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Birds -Notes by Yogini Soman
Animals are classified into two Kingdoms:
1. Protista
2. Animalia
Animalia have two major divisions:
a. Invertebrates:
b. Vertebrates: Animals having a vertebral column.
Vertebrates are further divided into six classes:
i. Protochordata
ii. Pisces
iii. Amphibia
iv. Reptilia
v. Aves
vi. Mammalia
Table 1.1 Difference between vertebrate classes
Ref. www.slideshare.net
Class Aves includes all birds and study of birds is termed as ‘Ornithology’.
What is Bird?
A Bird has been described as ‘Feathered Biped’ or vertebrate warm blooded animal
having two legs, wings and feathers on the body. This description is precise and cannot be
applied to any other animal.
Classification of birds are as follows:
Generally, there are about 9032 species of birds in the world. Most of the ornithologists
agree on dividing world birds into 28 orders, 170 families and 120 subfamilies. These families
contain from 1 or more than 300 species. Out of these, 21 orders, 11 subfamilies, 432 Genus and
1342 bird species are recorded from Indian subcontinent.
Fig 1.1 Classification of Birds
Ref. facinatingamazinganimals.wordpress.com
Fig 1.2 Example of bird classification
Ref. www.slideshare.net
Morphology of bird:
Morphology is a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure of
organisms and their specific structural features.
Morphology includes:
1. External morphology or eidonomy:
Outward appearance means shape, structure, color, pattern, size.
2. Internal morphology or anatomy:
Form and structure of the internal parts like bones and organs.
Fig 1.3 Morphology of Bird
Ref. www.infovisual.info
Different kinds of Feathers:
Fig 1.4 Kinds of feathers
Ref. www.studyblue.com
Fig 1.5 Different kinds of feathers
Ref. www.poultryhub.org
Fig 1.6 Flight feathers of the wing
Ref. d--h.info
Fig 1.7 Flight Feathers of the wing their structure
Ref. www.britannica.com
Structure of feather:
Fig 1.8 Structure of feather
Ref. www.birdwatching-bliss.com
Anatomy of Birds:
Fig 1.9 Internal anatomy of bird
Ref. universe-review.ca
Respiratory System:
Fig 1.10 Respiratory System
Ref. people.eku.edu
Fig 1.11 Working of respiratory system
Ref. www.darwinismrefuted.com
Fig 1.12 Inhalation and Exhalation
Ref. science.kennesaw.edu
Circulatory System:
Fig 1.13 Circulatory System
Ref. www.slideshare.net
Fig 1.14 Circulatory System of bird
Ref. birds688.weebly.com
Nervous System of Bird:
The nervous system consists of nerve cells and nerve fibers forming gray matter and white
matter. Brain has nerve cells on its outer side or periphery while nerve fibers are in the core of it.
While in spinal cord the nerve fibers are outer side while the nerve cells are on the inner side.
The nervous system is divided into three regions:
1. Central Nervous Sysytem (CNS)
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
3. Symphathetic or Autonomous Nervous System
1. Central Nervous Sysytem:
It is well protected by the skull and vertebral column. It consists of brain which is lodged in
cranium and spinal cord. Brain as well as spinal cord are covered by a watery fluid i.e.
cerebrospinal fluid which protects them from shocks and injury.
Brain is further divided into three parts:
a. Fore brain: Consists of olfactory lobes, cerebrum and dicephalons.
b. Mid brain: Consists of optic lobes.
c. Hind brain: Consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
2. Peripheral Nervous System:
It consists of paired nerves arising from brain and spinal cord. From the brain 12 pairs of cranial
nerves arise and enter in different parts of head and neck region. Some nerves are sensory, some
are motor while some are mixed type. From spinal cord paired spinal nerves arise. Generally
there is one pair per body segment in that region. All spinal nerves are of mixed type which carry
sensation and orders through them.
3. Symphathetic or Autonomous Nervous System:
It is represented by a pair of chains made up of sympathetic ganglia and sympathetic nerves
forming sympathetic cord which lies on either sides of vertebral column. It controls activities of
visceral organs (heart, lungs, liver, stomach, kidney etc.) with the help of spinal nerves.
Fig 1.15 Nervous System of bird
Ref. www.poultryhub.org
Fig 1.16 Brain of Pigeon
Ref. www.readorrefer.in
Fig 1.17 The organization of nervous system
Ref. people.eku.edu
Fig 1.18 Visceral Organs
Ref. www.rnpedia.com
Urinogenital System of Bird:
Fig 1.19 Excretory system of bird
Ref. slideplayer.com
Fig 1.20 Reproductive system of bird
Ref. slideplayer.com
Avian adaptations for flight are as follows:
1. Spindle shaped body.
2. Lack of teeth and mobile neck.
3. Beak with horny sheath.
4. Tail is short and used as steering organ or rudder and functions as a break and also helps
to maintain their balance.
5. Forelimbs modified as wings and presence of hind wings only.
6. Presence of feathers, scales and claws as exoskeleton. The non- conducting coat of
feathers prevents surface heat.
7. Endoskeleton fully ossified, spongy and light in weight but equally strong. There is
fusion of vertebrae. Bones are rod like, stout and pneumatic.
8. Absence of urinary bladder, hence excreta are in the form of semi-solid state.
9. Absence of right ovary in case of female birds.
10. Oviparous i.e. lay eggs.
11. Pectoral muscles of flight are well developed and in general all muscles are fully
developed, most energetic and powerful.
12. A very powerful heart with four chambers. Percentage of hemoglobin is much more.
Circulatory system is very efficient and serves as power station.
13. Body temperature is internally regulated and is generally between 38°C and 44°C. Hence,
they are called as warm blooded or homoeothermic animals.
14. Air does not remain in lungs so respiration is complete.
15. Presence of internal air sacs in the body, not only help to increase the buoyancy but also
serve as efficient aerial mode of life, balancing and steering device to the bird.
16. Extra energy and sustained power is obtained through rapid and complete combustion of
the fuel.
17. Sight and hearing are highly developed whereas taste and sense of smell are very poorly
developed.
Bird Beak:
Fig 1.21 Beak shapes of different birds
Ref. www.infovisual.info
Fig 1.22 Different types of beak
Ref. www.pinterest.com
Fig 1.23 Types of beaks depending upon the type of food
Ref. www.filamentgames.com
Colour of feathers:
Importance:
1. Camouflage for concealment
2. Recognition as an individual
3. To differentiate between male and female
4. Sexual display and stimulation of reproductive development
Different parts of legs:
Fig 1.24 Parts of leg
Ref. en.wikipedia.org
Types of bird foot:
Table 1.2 Type of bird foot and adaptation and life style
Ref. www.sciencebuddies.org
Fig 1.25 Evolution of foot
Ref. blog.hmns.org
Types of nests:
Fig 1.26 Various types of bird nests
Ref. www.lookanimals.com
Eggs:
Fig 1.28 Eggs of various birds:
Ref. www.angelfire.com
Why flight evolve?
1. To help escape from predators
2. To help catch flying or speedy pray
3. Leaping or glinding
4. To free hind legs for use as weapons
5.
Aerodynamics of Avian Flight:
Four basic forces come into play when a bird wants to fly. These are opposing set of forces.
1. Lift: Force that enables a bird to go in the air.
2. Gravity: Force that pulls the bird down towards the earth.
3. Thrust: Force that propels the bird forward in flight.
4. Drag: Force that pulls the bird backwards in flight.
To fly, the lift should exceed gravity and thrust should exceed drag.
Daniel Bernoulli in 1738 described the forces acting on a body moving through fluid in a
scientific paper called ‘Hydrodynamica’. The principles are also valid for forces in flight.
Fig 1.29 Forces important for flight
Ref. vireo.ansp.org
Fig 1.30 Interactions among various components in avian flight
Ref. people.eku.edu
Fig 1.31 Downstroke and Upstroke
Ref. kpubs.org
Types of flight:
1. Flapping
2. Gliding
3. Soaring
4. Hovering
5. Dive
6. Pitch-up
7. Maneuvering
8. Fly under water
9. Flying in formation
Fig 1.32 Different types of flight
Ref. people.eku.edu
Types of Wings:
Fig 1.33 Major types of wings
Ref. www.birds.cornell.edu
Flightless Birds:
During the process of evolution, some birds now called as Paleognathae (Kiwi, Ostrich, Emu),
did evolve with some adaptations to fly, but did not actually fly and remained flightless.
Others did evolve to fly and did actually fly in the early years; these birds are now put in the
group called Neognathae (Penguins, Parrots, Owls and Cormorants etc.).
Why some birds are flightless?????
1. Absence of predators
2. Less competition
3. Adapted to fit in different ecological functions
4. Defense against predators
Fig 1.34 Examples of flightless birds
Ref. www.exploringnature.org
Migration of Birds:
Fig 1.35 Reasons of bird migration
Ref. www.slideshare.net
Patterns of Bird Migration:
1. Horizontal Migration:
a. North- South Migration:
In harsh cold climate of northern winter when food is depleting, the birds migrate
southwards to warmer climates.
e.g. Swallows of Scandinavia migrate while those from Italy are resident.
b. Partial Migration:
Birds living in latitude belts where temperature do not drop too much, but produce
moderate food scarcity, migrate partially. Some birds benefit by staying others have
migrated because the remaining scarce food is just enough for them to overcome
winter. Usually the young birds migrate and the adults stay.
e.g. Evening Grosbeaks.
c. South to North Migration:
e.g. Vermillion Flycatchers of South America. They breed in Pampas grasslands of
Uruguay in the southern summer and migrate to savannas of Brazil in winter.
d. Inter-polar Migration:
Arctic terns migrate over the longest distance, since they chase the summer in both
hemispheres by travelling from one pole to the other.
e. Circumpolar Migration:
Most species of Albatross migrate around the South pole and they usually do not
cross the 40 degrees latitude and keep between the roaring forties and furious fifties
but may move further south.
f. East to West Migartion:
e.g. Redwings. They breed in Russia and adjacent northern Europe and in winter they
migrate to the West and Southern Europe.
g. Migartion in any Direction:
Several water birds migrate in any direction that leads them to warmer conditions on
water bodies, approach either inland water bodies in lower altitudes with abundant
food or coastal areas where temperature is relatively warmer.
e.g. Shore birds migrate along the coasts.
h. Oceanic Migration:
Ocean birds from southern hemisphere migrate to procure more food where it is
available but their movements are dictated not only by the ocean currents but also by
the favourable winds.
e.g. Shearwaters, Petrels.
i. Leapfrog Migration:
When for food compulsions, resident birds develop migrant members, they have to
jump or leapfrog adjacent resident bird occupied areas to find less populated feeding
areas that can sustain their demands.
e.g. Fox Sparrows of North-west America and Canada.
2. Vertical Migration:
a. Altitudinal Migration:
In the Himalayas, Andes and the Alps many pheasants, grouse and chaffinches are
altitudinal migrants.
b. Reverse Migrantion:
Due to adverse weather, depletion of energy, migrating birds reverse their direction of
flight.
Birds orient and navigate themselves during migration with the help of
several compasses such as:
1. Magnetic Compass
2. Sun Compass
3. Star Compass
4. Road Map Compass
5. Olfactory Compass
6. Sound Compass
7. Ancillary Compass
Different Flyways:
Fig 1.36 East Asian- Australian Flyways
Ref. www.wetlands.org
Fig 1.37 Asian Migratory Bird Flyways
Ref. en.wikipedia.org
Fig 1.38 Different bird flyways
Ref. wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in
Fig 1.39 North and South flyways
Ref. www.pinterest.com
Fig 1.40 Migration of different birds
Ref. northern.org
Fig 1.41 Migration of different birds
Ref. en.wikipedia.org
Fig 1.42 Migration map of Indian Subcontinent
Ref. Salim Ali, The Book of Indian Birds, BNHS India, 13th
Edition, 2002
Habitats of Birds:
1. Atlantic & Gulf Shores:
a. Bays & Estuaries
b. Beaches & Dunes
c. Gulf/Rocky Shores & Open Ocean
2. Eastern Forests:
a. Boreal/Coniferous Forests
b. Deciduous/Mixed Forests
c. Pine Barrens & Pinelands
3. Grasslands:
a. Eastern Grasslands
b. Farmlands
c. Prairies
4. Suburb/Urban Areas
5. Wetlands:
a. Bogs
b. Lakes & Ponds
c. Marshes & Swamps
d. Rivers & Streams
Birds food and feeding:
Classification of birds according to diet types:
1. Piscivorus: Terns, Gulls.
2. Carnivorus: Owls, Eagles
3. Carrion Eaters: Vultures, Eagles, White Ibis
4. Insectivorous: Bee- eaters, Swallows
5. Molluscivorous: Shorebirds, Asian Open Bill Stork
6. Avivorous: Perigreen Falcon, Shikra
7. Ophiphagous: Owls, Short toed snake eagle
8. Kleptoparasitic: Raptors, Gulls, Terns
9. Aquatic Filter feeders: Greater and lesser flamingo, Ducks
10. Granivorous: Dove, Sparrows
11. Nectivorous: Sunbirds, Oriental white eye
12. Frugivorous: Hornbills, Parrots
13. Omnivorous: Ducks, Bulbuls
Types of foraging:
Simple act of gathering food, either for immediate consumption or future storage.
1. Scratching: sparrows, grouse
2. Gleaning: Nuthatches, chickadees and tits glean in trees, warblers often glean from
leaves and thrushes often glean from the ground.
3. Hawking: Warblers, Flycatchers
4. Sallying: Flycatchers, Rollers
5. Scanning: Raptors
6. Probing: Sandpipers, Shorebirds
7. Lunging: Plovers, Herons
Plant- bird interactions:
Two types of plant and bird interactions:
1. Direct Interaction:
a. Pollination
b. Seed dispersal
2. Indirect Interaction:
a. As a pest controller
b. Nesting and roosting sites
c. Escape from predation
Breeding Behavior of Birds:
1. Monogamous: One partner
2. Polyandrous: One female mate with many males
3. Polygynous: One male mate with many females
4. Promiscous: No partnership with anyone. Combination of polyandrous and polygnyous
5. Lek or Communal:
6. Communal Courtship: Flamingo
Bird Communication:
Birds produce a variety sounds to communicate with flock members, mates (or potential mates),
neighbors, & family members. These sounds vary from short, simple call notes.
Classification of vocalizations:
1. Songs:
a. Primarily under the influence of sex hormones
b. Generally important in reproduction (e.g., defending territories & attracting
mates)
2. Calls:
a. Generally concerned with coordination of the behavior of a pair, family group, or
flock (e.g., several vocalizations of Carolina Chickadees)
b. Not primarily sexual, but important in 'maintenance' activities, such as foraging,
flocking, & responding to threats of predation
c. Usually are acoustically simple (e.g., contact notes of Northern Cardinals)
d. May serve a variety of functions: location/contact/individual recognition
Statistical analysis:
Used to quantitate the event.
Central tendencies used are as follows:
1. Mean
2. Mode
3. Median
For measuring diversity different indices are used:
1. Margalef’s Index
2. Simpson’s Index
3. Shannon’s Index
4. Evenness in diversity
5. Jaccard Index
6. Bray- Curtis Index