine

supraspinous and infraspinous fossa

glenoid fossa (cavity)

The Upper Limb


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The Upper Limb

The upper limb consists of the arm(brachium), forearm (antebrachium), andhand (manus)

Thirty-seven bones form the skeletalframework of each upper limb

The humerus is the sole bone of the arm It articulates with the scapula at the

shoulder, and the radius and ulna at theelbow Major markings

Proximal humerus includes the head,anatomical and surgical necks, greater andlesser tubercles, and the intertuberculargroove

Distal humerus includes the capitulum,trochlea, medial and lateral epicondyles,and the coronoid and olecranon fossae

Medial portion includes the radial grooveand the deltoid process

F


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Forearm The bones of the forearm are the

radius and ulna

They articulate proximally with thehumerus and distally with the wristbones

They also articulate with each otherproximally and distally at smallradioulnar joints

Interosseous membrane connects the

two bones along their entire length The ulna lies medially in the forearm

and is slightly longer than the radius Forms the major portion of the elbow joint with the

humerus Its major markings include the olecranon, coronoid

process, trochlear notch, radial notch, and the styloidprocess

The radius lies opposite (lateral to)the ulna and is thin at its proximalend, widened distally

The superior surface of the head articulates with thecapitulum of the humerus

Medially, the head articulates with the radial notch ofthe ulna

Major markings include the radial tuberosity, ulnarnotch, and styloid process

Hand


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Hand Skeleton of the hand contains wrist

bones (carpals), bones of the palm

(metacarpals), and bones of thefingers (phalanges) Consists of eight bones

Scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, andpisiform proximally

Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate,and hamate distally

Five numbered (1-5) metacarpal

bones radiate from the wrist toform the palm Their bases articulate with the

carpals proximally, and with eachother medially and laterally

Heads articulate with thephalanges

Each hand contains 14 miniature

long bones called phalanges Fingers (digits) are numbered 1-5,

beginning with the thumb (pollex) Each finger (except the thumb) has

three phalanges distal, middle,and proximal

The thumb has no middle phalanx

Figure 7.26a

Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic


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Comparison of Male and Female PelvicStructure

Female pelvis

Tilted forward, adapted for childbearing True pelvis defines birth canal Cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has greater capacity

Male pelvis Tilted less forward Adapted for support of heavier male build and stronger muscles Cavity of true pelvis is narrow and deep

Comparison of Male and


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Characteristic Female Male

Bone thickness Lighter, thinner, and smoother

Heavier, thicker, and

more prominent

markings

Pubic arch/angle 8090 5060

Acetabula Small; farther apart Large; closer together

Sacrum

Wider, shorter; sacral curvature

is accentuated

Narrow, longer; sacral

promontory more ventral

Coccyx More movable; straighter Less movable; curves

ventrally

Comparison of Male andFemale Pelvic Structure

Comparison of Male and


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Comparison of Male andFemale

Table 7.4.1

The Lower


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The LowerLimb

The three segments of the lower limbare the thigh, leg, and foot They carry the weight of the erect

body, and are subjected toexceptional forces when one jumps orruns

The sole bone of the thigh is thefemur, the largest and strongest bonein the body

It articulates proximally with the hip anddistally with the tibia and fibula

Major markings include: lateral and medial condyles

greater and lesser trochanters

head patellar surface

medial and lateral epicondyles

Tibia


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TibiaTibia Receives the weight of the

body from the femur andtransmits it to the foot Major markings include

medial and lateral condyles,intercondylar eminence, thetibial tuberosity, anterior

crest, medial malleolus, andfibular notchFibula Sticklike bone with slightly

expanded ends locatedlaterally to the tibia

Major markings include thehead and lateral malleolus

Foot


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Foot The skeleton of the foot includes

the tarsus, metatarsals, and thephalanges (toes)

The foot supports body weightand acts as a lever to propel thebody forward in walking andrunning

Body weight is carried primarily

on the talus and calcaneus Talus articulates with the tibiaand fibula superiorly, and thecalcaneus inferiorly

Other tarsus bones include thecuboid and navicular, and themedial, intermediate, and lateral

cuneiforms

Figure 7.31a


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Calcaneus

Forms the heel of the foot Carries the talus on its superior

surface Point of attachment for the

calcaneal (Achilles) tendon of thecalf muscles

Metatarsals Five (1-5) long bones thatarticulate with the proximalphalanges

The enlarged head of metatarsal1 forms the ball of the foot

Phalanges The 14 bones of the toes Each digit has three phalanges

except the hallux, which has nomiddle phalanx


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Arches of the Foot The foot has three

arches maintained byinterlocking foot bonesand strong ligaments

Arches allow the foot to

hold up weight The arches are:

Lateral longitudinal cuboid is keystone of this

arch Medial longitudinal talus

is keystone of this arch

Transverse runsobliquely from one side of

the foot to the other

Development of Skeletal System


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Development of Skeletal System At birth, the cranium is huge

relative to the face Mandible and maxilla are foreshortened but

lengthen with age

The arms and legs grow at afaster rate than the head andtrunk, leading to adultproportions

Only thoracic and sacral spinalcurvatures are present at

birth The primary curvatures are convexposteriorly, causing the infant spine to archlike a four-legged animal

Secondary curvatures cervical and lumbar are convex anteriorly and are associated withthe childs development

Intervertebral discs become

thin, less hydrated, and lesselastic as we age Risk of disc herniation increases Loss of stature by several centimeters is

common after age 55 Costal cartilages ossify causing the thorax to

become rigid All bones lose mass

Figure 7.34

Human fetal


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Human fetalskeleton

Developmental Aspects: Fetal


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Developmental Aspects: FetalSkull

Infant skull has more bones than the adult skull At birth, fetal skull bones are incomplete and connected byfontanels

Fontanels Unossified remnants of fibrous membranes between fetal

skull bones

The four fontanels are anterior, posterior, mastoid, andsphenoid

Fetal skull


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Fetal skull4 Fontanels

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