Bird Conservation Regions · 2019-05-07 · North America’s Boreal Forest 1 Boreal Ecoregions of Alaska 1 2 Taiga Cordillera 3 Boreal Cordillera 4 Taiga Plains 5 Boreal Plains 6

1 Aleutian / Bering Sea Islands

2 Western Alaska

3 Arctic Plains & Mountains

4 Northwestern Interior Forest

5 Northern Pacific Rainforest

6 Boreal Taiga Plains

7 Taiga Shield & Hudson Plains

8 Boreal Softwood Shield

9 Great Basin

10 Northern Rockies

11 Prairie Potholes

12 Boreal Hardwood Transition

13 Lower Great Lakes / St. Lawrence Plain

14 Atlantic Northern Forest

15 Sierra Nevada

16 Southern Rockies / Colorado Plateau

17 Badlands & Prairies

18 Shortgrass Prairie

19 Central Mixed Grass Prairie

20 Edwards Plateau

21 Oaks & Prairies

22 Eastern Tallgrass Prairie

23 Prairie Hardwood Transition

24 Central Hardwoods

25 West Gulf Coastal Plain / Ouachitas

26 Mississippi Alluvial Valley

27 Southeastern Coastal Plain

28 Appalachian Mountains

29 Piedmont

30 New England / Mid-Atlantic Coast

31 Peninsular Florida

32 Coastal California

33 Sonoran & Mojave Deserts

34 Sierra Madre Occidental

35 Chihuahuan Desert

36 Tamaulipan Brushlands

37 Gulf Coastal Prairie

Bird Conservation Regions of North America

North America’s Boreal Forest

1 Boreal Ecoregions of Alaska 1

2 Taiga Cordillera

3 Boreal Cordillera

4 Taiga Plains

5 Boreal Plains

6 Boreal Shield

7 Taiga Shield

8 Hudson Plains

1) Gallant et al. (1995)

Fact: The boreal forest is one of the last great forests on our planet, and represents approximately 58 per cent of Canada. (Canadian Boreal Initiative 2005)

Fact: The boreal is a major source of economic, social and biological wealth for Canada. (Anielski and Wilson 2005)

Fact: The boreal forest is wet and wild, and stores more freshwater in wetlands and lakes than anywhere else on the globe. (Schindler 1998).

Fact: The boreal forest supports millions of waterfowl, songbirds and other wildlife. (Anielski and Wilson 2005)

Based on these facts alone, is it any wonder the boreal forest is truly a global treasure?

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Foreword

Acknowledgements

I) The Physical Boreal

OverviewThe Boreal Forest LandscapeBoreal WetlandsConservation Challenges

II) North America’s Boreal Forest:

Contrasts in Waterfowl Habitat Conservation

III) DUC in the Boreal Forest: 1997 to Present

DUC in the Western Boreal ForestDUC in the Eastern Boreal Forest

IV) Boreal Waterfowl Science

The Bush: Surveying the Boreal

V) People of the Boreal

Stagg River: Northern Waterfowlers’ UtopiaThe Saskatchewan River Delta: The Tradition ContinuesCanada’s Eastern Boreal: A Hunting Heritage

VI) Introduction to the Species Accounts

Range and Band Return MapsAmerican Black DuckAmerican WigeonBarrow’s GoldeneyeBlack ScoterBlue-winged TealBuffleheadCanvasbackCommon Goldeneye

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Common MerganserGadwallGreater ScaupGreen-winged TealHarlequin DuckHooded MerganserLesser ScaupLong-tailed DuckMallardNorthern PintailNorthern ShovelerRed-breasted MerganserRedheadRing-necked Duck

Ruddy DuckSurf ScoterWhite-winged ScoterWood DuckBrantCanada/Cackling GooseGreater White-fronted GooseRoss’ GooseSnow GooseTrumpeter SwanTundra Swan

VII) A Call to Arms

VIII) Bibliography

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magine a natural engine that filters water, controls floods andpests, stores carbon and offers a home to waterfowl and otherwildlife. Is it hard to imagine what can do all these things?

Then think of 1.4 billion acres of forests, wetlands and peat-lands that sit like a green mantle on the shoulders of Canada’s

northern lands. This is Canada’s Boreal Forest region, our precious partof one of the world’s largest and last intact forests. The more we learnabout its natural capital, the more we know its true worth.

Some have described Canada’s Boreal Forest as North America’s birdnursery. Others have recently estimated that the natural services it provides are 2.5 times more valuable than all the lumber, paper, oil, gas,minerals and hydroelectricity produced through industrial developmentin the region.

In the late 1990s, a Senate subcommittee warned of threats to thesurvival of Canada’s Boreal Forest and set out recommendations to curbthem. Recent reports suggest some progress has been made, but therehave also been large losses.

There is no doubt however, that public momentum is building toconserve this national treasure. I take heart in Ducks Unlimited’s long-standing and continued work toward that goal.

To readers of this book: The first step is knowing what we have gotbefore it is gone. Then, we can work together to protect Canada’s BorealForest for future generations. May this book inspire you to join the effort.

Senator Mira Spivak

Independent Senator for Manitoba,

Deputy Chair of the former Senate Sub-Committee

on the Boreal Forest

I very fall, the sky over North America fills withducks, geese and swans. Many of these birds werehatched in the boreal forest of Canada and Alaska.Even more of these birds used the boreal habitats tomoult, grow or migrate through to the south. It is to

the marshes of California, the Gulf Coast, Atlantic Coast and bottom-land timber of the Mississippi Delta where many of these birds areheaded. Boreal Canada and Alaska are linked together with 49 southernstates as a corridor of habitat for waterfowl.

The United States and Canada share strong hunting and fishing trad-itions and rich waterfowl habitat.

Ducks Unlimited and others have taken the lead in recognizing theimportance of the boreal forest and how valuable the resource is. Wemust all work together in conservation, so that we have a viable borealforest for generations to come. Understanding boreal waterfowl is a firststep to protecting this critical frontier forest.

Mike Thompson

Member of Congress, 1st District California

Co-chair of the Congressional Sportsmen Caucus

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Unlimited Canada’s Bill Leitch, whoclearly understood and constantly champ-ioned the importance of areas of this vastecosystem for North American waterfowlpopulations. Furthermore, without DucksUnlimited’s continental commitment tobecome more involved with waterfowl andwetland conservation in this magnificentforest, the scientific foundation that hasnow become the backbone of all the workdetailed in this book would have nevermaterialized.

Acknowledgements

For each species account, our group ofboreal biologists endured countless hours

compiling and summarizing historical andup-to-date information. And for this, wesincerely thank Jason Charlwood, SarahCoulter, Darcy Falk, Brent Friedt, AliciaKorpach, Wally Price, Tasha Sargent andColeen Stevens. We also owe thanks toCanadian Wildlife Service biologistsGerry Beyersbergen, Robert G. Clarkand J. Bruce Pollard for lending theirtime and effort throughout the speciesaccount review process. A special thanksis extended to J. Bruce Pollard, who spentcountless hours providing valuable andwitty insight into many of these accounts.Additional thanks to Sarah Coulter andAlicia Korpach for providing assistancewith finalizing the species accounts. For

the accompanying distribution map illus-trations, we thank the Boreal SongbirdInitiative and Chris Krueger. Data forthe banding maps were obtained fromthe United States Fish and Wildlife Ser-vice, and we thank them immensely formaking these data available. We alsothank Al Richard, Sean Smyth, DarcyFalk and Michael Robin for their work on the banding maps and we thank JeopeWolfe for his tremendous effort, supportand guidance on all maps, and for hiscreative design of the book. Sincere thanksare also in order for United States Con-gressman Mike Thompson and CanadianSenator Mira Spivak, who both set thestage internationally in their forewords as to the vast importance of this great forestto North America. Also special thanks arein order for Cathy Wilkinson and KellyActon of the Canadian Boreal Initiativefor their expertise and help with this book.We are also appreciative that past boreal-based biologists Dave Kay and Art Brazdaalso took the challenge of helping ourreaders understand the boreal through the

detailing of their own personal experience.Marcel Darveau, Silvie Forest, Eric Butter-worth and Chris Smith also were instru-mental in helping to ensure that qualitycontent, including the areas provided byeach, always had a national profile. Wealso thank DUC reviewers Henry Murkin,Karla Guyn and Mike Anderson for pro-viding excellent direction and reviews ofour book.

This book also owes a great deal ofgratitude for the support and leadershipof DUC executive vice-president GordEdwards and DUI EVP Don Young, aswell as the respective board membersfrom each organization. Finally, withoutthe vision of Gary Stewart and Fritz Reid,this valuable effort would not have beenrealized. Through their dedication to theboreal waterfowl resource, the Waterfowlof the Boreal Forest team of Eric Butter-worth, Marcel Darveau, Glenn Mack,Duncan Morrison, Stuart M. Slattery,Chris Smith and Rick Wishart was ableto put together a product that we can allbe proud of.

s one might anticipate, a project of this magni-tude could not have been completed withouta group of dedicated and passionate waterfowlenthusiasts. First and foremost, we owe a great

deal of gratitude for the enthusiasm and historical accounts ofbiologists like Jim King, Carl Ferguson, Art Brazda and Ducks

A

Editors

Glenn Mack

Duncan Morrison

Authors

Eric Butterworth

Marcel Darveau

Silvie Forest

Dave Kay

Glenn Mack

Duncan Morrison

Fritz Reid

Stuart Slattery

Chris Smith

Gary Stewart

Rick Wishart

Species account authors

Jason Charlwood

Darcy Falk

Brent Friedt

Alicia Korpach

Wally Price

Tasha Sargent

Coleen Stevens

Species account reviewers

Eric Butterworth

Sarah Coulter

Marcel Darveau

Glenn Mack

Duncan Morrison

Fritz Reid

Stuart Slattery

Chris Smith

Gary Stewart

Rick Wishart

Outside contributors for

species accounts

Gerry Beyersbergen (CWS)

Bob Clark (CWS)

Bruce Pollard (CWS)

Outside contributors

for various sections

Art Brazda

Senator Mira Spivak

Congressman Mike

Thompson

Maps

Darcy Falk

Al Richard

Michael Robin

Sean Smyth

Jeope Wolfe

Chris Kruger (Boreal Songbird

Initiative/eNature) – author

of original illustrations for

distribution maps

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iTHE

PHYSIC AL

BOREAL

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back north across Québec, it crosses intoLabrador and Newfoundland, embracingour country from sea to sea to sea.

Overview

This great forest provides incredibly hugevalues to Canadians. Canada’s boreal ismostly public land and contains almostone-quarter of the world’s remaining un-developed and intact forests (Bryant et al.1997). It contains the raw material to fuelthe economic engine of the nation’s eco-nomy. The forest further sustains the trad-itional lifestyle practiced by aboriginalcommunities. From centuries of aboriginaluse to the trappers of the 17th century on-ward to the industrialists, cottagers, campersand ecotourists of the 21st, this great foresthas helped shape Canada’s heritage andsense of identity. The boreal forest is atthe core of what we are as Canadians.

What is not apparent to Canadians isthe inherent natural capital and ecologicalgoods and services that the boreal pro-vides society. The trees, soils and peat-lands represent one of the world’s largestterrestrial carbon storehouses, integral toregulating global climate. Canada’s borealis also a water-dominated system whichprovides a strong connection between thehealth of the forest and the health of the

watershed. Boreal wetlands provide a sig-nificant service to Canadians by providingwater storage and water filtering which isfundamental to sustaining healthy water-sheds, water supply and human health,as many of the drinking water resourcesrelied upon by Canada’s northern popula-tion are directly linked to boreal water-sheds. Ecological services provided by theboreal, including water filtration and car-bon storage, are estimated to be worth 2.5times the market value of the natural re-sources extracted from the boreal each year(Anielski and Wilson 2005).

The Boreal Forest Landscape

It is no surprise the boreal landscape iscovered with huge amounts of water andwetlands. The formation of this landscapeis the outcome of water moving across thesurface over millennia, from the formationof the glaciers of the last ice age that en-compassed the northern portions of theglobe and their subsequent melting 11,000years ago, to the changes we experience inclimate today. For the most part the soils,forests, lakes, streams and wetlands of thenorthern hemisphere were largely shapedby the end of the last glaciations whensoils were deposited by the action of melt-ing and retreating ice sheets that left a

range of diverse landforms and surficialgeological expressions. As a result, theboreal is as diverse as it is large. Fromeastern Canada, where the boreal sitsupon the boreal shield and taiga shield,through the prairie provinces, where theboreal plains with its complex geologicaldeposits combine to provide an area withone of the world’s most complex hydrology.The Northwest Territories and northernYukon are shaped by the discontinuouspermafrost of the taiga plains, and thesouthern Yukon by the boreal and taigacordilleran mountainous regions.

Canada is truly a forest nation, with 11 of the 15 terrestrial ecozones beingforested, seven of which are boreal (seemap, inside front cover). The boreal shieldand boreal plains represent the majority ofthe commercial forest in the boreal whereforest cover is predominantly coniferous.Here, black spruce (Picea mariana) is dom-inant, though jack pine (Pinus banksiana),white spruce (P. glauca), eastern white pine(P. strobus), red pine (P. resinosa), and tam-arack (Larix laricina) are principle species.Hardwoods, particularly trembling aspen(Populus tremuloides), white birch (Betulapapyrifera) and balsam poplar (P. balsam-ifera) are well represented and often mixedwith conifers, particularly in the southernregions and where better soils prevail (Eco-logical Stratification Working Group 1995).

The remainder of the boreal, includingthe boreal and taiga cordillera, taiga plains,taiga shield and Hudson plains, is largelycomprised of forest that is not suitable forcommercial forestry, mostly due to shortergrowing seasons, less productive soils andthe presence of permafrost. Black sprucedominates the landscape, though other

he boreal forest drapes across our nation like ahuge green shawl. From the west, the great forestenters Canada at the border of Alaska and the Yukon,comprises much of the Northwest Territories, and

sweeps across the northern regions of British Columbia andthe Prairie provinces before dipping across Ontario. Swinging

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The boreal is as diverse as

it is large, and takes on a

variety of faces as it spans

the continent, including (top

to bottom) rugged Yukon

cordillera, northern Alberta

muskeg and rich, rolling

Québec hills.

by Eric Butterworth, Sylvie Forest and Chris Smith

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boreal tree species are often present, par-ticularly in the lower elevations in thecordillera and along river valleys wheresoils and a warmer climate prevail (e.g.the Mackenzie Valley).

The boreal climate is generally character-ized by long cold winters and short warmsummers, though there is a wide variationdepending on the latitude, elevation andlocation relative to oceans and large bodiesof water like the Great Lakes. Precipitationranges from 200-800 millimetres per yearwith western and northern regions general-ly having a drier climate than the centraland eastern parts of boreal Canada.

Boreal Wetlands

Canada is blessed with over 127 millionhectares of wetlands which cover roughly14 per cent of the land mass (Tarnocai2001). Some 86 per cent of these wetlandsare peatlands (bogs and fens) which occurin the boreal forest (figure 1). Other borealwetlands include a myriad of shallow pondsand beaver flowages, shoreline marshes andriver delta systems such as the Saskatch-ewan River, Peace-Athabasca and the Mac-kenzie River Delta. The soils of the borealvary widely depending on region, with the

western boreal generally having deep soildeposits, with shallower soils in the eastunderlain by the Canadian Shield. In areaswith gentle topography and low relief,surface water flow and watersheds are dif-ficult to define. In regions with pronouncedtopography and slope, surface water flowand watersheds can be identified usingelevation differences. Depending on cli-mate, areas with defined topography gen-erally have more defined catchments, andrunoff is more likely to occur (e.g. surfacewater flow after rainfalls or spring melts).Thus, developing an understanding of theinterrelationship of climate, landform, soilsand geology provides a basis for under-

standing boreal hydrology, and the fund-amental knowledge needed to developconservation strategies needed to main-tain and protect boreal wetland systems.

It is the diversity of the landscape andclimate that provides Canada – and theboreal – with a rich diversity of wetlandsimportant to waterfowl and other wetland-dependent species. The Canadian WetlandClassification System recognizes two maincategories of boreal wetlands based on theirpredominant soil substrate. Organic wet-lands also referred to as peatlands, whichinclude bogs and fens, and mineral wet-lands that include swamps, marshes andshallow open water. This ecologically-

based classification system provides insightinto how each wetland class functions inthe landscape. Factors that influence thepresence of a specific class of wetland in-clude hydrological connectivity, floodingregime, and landscape position. It is thisinteraction that makes the wetlands of the boreal so diverse. Bogs receive waterthrough precipitation only and mineralsand nutrients are introduced by aerial de-position (e.g. dust, ash, pollen)(figure 2).For this reason, bogs are known as nutrient-poor systems.

Fens on the other hand, are influencedby flowing surface water or dischargedgroundwater and can be considered the

green rivers of the boreal (Kevin Devitopers. comm.). Because the water has beenin contact with mineral soil or rock, itcarries nutrients and minerals. Fens aremore nutrient-rich than bogs and have awater table at or near the surface (figure3). The hydrological connectivity offlowing water is the fundamental dif-ference between fens and bogs.

Mineral wetlands are nutrient-richsystems with some organic accumulation,but less than 40 centimetres in depth.Unlike peatlands, which sequester carbondue to slow decomposition rates, mineralwetlands do not sequester large amountsof carbon because of high nutrient cy-

figure 2: Continental bog with the typical

Sphagnum fuscum (brown-coloured sphag-

num) species that grows in hummocks in

bogs and poor fens.

figure 3: Graminoid-rich fen with narrow

leaf sedges (Carex spp) and buckbean.

figure 1: National

Wetland Dataset –

Environment Canada

percentage of wetlands

by ecodistrict in Canada.

Canada’s boreal forestdrapes acrossthe shouldersof our nationlike a hugegreen shawl.

boreal forest

0 - 5%

5 - 10%

10 - 20%

20 - 40%

40 - 60%

60 - 100%

cling and decomposition rates caused byfluctuating water levels. Swamps areassociated with fluctuating water tablesand woody vegetation (shrubs and trees)(figure 4). Generally they are adjacent toopen water bodies (lakes or rivers) orthe transitional zones between fens anduplands or marshes and uplands.

Marshes occur in shallow water, alongthe shorelines of lakes and ponds, slow-moving rivers or in oxbows (figure 5).Vegetation is typically dominated byemergent and submerged plants. Theycan be permanently or seasonally inun-dated and surface water levels may fluc-tuate seasonally with drawdown periods,especially in late summer and fall.

Shallow open water has less than twometres water depth and has less than 25 per cent of the surface covered withemergent or submergent vegetation (fig-ure 6). Shallow open water is a distinctwetland type often located between sat-urated and seasonally wet sites, marshes

and typical deep “lake-like” aquatic eco-systems (e.g. ponds, lakes, rivers). Theclass exists because the shallow depthssubjects the substrate to nutrient andgaseous exchange, oxidation and decom-position which changes in deeper aquaticsystems (Mitsch and Gosselink 1993;National Wetland Working Group 1988).Peatland ponds on the boreal shield areoften acidic and not very productive,whereas peatland ponds on the borealplains can be eutrophic and very pro-ductive. It is also not uncommon in theboreal to find more than one type ofwetland associated with shallow waterwetlands.

Understanding which wetlands areimportant to waterfowl – and at whatstage of the bird’s life cycle – is criticalinformation for conservation.

Conservation Challenges

Until recently, conservation in Canada’sboreal forest was viewed as unnecessaryrelative to other conservation prioritiesfacing the nation and the degree of iso-lation of this vast ecosystem. This per-ception is rapidly changing.

A wide range of development activitiesare influencing the boreal and presentingconservation challenges in response to

figure 4: Shrubby swamp dominated with

willow species (Salix spp).

figure 5: Marsh with shoreline emergent and

dense submerged vegetation.

figure 6: Open water pond. The portion in the

foreground is marsh but where the vegetation

thins out to less than 25 per cent cover, the

wetland class becomes shallow open water.

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the region’s rich natural resource. Oftenindustrial, these activities can occuradjacent to or directly on networks ofinterconnected boreal wetlands and havethe potential to negatively impact theirhydrology. In addition, natural distur-bance such as forest fires and insectdamage is expected to increasedue to climate change (Flan-nigan et al. 2001; Flemmingand Volney 1995)resulting inincreasing concerns aboutcumulative effects on terres-trial and aquatic ecosystems.

Seven distinct pressures predomi-nate in Canada’s boreal: agriculturalexpansion, petroleum exploration and

development, forestry, hydroelectricdevelopment, mining, acid pre-

cipitation and climate change.

Agriculture

Agricultural interests continueto expand across portions of the

boreal forest, and deforestation has beenespecially rapid in the southern borealregion. The Clay Belts in Ontario, Qué-bec’s Abitibi-Temiscamingue region andthe Boreal Transition Zone of the fourwestern provinces have been heavily dev-eloped for agriculture. Associated withthis deforestation is disruption of hydro-logy and loss of wetlands.

Loss of forest cover cleared for agri-culture alone in the Boreal TransitionZone of the boreal plains is estimatedat approximately 0.87 to 1.76 per centper year (Hobson et al. 2002). Given thecurrent strong demand for aspen forOriented Stand Board mills, this loss isexpected to continue largely from pri-vate land and forested government landmanaged for agricultural purposes. InOntario, agricultural encroachment inforests and swamps is primarily a con-

cern on the rich soils of theLittle Clay Belt where canola,grains and even soybeans andcorn are grown. Low soil pro-ductivity precludes agriculturaldevelopment in most of the other areas

of boreal Ontario, Québec,Newfoundland and

Labrador.

Oil and GasDevelopment

Exploration and the extrac-tion of petroleum resources is a

major influence particularly in the west-ern boreal. One of the largest known oilreserves in Canada is located in NormanWells, N.W.T., in the heart of the Mac-kenzie Valley, where numerous wetlandsare located. The Mackenzie River Deltaand Valley is also the focus of intenseinterest as substantial gas deposits arepoised to be developed and transportedto southern markets via a new 1,200 kilo-metre long pipeline, forever changingthe landscape and culture of this pristinearea. Oil and gas development is mostprominent in Alberta, where over 80,000oil and gas wells were drilled between1997 and 2004 alone (Canadian Associ-ation of Petroleum Producers 2006). Insome areas, more land has been clearedannually for pipelines, seismic lines, roadsand production facilities than has beenharvested by forestry operations. Petro-leum production and oil sands mininghave the potential to cause extensive hab-itat loss and fragmentation, hydrologicinterruption, and air and water pollution.

Especially worrisome is the increasein the use of steam injection to accessoil sands deposits that cannot be surfacemined, operations resulting in both exten-sive surface disturbance and subsurfacedisturbance to groundwater systems.

Forest Management

Forest management is a significant land use in

the southern boreal wheremuch of the commercial timber

has been allocated to private companiesfor producing lumber, pulp and paperand various engineered wood products.Forest management activities – whichinclude road development, timber har-vesting and silvicultural practices – resultin a significant anthropogenic footprintover the landscape and influence bothterrestrial and aquatic ecosystems andbiodiversity.

Hydroelectric Development

Hydroelectric projects are present acrossthe boreal forest, especially in Manitoba,Ontario, Québec and Newfoundland andLabrador. These developments alter thehydrology of river systems, often influ-encing wetland and associated riparianand upland habitats. Water managementhas fundamentally altered the Peace-Athabasca Delta near the Alberta-Northwest Territories border andthe Saskatchewan River Delta,located on the Manitoba-Saskatchewan boundary.Future development ofseveral Ontario rivers inthe Hudson Bay drainagebasin may threaten wetlandsassociated with that coastline.There is also renewed discussionaround hydropower developments in the Mackenzie drainage basin.

In Québec, the majority of hydro-electric projects are complete, althoughnegotiations and designs continue onthe upper Rupert River. The LowerChurchill hydro development project in Newfoundland and Labrador could

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Until recently,conservation in Canada’sboreal forestwas viewed asunnecessaryrelative to otherconservationpriorities facingthe nation andthe degree ofisolation of thisvast ecosystem.This perceptionis rapidlychanging.

impact a substantial area of the easternboreal forest.

Mining

Mining is a significant industry in theboreal forests of Manitoba, Ontario,Québec, Newfoundland and Labrador

where deposits of nickel, iron,diamonds and other minerals

underlie the vast CanadianShield. Diamond mininghas also increased substan-tially within the Northwest

Territories.To date, mineral exploration

in the east has resulted in a rel-atively limited footprint. Though miningis highly regulated and the overall surfacearea affected remains low, mineral explor-ation adds pressure on a much larger landbase. This creates a major constraint toestablishing culturally and ecologicallysignificant protected areas; places that arealso important as benchmark monitor-ing sites to gauge the successes ofsustainable development activities.Furthermore, the reclamation and remediation of toxins such as those at offline gold and ura-nium mines remains a significantchallenge.

Acid Precipitation

Acid precipitation is still prevalent inthe eastern boreal forest. The airborneacids overwhelm the neutralizing cap-acity of Canadian Shield soil and water,and accelerate the leaching of mercury

and aluminum. The long-rangetransport of acids and global

pollutants such as mercuryarising from combustionand incineration, impactaquatic life, threaten fish-

eating wildlife such as loons, and canreduce forest growth. As industrial dev-elopment continues, the influence ofacid precipitation on the boreal forestecosystem will continue to be a factor.

Climate Change

Changing climate may alter the entireboreal ecosystem. Global climate modelsgenerally predict greater warming athigher latitudes. Hence, the impacts ofclimate change on the boreal forest arelikely to be among the most dramatic of any in all the world’s life zones. Thecharacteristics of the boreal ecosystemare partly determined by long wintersand short summers. Temperatures incentral Canada are warming at a higherrate than most of North America, andwith a doubling of atmospheric carbondioxide in this century, average temper-atures in the northern regions may in-crease by as much as 3-5°C (Natural

Resources Canada 2006).This is expected to lead

to drier conditions,greater annual cli-matic variation, melt-ing permafrost, altered

surficial hydrology andhigher rates of wildfires

and the shifting of vegeta-tion zones northward (Natural ResourcesCanada 2006). Northern peoples havealready observed profound changes inice conditions, snowfall patterns and inspring thaws, with attendant effects onwildlife and the peoples’ traditional waysof life (Natural Resources Canada 2006).RI

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The most comprehensive estimates of

waterfowl populations in the boreal forest

come from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s

Waterfowl Breeding Population and Habitat

Survey. This spring survey has been con-

ducted annually since 1955 in parts of the

western breeding areas (called the “Trad-

itional Survey Area”) and since 1990-1998 in

parts of eastern Canada. For this summary,

we only examined the traditional survey

area, which includes western Ontario, most

of the Prairie Provinces and states, a large

portion of the Northwest Territories, boreal

valleys in the northern Yukon and Alaska,

and the Alaskan tundra.

The traditional survey area does not

include the core range of some taxa (e.g.

American black ducks, long-tailed ducks

and others), so values provided for these

taxa, particularly percent in the boreal for-

est, cannot be interpreted in a continental

context. As well, some taxa cannot be read-

ily identified to species during surveys and

so appear as a generic taxon (e.g. “generic

scaup” includes both greater and lesser

scaup).

Based on decadal averages of breeding

season population estimates, minimally

12.9-15.1 million waterfowl (both paired

and unpaired birds) used the western

boreal forest during spring. On average,

from 1960 to 2005, five taxa had 79 per

cent or more of their traditional survey

area populations in the WBF, five had 55-

75 per cent, and three had 36-41 per cent.

Key western boreal taxa, for which a large

portion of their range occurs within the

traditional survey area, include ring-necked

ducks, generic scaup, scoter and golden-

eye, bufflehead, American wigeon and

green-winged teal. From a numbers pers-

pective, five taxa had mean decadal pop-

ulations (1960-2005) exceed one million

birds (generic scoters - 1,022,013; green-

winged teal - 1,070,691; American wigeon -

1,397,262; mallard - 2,115,827; generic scaup

- 3,386,160), and four had mean decadal

populations between 500,000 and 700,000

birds (generic mergansers - 501,683; buffle-

head - 518,016; ring-necked duck - 630,234;

northern pintail - 646,045).

NORTH AMERIC A’S

BOREAL FOREST

WATERFOWL POPUL ATIONS

Contrasts in WaterfowlHabitat Conservation

by Frederic Reid and Gary Stewart

species

common eidergadwallblue-winged tealredheadruddy ducknorthern shovelernorthern pintailmallardCanada goosetrumpeter/tundra swancanvasbacklong-tailed duckgreen-winged tealAmerican wigeongeneric scaupbuffleheadgeneric goldeneyegeneric scoterring-necked duckgeneric merganserAmerican black duck

tundra

48,708261

032

07,419

428,69760,211

314,4310

1,737113,586

38,69344,089

373,3392,630

24,055225,052

01,183

0

boreal

045,035

451,92970,52434,654

271,989835,667

2,079,660366,776

17223,072382,501861,648

1,308,4553,551,788

334,701356,122

1,158,120363,763310,619

32,477

prairies

01,166,7393,360,463

474,524259,372

1,452,5633,113,2284,564,548

80,0628

305,80012

509,4211,107,4531,041,298

139,24669,40267,39955,44628,508

317

total

48,7081,212,0343,812,393

545,081294,026

1,731,9714,377,5916,704,419

761,26924

530,609496,099

1,409,7622,459,9974,966,425

476,578449,579

1,450,571419,209340,310

32,794

% boreal

0 %4 %

12 %13 %12 %16 %19 %31 %48 %68 %42 %77 %61 %53 %72 %70 %79 %80 %87 %91 %99 %

tundra

22,879588

1,41498

034,805

589,62481,107

148,37071,747

3,874150,339

91,220122,900382,435

2,59631,118

224,56641

3,0990

boreal

32240,286

415,20236,09918,608

227,560685,748

2,298,789287,543

38,561146,388277,525808,635

1,394,3844,407,872

528,835374,711

1,212,484410,397373,037

29,829

prairies

01,476,9374,236,057

602,653333,388

1,727,7434,320,5255,819,413

116,3751,070

391,6070

957,9241,456,7521,511,888

192,57574,81038,93696,10226,560

201

total

23,2011,517,8114,652,673

638,850351,997

1,990,1075,595,8978,199,309

552,288111,378541,869427,864

1,857,7802,974,0356,302,195

724,006480,639

1,475,986506,540402,695

30,030

% boreal

1%3%9%6%5%

11%12%28%52%35%27%65%44%47%70%73%78%82%81%93%99%

12


nitude of North America’s boreal forestregion and the challenges it faces. That islikely because few have travelled to thevast northern region that pilot biologists,university students and indigenous peo-ples have known first-hand as containinggreat wetland landscapes.

Generally, within the community ofwaterfowl biologists, the belief has beenthat few birds breed in the boreal region,and are present in numbers only whendisplaced by prairie droughts. This under-standing has become dogma in certaincircles – and an accepted principle thatwaterfowl production is non-existent orvery small, mostly from “overflight” birdsto these northern areas.

Johnny Lynch (1984) referred to Alaskaand the Far North as the “B.F.F.” (“Big

Fish Factory”), famous for its productionof lake trout, grayling, arctic char andjackfish – but of less importance to keywaterfowl species. Lynch helped strength-en the perception that the boreal forestwas important as an overflight destinationfor drought-displaced waterfowl by sug-gesting “in years when both the B.O.P.(Bald-Open Prairie) and the B.C.F. (BigCrow Factory – Parklands) go completelydry and out of production, this B.F.F.could harbor enough refugees from thePrairie nesting grounds to keep theseendangered species from winding up onthe songbird list.”

When Lynch describes the B.F.F., hespeaks of habitat and species found inthe rocky landscape of the PrecambrianShield. He is correct that these areas are

dominated by lakes highly productive forfish, with sparse waterfowl. In contrast,however, the landscapes of the boreal andtaiga plains of western Canada, and inInterior Alaska, contain a rich array ofhighly productive nutrient-rich wetlandsand lakes which support 12 to 14 millionbreeding season ducks, several hundredthousand white-fronted and lesser Can-ada geese, and – according to the springbreeding season surveys – 25 to 40 percent of the world’s tundra and trumpeterswans.

It is surprising how early the borealforest was noted for its rich waterfowlresource. Three principal boreal land-scapes were recognized near the turn ofthe 20th century. Cooke (1913) wrote:

“The largest and best of these districtslies in the neighborhood of Athabaskaand Great Slave lakes. It includes thewhole of the Slave River, the lowerhundred miles of the Athabaska River,and the region to the westward for dis-tances varying from 50 to 250 miles.Here are some 30,000 square miles thatwith even moderately good protection

ost North Americans waterfowl enthusiastshave studied and experienced the prairiesand parklands of the mid-latitudes. And theimportance of these regions to continental

duck populations is clearly recognized. However, most of theseenthusiasts are far less aware of the importance, size or mag-

M

1960-1969 1970-1979

Millions of waterfowl breed

in the boreal forest, and

upwards of 80 per cent of

the continent’s waterfowl

use the region for moulting

or migration.

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species


tundra

18,2051,175

633575121

111,788611,497135,203148,454115,421

15,193128,828136,121170,180368,046

2,80124,519

260,0435,1129,881

0

boreal

2,86258,064

582,64445,19560,204

405,909711,491

2,101,015380,156

78,866189,735298,742

1,162,4011,467,6293,904,026

529,253425,682

1,291,680530,646469,236

22,763

prairies

01,378,4093,243,262

545,844467,065

1,370,6041,694,2893,892,342

286,4672,978

305,3012,595

485,306824,431

1,359,129180,859

79,85326,299

146,73258,760

309

total

21,0671,437,6493,826,539

591,615527,390

1,888,3013,017,2766,128,560

815,077197,264510,229430,165

1,783,8272,462,2405,631,201

712,913530,054

1,578,022682,489537,877

23,072

% boreal

14%4%

15%8%

11%21%24%34%47%40%37%69%65%60%69%74%80%82%78%87%99%

tundra

10,1083,155

0155

0224,482609,826209,829222,617161,800

8,26174,656

287,272285,588459,113

1,2448,343

211,0931,953

13,0380

boreal

066,101

354,50240,64851,534

476,617441,949

2,155,502397,720

56,137218,335

93,5551,120,4351,379,1302,783,972

570,675504,063701,373803,835538,925

31,710

prairies

02,536,4064,635,726

687,248457,205

2,087,4401,529,6355,250,457

633,0092,508

395,343411

687,121789,214

1,102,544342,020118,472

15,062145,688

49,632774

total

10,1082,605,6624,990,228

728,051508,738

2,788,5382,581,4107,615,7871,253,346

220,445621,939168,622

2,094,8282,453,9314,345,630

913,939630,877927,528951,476601,596

32,483

% boreal

0%3%7%6%

10%17%17%28%32%25%35%55%53%56%64%62%80%76%84%90%98%

13


during the breeding season will produceannually a liberal crop of the most val-ued kind of ducks. To the northward liesanother district, including the delta ofthe MacKenzie, and the Arctic coasteast to Franklin Bay, that supports eachyear a large waterfowl population, in-cluding the mallard, green-winged teal,and several species of geese, but is too farnorth for gadwall, blue-winged teal,redhead, and canvasback. Eastward athird area fringes Hudson and Jamesbays on the west and extends from thesouth end of James Bay to 100 milesbeyond Cape Churchill.”

Of the great refuges, Cooke noted, “theYukon Delta reservation includes thelargest breeding colonies of ducks andgeese in Alaska, and with its several hun-dred thousand acres covers more territorythan the entire lake region of NorthDakota.”

Cooke then went on to speculate onthe challenge to Prairie habitat and statedthat the future for waterfowl was “by nomeans hopeless” … “as there is an over-looked area in North America of consid-

erable size, which is well adapted for thebreeding grounds of ducks and geese, andis so far north and has so severe a climatethat it never will be used to any greatextent for farming. Indeed, the places bestadapted to the waterfowl – the greatmarshes – are too wet and cold even inmid-summer ever to be available for agri-culture.” Unfortunately, Cooke failed toforecast the expansion of extraction in-dustries that would take place later in thecentury.

The importance of Alaskan boreal hab-itat to waterfowl was established after the1959 proposal to build Rampart CanyonDam on the Yukon River. This would havecreated a lake 10,500 square miles in sizeand flooded wetland habitat that produced,conservatively, 1.5 million ducks annually(King 2002). Ducks banded on the YukonFlats have been recovered by hunters in 45 states, eight provinces and territories inCanada, Russia, as well as in Mexico andCentral America (Heuer 2001).

The evaluation of Alaskan Habitat forMigratory Birds (King and Lensink 1971)recognized several key waterfowl areas,including the Yukon Flats, Yukon Delta,

Koyokuk and Kanuti Flats, Tanana Kusko-kwim Valleys and the Innoko River com-plex. Together, these were deemed to beextremely important for breeding white-fronted geese, lesser Canada geese, lesserscaup, American wigeon, northern pintail,white-winged scoter, green-winged teal,mallard and canvasback. From this evalu-ation, seven new waterfowl refuges encom-passing 22 million acres were established bythe Alaska National Interest Lands Con-servation Act, signed by President JimmyCarter in 1980 (King 1980). Together withpre-existing refuges, the boreal habitats ofthe Alaska national wildlife refuges makeup more than 85 per cent of the land massin the entire U.S. wildlife refuge system.

In 1989, Ducks Unlimited became act-ively involved in boreal landscape planningby undertaking satellite-based land covermapping in boreal Alaska. Strong workingpartnerships were established with theBureau of Land Management, U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service and the NationalPark Service. Using systematic and hierar-chical vegetation decision tree and extensivehelicopter-based land cover surveys andground truthing, DU and partners have

A 1939 map shows Ducks

Unlimited’s efforts in the

early stages of the organ-

ization’s existance.

1980-1989 1990-1999

species


tundra

14,3112,621

37000

274,946699,334327,341203,013114,399

16,17276,640

431,512374,781530,387

1,0829,775

205,6083,550

17,4660

boreal

15848,207

252,69838,93342,102

590,185555,370

1,944,170451,416

49,463216,871

90,1811,400,3341,436,7122,283,141

626,613541,779746,409

1,042,530816,600

42,643

prairies

02,514,2955,008,871

633,992610,931

2,330,5221,294,7345,563,1891,057,556

6,819345,049

0723,474574,999881,972382,977150,141

10,241136,740

44,073773

total

14,4692,565,1225,261,939

672,926653,033

3,195,6522,549,4387,834,7001,711,985

170,681578,092166,821

2,555,3212,386,4923,695,5011,010,672

701,695962,257

1,182,820878,139

43,416

% boreal

1%2%5%6%6%

18%22%25%26%29%38%54%55%60%62%62%77%78%88%93%98%


mapped over 155 million acres in Alaskaand have an additional 30 million acres inprogress. A similar process was initiatedin the late 1990s in western Canada withindustry, aboriginal, foundations and gov-ernment partners to produce a seamless,highly accurate land cover map for land-use planning and management. To date,over 103 million acres have been mappedwith 50 million acres of boreal mappingprojects in progress.

Unfortunately in comparison, only 5.6per cent of Canada’s entire boreal regionis currently permanently protected fromindustrial development, mostly in nationaland provincial parks that often have lim-ited wetland areas. Only one-third ofYukon’s world famous Old Crow Flats ispermanently protected, while the vastPeace-Athabasca Delta lies unprotectedjust outside of Wood Buffalo NationalPark. There is a paucity of boreal NationalWildlife Areas, especially in critical, wet-land-rich areas like the Mackenzie RiverValley, Saskatchewan River Delta, Man-itoba’s Great Lakes and the Hudson andJames Bay Lowlands.

More than 60 years after More Game

Birds for America and Ducks Unlimitedfirst investigated wetlands in the westernboreal, very little attention was given tothis region (Leitch 1978). Much of the bo-real remained pristine wilderness, and thefocus of wetland conservation was rightlyon the prairies and later on other settledareas of the continent where agriculturalexpansion and urbanization had increas-ingly threatened wetland and associatedupland habitats. There were exceptions,including the vast boreal delta of the Sask-atchewan River Delta (SRD). This areawas identified as a key area in the late1930s, when More Game Birds for Americaand a newly fledged Ducks Unlimitedundertook extensive aerial waterfowl sur-veys across the western boreal. They calledthis vast area “No Man’s Land” and iden-tified boreal wetland hotspots includingplaces like Kazan Lake in Saskatchewan,the Peace-Athabasca Delta and the SRD(Leitch 1978). As a result, DU undertookdevelopment of several wetland conserva-tion projects dating back to the 1940s nearthe communities of The Pas, Manitobaand Cumberland House, Saskatchewan.

Investments became significant in the

early 1960s when two hydroelectric damson the Saskatchewan River took place,which resulted in significant impacts tothis two million-acre delta – resulting inaltered hydrology and direct flooding.

As was the case in the SRD, over timethe wilderness of the boreal has slowlychanged as a result of development. Andtoday, much of the forest landscape bet-ween the parklands and southern borealfrom Manitoba to British Columbia hasbeen altered. Here, bush has been clearedand burned and efforts to drain associatedwetlands has followed for the developmentof pasture, hay and grain production.

North of the transition zone betweenthe prairies and the forest, most of thecommercial forest across Canada’s south-ern boreal has been allocated to large forest companies and developments areincreasing for oil and gas, mineral extrac-tion and hydroelectric power across theboreal. Environmental groups are cons-tantly campaigning against clear cuts,hydroelectric power and other industrialactivities and are calling for the protectionof what they call “endangered forests.”The cumulative impact of development

will soon threaten the integrity of boreallandscapes, unless sustainable develop-ment practices are implemented and anetwork of large protected areas free ofindustrial development are established.The multiple impacts of development incombination with the influence of climatechange can damage waterfowl habitatsbeyond our current knowledge. There is a growing need for progressive and adap-tive wetland and waterfowl conservationplanning at international, national andregional levels.

Every year, millions of ducks breed inNorth America’s boreal forest. Perhapsmore importantly, upwards of 80 per centof the continent’s waterfowl use the borealfor moulting or migration (Bellrose 1980).The boreal comprises the last great fron-tier forest on earth. This area, which is atreasure trove of resources, is also criticalto the continent’s waterfowl and otherwildlife. To understand to and know itswaterfowl is to begin to understand andtackle the challenges we now face.

2000-2005

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IN THE BOREAL

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1997 TO PRESENT

15


forest industry in Manitoba and Saskatch-ewan and strong interest in the vast oilreserves of northeastern British Columbia,the northern Yukon and the NorthwestTerritories’ MacKenzie Valley was gener-ating considerable attention.

At that time, Ducks Unlimited Canada(DUC) conservation programs remainedfirmly anchored in the Prairie ecozone.However, because of the need to gain abetter understanding of the significanceof industrial development that was under-way, and to better determine the valueof this vast ecosystem to the continent’swater birds, some well-timed resourceswere directed northward. Previously, withthe exception of areas such as selectedhydroelectric-affected wetlands withinthe Saskatchewan River Delta, DUC’sinvolvement in the western boreal foresthad been minimal, quite simply becausethe habitat was considered relatively secureand intact, mostly due to its remoteness.

In 1997, DUC assembled a small teamof biologists to compile information onwetlands, waterfowl and other waterbirds,land ownership, industrial developmentsand other factors (e.g. climate change)that might be influencing wetlands ofthe western boreal forest. What this teamquickly confirmed was that this vast regionwas critical for continental waterfowl and

that it was undergoing a rapid transform-ation from undisturbed wilderness to aregion of economic importance becauseof its rich natural resources.

Furthermore, it was determined thatthere was relatively limited knowledgeabout distribution and abundance ofboreal wetlands, how these wetland sys-tems functioned, and which habitats weremost important to waterfowl and otherwater birds. In addition, how the variousindustrial developments were influencingboreal wetland systems was largely un-known. An initial and somewhat cursoryevaluation led to the realization that therewere numerous threats to boreal wetlandsystems and more information was neededto direct meaningful wetland conservationprograms.

At the same time, concern was growingover the decline of certain waterfowlspecies that breed primarily in the west-ern boreal forest (WBF) – in particular,scaup and scoters. Although populationsof scoters had been declining for severaldecades, the rapid and recent decline inbreeding scaup was particularly worrisometo waterfowl biologists and researchers.This provided an additional focus on theWBF and the various activities that mightbe influencing the breeding success ofthese boreal nesting species.

As a result of this evaluation, DUClaunched the Western Boreal ForestInitiative, which developed into a comp-rehensive program that included inventory,research and strategic partnerships toestablish an improved understanding ofthe wetlands and waterbirds and providethe critical information necessary to in-fluence wetland conservation. Throughthe analysis of existing U.S. Fish & Wild-life Service strata survey data it becameapparent that the boreal and taiga plainsare the most important ecozones forbreeding waterfowl in the WBF. Thisanalysis, in combination with availablewetland information, provided the neces-sary framework for setting priorities whereDUC programs should be delivered.

Inventory

Given the remoteness of the westernboreal forest and the limited amount ofup-to-date habitat information, it wasnecessary to establish a regional scalebaseline inventory on the various uplandand wetland cover types. Fortunately,Ducks Unlimited Inc. had established astate-of-the-art satellite-based earthcoverinventory and mapping protocol for borealAlaska that was suitable for inventoryprojects in Canada. This protocol, whichincludes extensive helicopter-based fieldverification and an enhanced accuracyassessment, resulted in a final mappedproduct with up to 40 vegetation covertypes – with accuracy typically over 80per cent.

Since 1999, DUC’s Western BorealProgram has completed 14 inventory pro-jects accurately mapping over 60 million

y the mid 1990s considerable public attention wasbeing directed at the multitude of developmentsin North America’s western boreal forest and thesignificant anthropogenic footprint that was trans-

forming the landscape. And although the greatest impact wassouth of the 60th parallel, primarily in Alberta, the expanded

BDUC in the Western Boreal Forest

An initial andsomewhat cursory eval-uation led tothe realization that there werenumerousthreats to boreal wetlandsystems.

A decline in the populations

of scoters and scaup added

focus to DUC’s growing

efforts in the boreal forest.

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by Chris Smith

1 7


hectares of the WBF. These mappingproducts have become the cornerstone ofthe WBF program by providing the base-line data to undertake other inventoryelements, including waterbird surveys,associated research projects and conser-vation planning. More recently, DUC hasactively participated in a multi-partnerinitiative led by Environment Canada tocompile a satellite-based Wetland Inven-tory for Canada. Through this project,DUC has developed the protocols toremotely classify and then map up to 18different types of boreal wetlands. Thisenhanced wetland information, whichconforms to the Canadian Wetland Class-ification System, provides – for the firsttime – a remotely sensed and ecologically-based wetland classification system andmapping product for the boreal.

An extensive waterbird inventory pro-gram has also been implemented as acomponent of most earthcover inventoryprojects. This open water inventory pro-gram is an effort to determine the use ofboreal wetlands by breeding waterfowland also as moulting, staging and migra-tory habitat. These surveys are unlike theestablished and broad-based spring breed-ing waterfowl surveys conducted by theU.S. Fish & Wildlife Service that aredesigned to monitor long-term breedingpopulations and are used to guide thehunting regulations. The objective of theDUC surveys is to identify importantwetland systems, and then to use thisinformation in combination with thehabitat data generated from the earth-cover mapping to determine key habitatelements preferred by waterfowl. To date,these surveys have confirmed the impor-tance of many previously known borealwetland hotspots (e.g. Saskatchewan andMackenzie River Deltas), and provided a better understanding of the importanceof less understood wetland systems suchas beaver-influenced ponds and drainage

systems, and large eutrophic water bodiesscattered across the western boreal forest.The waterfowl inventory and habitatmapping data are being used to developmodeling tools for important boreal wet-land systems.

Research

Fundamental to influencing wetland conservation in the western boreal forestis the need to develop a solid understand-ing of how boreal wetlands function, howthese wetlands are influenced by distur-bances (including industrial development)and how wetland-related wildlife respondsto these disturbances. Acquiring this kindof knowledge, and undertaking some pri-mary waterfowl ecology studies on scaupand scoter, have become the core researchprogram to date for DUC in the westernboreal forest.

Through collaboration with universitiesand key research scientists, several studieshave been started including research onboreal hydrology and wetland dynamics,riparian birds, cavity-nesting species and disturbance impacts. Through theseimportant collaborative research projects,the pieces are being pulled together tohelp understand how the wetlands in thewestern boreal forest function, how theyinteract in the surrounding landscape andhow the various disturbances across theboreal landscape can influence these wet-lands. Furthermore, we are starting togenerate an understanding of how water-fowl and other wildlife species interactwith boreal wetland systems and howthey respond to disturbance.

When combined with the baseline datagenerated by DUC inventory projects,this research is providing the foundationfor ongoing land-use decisions that willresult in the protection of boreal wetlands.

Fundamental to influencingwetland con-servation in thewestern boreal forest is theneed to developa solid under-standing ofhow borealwetlands function.

Through the Wetland Inventory, DUC has

developed the protocols to remotely classify

and map up to 18 different types of boreal

wetlands. This information provides a remote-

ly sensed, ecologically-based wetland class-

’ification system and mapping product for

the boreal forest.

1 8


Partnerships

Most of the western boreal forest inCanada is public, or Crown land with anincreasing proportion being held by FirstNations north of the 60th parallel in theNorthwest Territories and Yukon. Thoughland-use decisions and regulation are ulti-mately made by governments (includingFirst Nations governments), they are theend result of a process that includes infor-mation gathering, planning and consul-tation with a variety of stakeholders –including industries interested in usingthe natural resources. And once a land-usedecision has been made, ongoing manage-ment activities influencing the land baseare normally undertaken by industry.

It then became obvious and criticalthat meaningful partnerships with thevarious stakeholders including govern-ments, aboriginal communities, industryand non-government agencies were re-quired if wetland conservation in thewestern boreal forest was to be successful.Since 1997, more than 50 partnershipshave been established including agree-ments with the federal government, thewestern provincial and territorial govern-ments, the United States Forest Service,North American Wetlands ConservationAct, First Nations, industry (petroleum,forestry and power), foundations, univer-sities and the Canadian Boreal Initiative.Each of these partnerships brings its ownunique contribution and vision to theconservation of the western boreal forestand its wetlands.

Conservation Planning

Since the late 1990s, what started as aneed to learn more about the water birds,wetlands and associated land-use impacts,has developed into a program that isfocused on conservation planning thatwill result in the protection of wetland

resources. The overall objective of thisapproach is to ensure that wetlands andassociated upland communities remainfunctioning ecosystems in the larger boreallandscape, which in turn will continue toproduce a variety of ecological goods andservices. A three-pronged approach topromote wetland conservation has beenadopted by DUC in the WBF:

1) Protected Areas – a network of large,wetland-rich, permanent protected areas(such as National Wildlife Areas) whereindustrial development is excluded. Theseareas will include key wetland complexesof known significance and areas of intactboreal forest that will serve as ecologicalbenchmarks against which the success ofthe managed landscape can be measured.

2) Special Conservation Areas – areas inthe working landscape where industrialactivities occur but under specific oper-ating criteria to ensure the protection ofwetland and other sensitive sites.

3) Sustainable Development Areas –areas where industrial activities continueon an ongoing basis but are guided bybeneficial management practices (BMPs)that ensure the conservation of borealwetland systems.

This diverse approach to conservationplanning uses the information generatedfrom inventory projects and the resultsfrom research studies. It works throughestablished partnerships to inform andpositively influence land managementdecisions. Although we are in the earlystages of implementing this approach theoutlook is promising.

For example, in the Northwest Terri-tories, DUC is working with governmentemployees and the community of FortGood Hope on a proposal to have theRamparts River and Wetlands Complex

withdrawn from development throughthe N.W.T. Protected Areas Strategy.Information collected by DUC inventoryprojects is being integrated into the pro-posal which is currently before the N.W.T.Legislature for its approval in principle.Once approved, a formal request will bemade to the Government of Canada tohave this world-class wetland complexwithdrawn from development for fiveyears in order to complete steps requiredto achieve permanent protection as aNational Wildlife Area. The Ramparts,located in the Mackenzie River Valley, is15,000 square-kilometres in size andincludes a 4,448 square-kilometre wetlandcomplex.

South of the 60th parallel in the work-ing forest of Alberta, work is ongoing on a Boreal Conservation Project (BCP)with Alberta Pacific Forest Industries,which has forest management responsi-bilities for 11.5 million hectares in north-eastern Alberta. This partnership projectuses the earthcover inventory and enhancedwetland classification in conjunction withresults from hydrology and disturbanceresearch to develop a new approach toforest management. With knowledge ofthe hydrologic linkages, wetland connec-tivity and disturbance impacts, the BCPis working toward a new approach toforest management that will sustain wet-land function and associated habitats.

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Scaup populations, to

which lesser scaup (above)

represent close to 90 per

cent, have declined roughly

50 per cent since the mid-

1950s. These declines

appear to be strongest

in the boreal forest

tected from over-exploitation and eventualextinction in 1875 (Godfrey 1967).

Fortunately since then, no other water-fowl species of the eastern boreal havebecome extinct. In fact, several importantnew conservation initiatives orientedtoward waterfowl population or habitatmanagement have been initiated.

The first step to effective conservation isacquiring knowledge. Early efforts in theeastern boreal consisted of explorations byEuropean settlers during the 17th and 18thcenturies. During that era, explorers fromBritain and later those associated withthe Hudson’s Bay Company published aconsiderable amount of information onnorthern birds (Ouellet 1996).

Later, in his 19th century effort to listthe birds of North America, John JamesAudubon traveled to the lower north shoreof the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Québecand Labrador (Audubon 1827-38). Towardthe end of the 19th century, books werepublished by John Rae and Lucien M.Turner on the birds of the Hudson Bayand James Bay areas. As one might ex-pect, exploring inland at this time was noteasy and ornithologists traveled by canoesor boats along coastlines and river systems.

In 1901, W.E. Clyde Todd, an ornithol-ogist, began a series of trips to Labradorand to the interior of northern Québec

(Ouellet 1996). Over the next decades, ashuman settlement in the boreal increased,so too did the number of ornithologicalstudies. In the 1920s, work by Harrison F. Lewis, an ornithologist hired by theCanadian government, helped establishthe first migratory bird sanctuaries in theeastern boreal. In 1927, he encouraged non-governmental organizations (NGOs) –including the Société Provancher d’HistoireNaturelle du Canada – to acquire the Îleaux Basques and the Razades islands wherecommon eiders were known to breed inconsiderable numbers (Ouellet 1996).

Monitoring programs specific to water-fowl began in the late 1950s, with the workof Kaczinski and Chamberlain in parts ofboreal Ontario and Québec, and in the1970s in Newfoundland and Labrador (Cas-well and Dickson 1997). The establishmentof the North American Waterfowl Manage-ment Plan in 1986 resulted in the demandfor more waterfowl information in theeastern boreal forest, a responsibility takenon by various agencies through the BlackDuck Joint Venture in 1990.

At the international level, the 1971 Ram-sar convention on wetlands led to theconservation in 1987 of three significantcoastal sites in Canada’s eastern borealforest: the Grand Codroy Estuary inNewfoundland, Ontario’s Polar Bear

Provincial Park and Southern James Bay.There have been no other Ramsar sitesnominated since that time in the easternboreal. However, the Canadian WildlifeService has established nearly 20 Migra-tory Bird Sanctuaries in the eastern boreal.As well, Parks Canada, using a systematicconservation approach aimed at preservingsamples of dominant landscapes in Canada,has created seven parks in the interior ofthe eastern boreal. Similarly, provincialgovernments have networks of protectedareas based on systematic conservationplanning approaches.

Ducks Unlimited Canada has recentlyinitiated several conservation efforts inthe eastern boreal forest. This work hasbenefited from the development of abreeding bird atlas by other NGO organ-izations like the Federation of OntarioNaturalists, the Association québécoisedes groupes d’ornithologues and BirdStudies Canada.

Like in the rest of boreal Canada,conservation efforts in the eastern borealwill require a collaboration approach ofgovernment, industry, local communitiesand NGOs to maximize conservationresults.

here was little conservation effort focused onwaterfowl or wetlands in eastern boreal Canadaprior to the 1916 Convention for the Protection ofMigratory Birds in Canada and the United States.

And one has to wonder that had such work been undertakenearlier, if perhaps the Labrador duck would have been pro-

T

DUC has just recentlystarted tospread itsconservationwings intoCanada’s eastern boreal.

The eastern boreal forest is

home to 50 percent of the

total breeding population

of American black ducks.

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by Marcel Darveau

ivBOREAL

WATERFOWL

SCIENCE

waterfowl species and the pressing needto ensure that ecological integrity of thisrapidly changing landscape is maintainedhas motivated the conservation commu-nity, and many creative initiatives havebegun to fill information gaps. From awaterfowl conservation perspective, thesegaps are captured by four key questions:

b Where are the birds?

c Why are they there?

d How might population distribution and abundance change in response to human activity?

e What can be done to minimize that change?

Where are the birds?

Understanding the patterns of spatialdistribution and abundance of waterfowlis an essential first step for targetingconservation efforts on the most criticalwaterfowl habitat at continental, regionaland local scales. As well, these patterns

may significantly influence conservationphilosophy. For example, based on theUSFWS (Wilkins et al. 2005) breedingseason population data from the westernboreal forest, about 80 per cent of borealscaup occurred at densities of less thanfive pairs per square mile (less than twopairs per square kilometre) (Slattery unpub.analyses). Therefore, habitat conservationefforts targeting scaup, if they are to ben-efit a population declining across the con-tinent, must focus on more than just thehigh-density areas.

Contemporary distribution and abun-dance of waterfowl in the boreal forestalso are a snapshot of dynamic populationtrends (Wilkins et al. 2005). Examiningspatial variation in population trends maywell yield insights that will further guideresearch and conservation activities. Forexample, regions identified as having pop-ulations that have increased, remainedstable, and declined would permit com-parative studies on processes underlyingthe respective local population trends thatwould help iden-tify potential targets forconservation projects (Austin et al. 2006).

nformation about the requirements of waterfowl usingthe boreal forest for a part of their annual cycle is criticalto conservation efforts, yet often is lacking. The borealforest is an expensive and logistically challenging place

to work, and these constraints have limited waterfowl research.However, dramatic population decline of key North American

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Ultimately,maintainingthe ability of the boreallandscape to sustainwaterfowl in perpetuityrequires infor-mation tomake sounddecisions.

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Why are they there?

In some cases, we may have enough know-ledge of spatial and temporal patterns ofwaterfowl populations to proceed withconservation action – particularly whenhabitat threats or strategic conservationopportunities are pressing. However, spa-tial and temporal patterns in waterfowlpopulations are likely driven by processesof great relevance to conservation. Indeed,maintenance or restoration of processesunderlying stable or increasing waterfowlpopulations are key to ensuring this land-scape can sustain target population levels.If we do not know how the system we aretrying to protect and manage functions,how can we know what conservationactions will most effectively maintain orrestore ecological integrity?

At a basic level, answering “Why arethey there?” means understanding theecological needs of waterfowl and howdifferent habitats are capable of meeting

those needs at both individual and pop-ulation levels. For example, abundance ofwaterfowl on a given wetland may be pro-portional to that wetland’s productivity,so waterfowl hot spots may be “hot”because the region has a high density ofproductive wetlands. However, answering“Why are they there?” goes beyond justanswering “Where are the most produc-tive wetlands?” To be truly effective, wealso need to understand what makesindividual wetlands productive and alsowhy productive wetlands are where theyare on the landscape. Answering theserelated questions requires study of howwetland ecosystems work, and the borealhydrological processes that affect the flowof water and nutrients through the land-scape. As well, most species are reliant on upland habitats for nesting and theseuplands may influence wetland produc-tivity. These relationships also merit study.

We also need to recognize that mech-anisms driving patterns of waterfowl pop-

ulations may be highly variable across thediverse boreal landscape – both spatiallyand temporally – so deciding on theappropriate conservation action at theappropriate scale will be challenging.Currently, there is very little informationon boreal wetland ecosystem functionand how those ecosystems interact withsurrounding uplands, and how theseinteractions affect waterfowl populations.

How might population distribution

and abundance change in response

to human activity?

Knowledge of waterfowl habitat require-ments and the processes that maintainboreal wetland ecosystems allows us tobetter predict the degree to which human-influenced habitat change affects ecologicalintegrity – hence waterfowl populations.Anthropogenic habitat change includesboth direct effects, such as on-the-groundoperations, and indirect effects such as

To be trulyeffective, wealso need tounderstandwhat makesindividualwetlands productiveand also whyproductivewetlands arewhere theyare on thelandscape.


climate change. Direct effects like build-ing roads across wetlands, forest manage-ment and pipeline development can bedramatic, but we are only beginning toexamine how these changes affect boththe distribution and abundance of water-fowl and the flow of water and nutrientsacross various landscapes.

Indirect effects may be more subtle.For example, evidence from Alaska andSiberia (Smith et al. 2005) shows long-term declines in wetland surface area thatappear to be linked to climate-inducedchanges in permafrost. The extent of thisdrying trend – particularly in the Can-adian boreal forest – is unknown, but theimplications are clear: areas subject to thegreatest increase in temperatures will likelyhave the greatest wetland loss, and havethe most impact on waterfowl populations.However, this basic hypothesis needs tobe tested.

What can be done to minimize

that change?

Core concepts behind minimizing theimpacts of anthropogenic change includeretention and restoration of upland andwetland habitats. Both require knowledgeof how boreal ecosystems work so that we can design conservation activities withclearly defined goals for ecosystem func-tion, and hence effective habitat legacies.

The process of minimizing impacts hasmany information needs. First, we mustunderstand which key habitats are most at risk or most sensitive to anthropogenicchange, and where those habitats are onthe landscape. This knowledge is essentialfor targeting conservation action on themost critical locations.

Next, we need to determine the bestform of conservation for different parts ofthe boreal. Some areas should simply beprotected from industrial activity, whilewe must help ensure those activities are

environmentally sustainable in others.The latter actions includes helping indus-try develop beneficial management prac-tices (BMPs) that maintain ecologicalfunction of boreal habitats and still fitinto operational planning and activity.Developing BMPs likely requires experi-mental research that evaluates options for wetland ecosystem and waterfowlresponse across a variety of ecological orhydrological conditions.

BMPs mainly apply to direct anthro-pogenic effects. Indirect effects pose fargreater challenges because the causes ofclimate change and the solutions to reversetemperature trends are global issues. How-ever, conservation activities might beguided by bet hedging philosophy, whichincludes identifying waterfowl hot spotsthat might be most resistant to climatechange, and prioritizing protection ofthese areas above regions more likely tobe affected. Such a priority-setting pro-cess requires a far better understanding ofwetland susceptibility to climate changethan we now have.

Species of Special Concern

Of particular concern is that the borealforest is the primary breeding grounds forscaup, scoters and wigeon, species whosecontinental or regional populations aredeclining rapidly (Wilkins et al. 2005,Slattery unpub. analyses). The reasons forthese declines are largely unknown, butevidence for scaup and scoter species sug-

gests that important factors may be actingon boreal breeding grounds. Much researchis needed on factors affecting demographicrates of these waterfowl before effectiveconservation action can be undertaken.

Proceeding in the face of uncertainty –

the Adaptive Management approach

Clearly, the list of information needs forconserving boreal habitat is long, andchanges to this landscape are occurringmore rapidly than gaps are being filled.Conservation must therefore proceed inthe face of uncertainty using an adaptivemanagement (AM) approach. AM is thephilosophy of learning while doing, dev-eloping management action based on current understanding but treating thedeployment of that action as a scientificexperiment designed to reduce key uncer-tainties. This approach includes clearlydefined predictions, and measures of success. Although AM has relevance forgauging success of protected areas, theapproach is also well suited for evaluatingthe long-term efficacy of BMPs.

General Conclusions

Ultimately, maintaining the ability of the boreal landscape to sustain water-fowl in perpetuity requires infor-mation to make sound decisions.This information needranges from simplyidentifying and pri-oritizing areas for conservation action, toevaluating the efficacy of those actionswithin a complex ecological and socio-economic landscape.

It’s a challenging task, but achievable if we proceed with common goals and aspirit of collaboration.

Of particular concern to

researchers is that the

boreal forest is the primary

breeding grounds for scaup

(above), scoters and Amer-

ican wigeon (below), all

species whose continental

or regional populations

are declining rapidly.

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to another crew and aerial coverage wasincreased in both Manitoba and Saskatch-ewan. My survey activities as an aerialsurvey crew leader in boreal Canada wereterminated in 1995 when I retired afterworking 33 years, plus two previous yearsin central Alaska.

Years ago I contributed a written piecein the book titled Flyways, where I out-lined my views on the importance of thisnorthern duck factory. In reviewing thisstory it seems appropriate to share someof my thoughts of over 20 years ago:

“For many years this boreal region,comprising approximately 400,000to 500,000 square miles in northernAlberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba andOntario was not given proper recog-nition as waterfowl habitat. Prairiesurvey crews scoffed at the data and the efforts of personnel operating in thebush, often suggesting that the area wassecond-rate. Granted, there was neitherpower nor section lines to guide north-ern survey crews – and at times theweather made operations somewhat

difficult and hazardous. However, aftera change in viewpoint and adjustmentsin investigative procedures, it soonbecame apparent that herein lies themotherlode.”

My assessment of the waterfowl habitatin the boreal forest has always been veryhigh, possibly on the extreme side. Thiscould be because I spent so many yearssurveying much of the region and wasable to get to know and appreciate thishuge area better that most waterfowlpeople. Regardless, “the bush” is a greatpiece of waterfowl real estate.

During the winter of 1962-63, ananalysis of my notes and the aerial dataindicated the importance of this vast areato the waterfowl of North America. Astime passed, additional data confirmedthis importance. To me, the bush was theNumber 1 duck factory. To be sure, when

y involvement with aerial waterfowl surveysin the boreal forest of Canada began in 1962.Actually, the first year consisted of “on thejob” learning experience, covering northern

Ontario and comparative regions in Manitoba and Saskatch-ewan. About 10 years later, the Ontario portion was assigned

MTHE BUSH: SURVEYING THE BOREAL

by Arthur Brazda

26


the prairies are in a wet cycle, waterfowlpopulations explode, especially those ofducks, but every three to five years whenthis same prairie region enters a droughtperiod, the bottom drops out of ducknumbers.

Indications are that boreal duck pop-ulations help revitalize duck numbers on the prairies when habitat conditionsimprove after a drought; however, somebanding data, especially for mallards inthe Thompson (Manitoba) area, suggestthat certain of these areas support sep-arate entities. This suggestion is supportedby aerial survey data that indicate little orno change during a prairie drought cycle.In addition, banding data from the borealin Manitoba show no migration for somewaterfowl until late in the season withalmost no banding returns north of thestate of Missouri. These data reflect a verylate exodus for some waterfowl from thebreeding grounds when the hunting sea-sons on the prairies and the northern tierof states are closed. Much of the habitatin this northern region is associated withextensive river systems and because theseriver systems stay ice-free later than still-water habitat, a delayed migration prob-ably occurs. In a discussion at the DeltaResearch Centre in Portage la Prairie,Manitoba, in the mid-1970s, Pete Wardmentioned observing a substantial mig-ration primarily of mallards during severaldifferent years. This movement took placeafter all the local waterfowl had departed.

Just as on the prairies, high water levelsin the boreal are not the most desirablehabitat conditions for optimum duck pro-duction. Most desirable is something inbetween with high quality and quantityshoreline vegetation or grassy meadows.In contrast to the prairies, low waterlevels in the boreal do not encourageagricultural activities down to the shore-line and consequently provide good pro-duction. On the other hand, very low

water levels for an extended period drythe forest out and increase the chance formassive habitat destruction through forestfires. There have been single summer sea-sons when several million acres of foresthave been lost throughout the borealforest. Three- to four-year periods ofdrought on the prairie can mean signif-icant duck production loss for the entirearea. This situation will probably notoccur in the boreal forest, and it can be“business as usual” in a year or two.

During the 33 years that I flew surveysin the north, several proposals were madesuggesting how we might enhance ourknowledge about waterfowl in the bush.

These proposals centred on increasedbanding and experimental aerial surveysbeyond or north of the present surveyboundaries. Increased banding was thenaccomplished to some degree, but theopportunity to do additional aerial sur-veys did not exist. A lack of funds, qual-ified personnel and the ever-present shorttime frame did not allow additional sur-veys. Seventeen new banding sites wereselected throughout northern Alberta,Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Of these,six became operational at one time oranother and two are presently annualprojects. The long-term success of manyof the sites was unknown, but they hadpotential, and regardless, the informationobtained would have added to our water-fowl knowledge of the bush.

In the essay that I wrote over 20 yearsago I made mention of the many changesthat I had observed. This included the

increased number of roads being builtinto remote regions, mainly to service the developing mining industry. Massivehydroelectric projects had been built andcrews exploring for oil and other mineralsseem to be everywhere, making me won-der at the time about what the futureholds for wildlife. These activities stillcontinue today.

As waterfowl habitat on the prairiescontinues to diminish, the bush becomeseven more important. If left to its owndevices, bush habitat is quite stable andprobably only man’s harassment can alterthat. The time to consider the welfare ofthe bush in a positive light is now, while

much of the higher quality habitat stillremains. There have been environmentalor waterfowl habitat losses in the past,but perhaps future destruction can bemitigated. The concern is not to stopprogress but to see that the developmentis orderly with proper consideration forthe future. It is my belief that we mustmake every possible effort as soon as pos-sible to at least maintain the status quo of the waterfowl habitat or all wildlifehabitat. Before any activity takes placethat could affect the boreal forest, esp-ecially waterfowl habitat, there should bestrong representation from responsibleagencies such as DUC, CWS, USFWS,Delta Waterfowl, Wildlife Federation,Nature Conservancy and others. Further,the public should become aware of theseissues, to keep all proposals “above board.”

Aerial waterfowl surveys are

often the only way to gauge

populations across the vast

and remote boreal forest.

As waterfowl habitat on the prairies continues to diminish, thebush becomes even more important. The time to consider thewelfare of the bush in a positive light is now, while much of thehigher quality habitat still remains.

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Art Brazda retired in 1995from the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service after acareer of more than 30 yearsas a flyway biologist survey-ing and banding waterfowlthroughout the western borealforest. Besides the northernforest, Art’s illustrious careerincluded working in NorthDakota and central Alaska,and surveying winteringwaterfowl along the Gulfcoast of Mexico. After hisretirement, Art remainedclose to the waterfowl sceneby supervising a CentralFlyway waterfowl bandingproject for six years. Art andwife Jean reside in Carencro,Louisiana.

vPEOPLE

OF THEBOREAL

Historically, waterfowl had many uses foraboriginal communities, providing meat,eggs, waterproof bags and feathers. Inmany northern communities, the firstfresh meat in the spring was provided bythe waterfowl returning to their springbreeding grounds in the boreal forest orthe Arctic. While activities around water-fowl hunting or egg collection was wide-spread over traditional lands, areas such as the Mackenzie River Delta, the Peace-

Athabasca River Delta, the SaskatchewanRiver Delta and the Quebec North Shorehave long been major sites for aboriginalwaterfowl hunting. The Migratory BirdAct was a major concern to aboriginalcommunities when they found out theycould not hunt waterfowl or collect theireggs outside of the hunting season.

However, as of October 1999, the Mig-ratory Bird Act was amended to allowaboriginal communities to collect water-

boriginal and First Nations communities acrossNorth America’s boreal forest have a long historyof interactions with waterfowl. Not only are theforest’s rivers, lakes and wetlands relied upon for

their transportation, they are important places for cultural act-ivities, sustenance and spiritual renewal.

A

Pellets of snow sting angrily against your face as your

lonely rock island is consumed by the advancing squall.

Your sanity in question, you promise another half hour to

the brown dog at your feet, now hopefully scanning the

sky out front. As you hunker into the old duck coat for

warmth, the sudden jet-wash of wings on wind makes

comfort irrelevant. Ringnecks, you confirm, as you catch

the small swarm rocketing downwind.

The cold now forgotten, you squint into the gloom with

renewed interest. The next flock is in and gone before you

can react, their determined flight punching through the

wall of white. They weren’t satisfied, however and begin

a long curving sideslip back toward your blocks. As you

confront them, the tight mob flings apart, a dozen chunks

of feathered shrapnel. Two muffled shots confirm their

mistake. As you coax the pudgy heft from the mouth of

your dog, you are drawn to its simple beauty: the porcelain

STAGG RIVER:NORTHERNWATERFOWLERS’UTOPIA

by Eric Butterworth

by Dave Kay

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fowl and eggs at any time of the year.Today, subsistence hunting is still a

major way of life for many communitiesin the North. Hunts are well organizedand of cultural and spiritual significance.In the Hudson Bay Lowlands, huntingCanada geese in the spring is an impor-tant annual event. Indeed, it is of suchsignificance to the traditional lifestyle is depicted through the small tamarackgoose sold to tourists is a replica of thetraditional lifelike tamarack goose decoysused by the Cree during their goose hunt.This hunt is an important part of thelocal heritage where young hunters aretrained and often keep the head of their

first kill and decorate it with beads as amemento of the occasion.

Because of its vast size and remoteness,as conservation efforts continue with anorthern boreal focus, one of the mostrapidly growing needs is the collectionand documentation of traditional know-ledge from the people who have lived offthis land for millennia. For example, thecollection of eggs was an important eventfor the Innu of Labrador, whose eldersrefer to waterfowl as humans. They knew,for example, where the goldeneye nests,for “they do not nest in the marshes”. Inthe Northwest Territories’ MackenzieValley, the Gwich’in are concerned over

the recent decline in scoters, both Njaa(the white-winged scoter) and Deetree’aa(the surf scoter). They knew the Deetree’aatasted fishy in the spring and so preferredto hunt the Njaa in the spring and theDeetree’aa later in the season. They stillcollect and save down to fill pants andparkas.

Waterfowl are an important food sourceand the traditional knowledge is of cul-tural importance to pass on from theirancestors to their children.

Subsistence hunting is still

a major way of life for many

communities in the North.

sheen of its smartly ringed bill and the abrupt peak of its

purple black head. The piercing yellow of the feral eyes

embody the boreal wild from which it was born.

The remote north arm of Great Slave Lake in the North-

west Territories contains numerous shallow bays and

marshes that attract thousands of staging waterfowl. To

the residents of Yellowknife this is northern pike country,

with few venturing into this part of the world once autumn

strokes its red and gold on the drunken forest of twisted

spruce. Renowned for its rugged inaccessibility, thousands

of rocky islets and shoals make navigation of its waters

difficult at best. Weather is unpredictable, often extreme,

and there are no services along its 100-kilometre length

between Yellowknife and Rae-Edzo. Although several key

staging areas are scattered along the shoreline here, most

are inaccessible by road.

One such staging area occurs about 80 kilometres west

of Yellowknife. Here, an extensive marsh has formed in a

large protected bay where the Stagg River enters Great

Slave Lake. Thousands of northern dabbling ducks begin

staging here in late summer, prior to the annual migration

south. This area is one of only three sites in the Northwest

Territories chosen as part of the USFWS pre-season band-

ing campaign, testament to its importance to waterfowl.

Several thousand ducks are banded here annually, mostly

mallard, green-winged teal and northern pintail.

Water levels can fluctuate frequently here, due to wind

generated seiches. Starting with an amiable paddle down

the kilometre or so of river south of the highway, your

plans suddenly change when the channel ends at a wall

of marsh, as far as the eye can see. Looking deceptively like

no more than a wet meadow to drag your canoe across,

most days you are quickly proven otherwise, with a gruel-

ing crawl through another kilometre of boot-sucking mud

and metre-high horsetail. The Stagg is truly not for the

uncommitted. To some however, the rewards are worth

the price of admission. Howling wolves and spectacular

displays of northern lights are the standard nights enter-

tainment. Endless swarms of northern ducks complete the

agenda, making a trip to the Stagg a wildfowling adven-

ture in every sense of the term.

Historically, waterfowl had many uses for aboriginal communities, providing meat, eggs, waterproof bags and feathers.

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One such destination of unparalleledhunting opportunities is the great borealdelta of the Saskatchewan River that sur-rounds the community of The Pas inManitoba. These wetlands, which includeareas like Saskeram, Reader, Beverly andKelsey, are home to tens of thousands ofbreeding waterfowl annually – as well asmillions of staging waterfowl during thespring and fall migration.

The hunting value of this area datesback before sport hunting times, whenSwampy Cree hunters pursued waterfowl

for food in the spring and the fall. Springhunting took place when the waterfowlreturned to breed, and often coincidedwith the final weeks of spring muskrattrapping. These early migrants providedlocal aboriginal trappers and their familieswith fresh fowl to complement the musk-rat meat. Concurrent with spring hunting,the annual tradition of collecting duckeggs, as well as the eggs of other waterbirds such as American coots, provided anadditional and nutritious food source.

The hunt was then repeated in the fall,

when concentrations of staging waterfowlwould provide a plentiful food supply.

But harvesting waterfowl meant morethan food for the Swampy Cree. Water-fowl provided an abundance of down andfeathers used for bedding and winterclothing so critical during the cold winterin the boreal forest. So it is no surprisethat goose-calling is such a popular eventat the annual Northern Manitoba TrappersFestival held in The Pas each February.

It’s difficult to know exactly when sporthunting became popular, but annual fallhunting excursions to the marshes sur-rounding The Pas have a long tradition.The non-aboriginal sport hunting frater-nity was well aware of the importance ofthe marshes in the Saskatchewan RiverDelta at least as far back as the 1930s.Local resident Fred White, now 78, re-calls having a field handbook as a young-ster published by a prominent sportsmen’s

he hunting heritage in Manitoba is well docu-mented with accounts and images of places likeDelta Marsh, Oak Hammock Marsh and the Minn-edosa potholes. Not so well known – but equally

historic – are northern destinations that have a hunting heri-tage every bit as good as their southern counterparts.

T

THE SASK ATCHE WAN RIVER DELTA: THE TRADITION CONTINUES

by Chris Smith

30


magazine that highlighted the SaskeramMarsh as an area of importance to water-fowl. He remembers his father takingAmerican hunters to the Pasquia Marshessouthwest of The Pas to hunt in the 1940sand recalls that waterfowl, mostly ducks,“were very plentiful” and they would “baga lot of mallards.” These mallards oftenhad crops full of barley from feeding inthe small grain fields that dotted the banksof the Carrot River west of town. ThePasquia Marshes no longer exist due toagricultural expansion, but this farmingarea remains a prime destination for manyhunters in pursuit of mallards and Canada

geese. As a young man in the 1950s, Whiteremembers hunting the famous SaskeramMarsh and hiding behind old rock blindsbuilt by aboriginal hunters in pursuit ofthe white-fronted geese that frequent theexposed mud flats during fall migration.

Reader and Root lakes north of ThePas have long been considered a primehunting destination. These deeper, morepermanent wetlands provide optimumfall staging habitat for large numbers ofdiving ducks. The attraction to this areawas to hunt bluebills, canvasbacks andredheads, though hunters regularly report-ed a good “mixed bag,” particularly earlyin the season. Waterfowl outfitting in thisarea dates back some 70 years, and althoughit was known primarily for duck hunting,there were many years when Reader Lakeand adjoining marshes had low water andexposed mud flats, attracting respectablenumbers of geese.

From the 1940s through to the 1990s,Ducks Unlimited Canada undertooknumerous wetland conservation projectsin the area. These developments certainlycontributed to profiling these significantwetlands as a prime waterfowl habitat.An increasing popularity of the area as ahunting destination evolved over time.Many hunters have developed a strongattachment to the area and have madelifelong friends, returning year after year,and often with their children and grand-children.

Today, several local outfitters providetheir clients with quality waterfowl hunt-ing in Reader Lake, Saskeram and othergreat destinations throughout the Sask-atchewan River Delta, helping to ensurethat this truly boreal hunting heritagecontinues into the future.

When European settlers arrived in eastern Canada, they

were surprised that hunting was open to all. Where they

came from hunting was reserved for aristocrats. The enthu-

siasm for sport hunting and respect for subsistence hunting

was hatched, and became a part of Canada’s heritage.

Records suggest that the first sportsman to hunt water-

fowl in Nouvelle-France was Robert Giffard. In 1627, he

operated a hunting blind at the mouth of the Ruisseau de

l’Ours along the St. Lawrence River east of Québec City.

Migratory ducks and geese, likely from the boreal, were

apparently abundant along the St. Lawrence at that time.

In 1646, James Lemoyne established the first hunting

area around Île-aux-Grues and Île-aux-Oies. It is not clear

which of the greater snow goose or the Canada goose was

the most abundant species hunted during those early

years. Although the legal status of this area has changed

since that time, it is still a historic hunting place – helped

over the years by the habitat conservation efforts of organ-

izations, including Ducks Unlimited Canada.

Hunting was unregulated in Upper and Lower Canada

until 1845. But from that year forward, the government

prohibited waterfowl hunting during spring and summer.

In 1876, the regulations became a bit more restrictive by

extending the no-hunting period from May 1 to September

1 (May 15 to September 1 east and west of Trois-Rivières).

Interestingly, hunting for subsistence was permitted year-

long in the area located east of the Brandy Pot Island, an

area that now corresponds to the estuary and the Gulf of

St. Lawrence, and in the Atlantic provinces.

As well as hunting, the harvest of duck eggs from the

breeding colonies on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and along

the coasts of the Atlantic provinces, became a traditional

activity for the subsistence of local communities in the 17th

and 18th centuries. Local people had learned to harvest

the eggs without destroying the colonies and apparently

duck populations did not suffer because of the harvest.

In the 1840s, the activity became unruly and destructive,

leaving many colonies plundered by egg-gatherers, and by

1870 there were so many problems that the governments

prohibited egg harvesting. Nevertheless, egg harvest by

local communities persisted, at least in parts of the Gulf of

St. Lawrence. Fortunately, organizations like the Québec-

Labrador Foundation now work with local communities to

develop sustainable harvest practices.

Waterfowl outfitting in the

Saskatchewan River Delta

region dates back some

70 years.

C ANADA’S EASTERNBOREAL: A HUNTINGHERITAGE

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by Marcel Darveau

The boreal forest is comprised of vast areas of valuable wetland and upland habitat for great numbers of North America’sbreeding, nesting, brood-rearing, moultingand staging waterfowl (ducks, geese and swans). These secluded boreal habitats are important to many waterfowl species and absolutely crucial to others.

INTRODUC TION

TO THE SPECIES

ACCOUNTS

vi

by Glenn Mack

s indicated through-out this book, heightenedindustrial activity in theboreal could pose seriousthreats to habitat. There-fore, it should be of no

surprise that there has been an increasedfocus on boreal conservation. Most water-fowl professionals agree that maintainingboreal forest habitat is crucial to waterfowlpopulations; however, many politicians,industrial leaders and the general public – including waterfowl hunters – do notautomatically link a healthy boreal forestto healthy waterfowl populations. Thisbook will attempt to establish that link byhighlighting the importance of NorthAmerica’s boreal forest to individualwaterfowl species.

The species accounts are summarizedas individual essays on the life history and conservation status for the 33 NorthAmerican waterfowl species that dependon the boreal forest during at least onestage of their annual cycle. The list ofspecies was determined from severalsources: DUC’s western boreal programsurvey data (unpublished data), the Can-adian Wildlife Service (CWS) and UnitedStates Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS)banding data (1924-2002), Bellrose (1980)and Golden (1983).

The accounts are listed by group (ducks,geese, swans) and in alphabetical order.The English, French and scientific names(genus, species) are also provided for each.

Purpose and content of the accounts

Species accounts included in this book arenot intended to replace the more detailedaccounts in other documents (like the Birdsof North America series and the provincialbreeding bird atlas). Our intention withthis publication is to shine a light on theboreal forest to raise awareness about theimportance of this region to continentalwaterfowl populations, including duringthe often-overlooked moulting andmigration periods. Each account providesdescriptive information and follows thesame template including a synopsis ofidentification characteristics, habitat,diet/feeding behaviour, breeding andmigration patterns. When possible, thecurrent state of knowledge regardingpopulation levels and the conservationchallenges that exist in this vast landscapeare also included. For the purpose of thisbook, occasional and rare visitors to theboreal were not included.

Of the 33 waterfowl species covered inthis book, 26 are ducks, five are geese andtwo are swans. While most of the species

here use boreal forest habitat extensively,they all use the boreal forest habitats forat least a portion of their annual cycle.The take-home message for our audienceis that these species would have a difficulttime surviving without the habitat of theboreal forest.

Sources of information

The species reports are summaries of in-formation from two main sources: Bellrose(1980) and the respective Birds of NorthAmerica account. Additional sources wereused but because of the paucity of peer-reviewed information (especially boreal-related), authors also relied on existingfield guides, websites, unpublished reportsand personal communications to providethe most up-to-date information possible.

When applicable, we also referencedDucks Unlimited Canada’s unpublishedsurvey data. All references are providedalphabetically by author and catagorizedby species in the bibliography.

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32


This book will attemptto establish alink by high-lighting theimportance of NorthAmerica’sboreal forestto specificwaterfowlspecies.

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Each species report is accompanied by a

distribution map (sample, below), created

by Chris Krueger at the Boreal Songbird

Initiative. Breeding (pink), wintering (green)

and year-round ranges (orange) are pre-

sented for each species. Red arrows that

appear on some maps indicate primary

migration routes between breeding and

wintering grounds. Because of the boreal

forest’s size and remoteness, boundary

lines were created

using existing maps and

discussions with experts. Further-

more, due to spatial distribution and

temporal changes in habitat conditions, it is

important to remember range boundaries

can not be considered concrete.

The other maps in this section are band

return maps (sample, below), which were

created by Ducks

Unlimited Canada’s Geo-

graphic Information Systems

staff using CWS/USFWS banding

data. Each shows banding stations

(pink diamonds) and recovery locations

(black squares). The total number of band-

ed and recovered birds is provided beneath

each map. These maps are only provided

for species with over 100 band returns.

The maps on this page (above left is the

western boreal forest; above right is the east-

ern boreal) show all banding stations in

their respective region, along with where

all waterfowl species banded at these sites

were recovered. These maps should be

used only to get an idea of what species

are banded in the boreal and where they

are recovered, and not for the total number

of birds that use the boreal forest.

Table 1 (right) provides a list of all water-

fowl species banded in the boreal forest,

the number of individuals banded and

recovered, and where (states/provinces)

they have been recovered.

R ANGE AND BAND RETURN MAPS

33


34


American black duck 19,503 2,900 264 46 19,239 2,854

American wigeon 4,379 512 3,458 382 921 130

Barrow’s goldeneye 2,598 56 2,585 54 13 2black scoter - - - - - -blue-winged teal 23,669 1,022 20,818 847 2,851 175

bufflehead 977 99 977 99 - -

canvasback 583 89 579 89 4 -

common goldeneye 1,742 157 1,470 121 272 36

common merganser 13 - 3 - 10 -gadwall 222 33 207 30 15 3greater scaup 461 31 449 30 12 1green-winged teal 33,251 2,350 24,054 1,453 9,197 897

harlequin duck 307 6 - - 307 6hooded merganser 100 10 2 - 98 10lesser scaup 15,834 1,300 15,781 1,289 53 11

long-tailed duck 463 12 462 12 1 -mallard 161,668 24,298 137,776 20,575 23,892 3,723

northern pintail 64,492 5,197 61,597 4,873 2,895 324

northern shoveler 622 58 561 46 61 12red-breasted merganser 15 - 7 - 8 -redhead 1,448 186 1,443 185 5 1

ring-necked duck 1,828 252 744 95 1,084 157

ruddy duck 70 3 69 2 1 1surf scoter 65 - 65 - - -white-winged scoter 253 18 252 18 1 -wood duck 618 91 14 2 604 89

brant - - - - - -Canada goose 139,559 25,660 51,011 10,647 88,548 15,103

greater white-fronted goose 426 61 426 61 - -Ross’ goose 791 70 712 67 79 3snow goose 171,140 22,441 139,313 18,135 31,827 4,306

trumpeter swan 214 27 214 27 - -tundra swan 146 38 134 36 12 2

AL,AR,IL,KY,LA,MI,MB,MO,MS,NJ,OH,ON,PA,SK,TN,WI

AB,AK,AL,AR,AZ,BC,CA,CO,FL,GA,IA,ID,IL,IN,KS,KY,LA,MI,

MB,MN,MO,MS,MT,NC,ND,NE,NT,NV,NY,OK,ON,OR,SC,SD,

SK,TN,TX,UT,VA,WA,WI,WY,YT

AK

-AB,AL,AR,CA,CO,FL,IA,IL,IN,KS,KY,LA,MI,MB,MN,MO,

MS,MT,NC,ND,NE,NS,NT,NY,OH,OK,ON,PA,QC,SC,SD,SK,TN,

TX,WI,WV

CA,KS,MD,MB,MN,MT,NE,NT,NY,OH,OK,ON,OR,QC,QC,

SC,SK,VA,WA,WI,WV

BC,CA,IA,ID,IL,IN,KS,LA,MD,MI,MB,MN,MO,MS,ND,NT,NY,

ON,OR,SD,SK,TN,TX,VA,WI

AB,AK,BC,BC,CA,CO,ID,IL,KY,MI,MB,MN,MT,NC,ND,NE,

OH,ON,OR,SK,UT,WA,WI,WY

-AB,AL,AR,FL,IL,KS,LA,MB,ND,OK,PA,SC,SD,SK,TN,TX,WY

LA,MD,MI,MB,MN,MS,NJ,NY,QC,VT

AB,AK,AL,AR,AZ,BC,BC,CA,CO,DE,FL,GA,IA,ID,IL,IN,KS,

KY,LA,MB,MN,MO,MS,MT,ND,NE,NM,NT,NV,NY,OH,OK,OR,

SC,SD,SK,TN,TX,UT,WA,WI,WY,YT

--AB,AK,AL,AR,AZ,BC,CA,CO,CT,FL,GA,IA,ID,IL,IN,KS,KY,

LA,MD,ME,MI,MB,MN,MO,MS,MT,NC,ND,NE,NT,NV,NY,OH,

OK,ON,OR,PA,QC,SC,SD,SK,TN,TX,UT,VA,WA,WI,WV

MB,NY

AB,AK,AL,AR,AZ,BC,CA,CO,DE,FL,GA,IA,ID,IL,IN,KS,KY,

LA,MA,MD,MI,MB,MN,MO,MS,MT,NB,NC,ND,NE,NJ,NL,NM,

NS,NT,NU,NV,NY,OH,OK,ON,OR,PA,PE,QC,SC,SD,SK,TN,TX,

UT,VA,VT,WA,WI,WV,WY,YT

AB,AK,AL,AR,AZ,BC,CA,CO,FL,IA,ID,IL,IN,KS,KY,LA,MD,MI,

MB,MN,MO,MS,MT,NC,ND,NE,NM,NT,NU,NV,NY,OH,OK,ON,

OR,PA,QC,SC,SD,SK,TN,TX,UT,WA,WI,WY

AB,AR,CA,FL,IL,KS,LA,MI,MB,MS,NB,ND,NE,NM,SK,TX,UT

-AB,AL,AR,CA,CO,DE,FL,IA,IL,IN,KS,LA,MD,MI,MB,MN,

MO,MS,MT,ND,NE,NM,NY,OH,ON,OR,PA,SD,SK,TX,WI

AB,AR,CA,FL,IA,IL,IN,KS,LA,MB,MN,MO,MS,NC,ND,NT,OK,

ON,SC,SD,SK,TN,TX,WI

CA,UT

-AK,CA,MB,NT,NY,VT

LA,NE

-AB,AL,AR,BC,CA,CO,GA,IA,ID,IL,IN,KS,KY,LA,MA,MI,MB,MN,

MO,MS,MT,NC,ND,NE,NM,NV,NY,OH,OK,ON,OR,PA,QC,SC,SD,

SK,TN,TX,UT,VA,WA,WI,WV,WY

AB,AK,AR,KS,LA,MS,ND,NE,PA,SD,SK,TX

AR,CA,CO,IA,IL,KY,LA,MB,MO,ND,NE,OK,OR,SD,SK,TX

AB,AL,AR,CA,CO,DE,GA,IA,IL,KS,KY,LA,MD,MI,MB,MN,MO,

MS,MT,NB,NC,ND,NE,NJ,NM,NT,NU,NY,OH,OK,ON,QC,SD,SK,

TN,TX,UT,WI,WY

AB,ID,MT,NE,NT,NV,OR,SD,UT,WY

DE,MD,NT,PA,SK,WI

AL,AR,CT,DE,FL,GA,IA,IL,IN,KY,LA,MA,MB,MD,

ME,MI,MN,MO,MS,NB,NC,NH,NJ,NL,NS,NY,OH,

ON,PA,PE,QC,RI,SC,SK,TN,TX,VA,VT,WI,WV

AB,AK,BC,BC,CA,CO,ID,IL,KY,MI,MB,MN,MT,NC,

ND,NE,OH,ON,OR,SK,UT,WA,WI,WY

QC,NB

-AR,CT,DE,FL,GA,IA,IL,IN,LA,MA,MD,MI,MS,NC,

NH,NL,NY,OH,ON,PA,SC,VT,WI

-

-

AR,MB,MD,ND,NY,ON,QC,WI

-FL,SC

NS

AL,AR,AZ,CA,CT,DE,FL,GA,IA,IL,IN,KS,LA,MA,MD,

ME,MI,MN,MO,MS,NB,NC,ND,NE,NL,NJ,NS,NV,

NY,OH,OK,ON,PA,PE,QC,SC,SD,TN,TX,VA,VT,WI

NL

AL,FL,GA,LA,NC,ON,SC

FL,NY,ON,QC,VA

-AB,AL,AR,CA,CT,DE,FL,GA,IA,ID,IL,IN,KY,LA,MA,

MB,MD,ME,MI,MN,MO,MS,NC,ND,NE,NJ,NL,NM,

NY,OH,OK,ON,OR,PA,PE,QC,SC,SD,SK,TN,TX,VA,

VT,WI,WV

AR,CA,CT,DE,FL,IA,IL,LA,MB,MD,MI,MN,MO,NB,

NC,ND,NE,NJ,NL,NS,NY,OH,ON,PA,PE,QC,SC,SD,

TN,TX,UT,VA,VT,WA,WI

AR,IL,MI,ON,PA

-QC

AL,AR,FL,GA,IL,IN,KS,LA,MI,MN,NC,NL,NS,NY,

OH,ON,PA,QC,SC,TN,TX,VA,VT,WI

ON

--AL,FL,GA,IL,LA,MA,MD,ME,MN,MS,NC,NY,ON,

PA,QC,SC

-AB,AL,AR,CA,CO,CT,DE,IA,IL,IN,KS,KY,LA,MA,MB,

MD,ME,MI,MN,MO,MS,MT,NB,NC,ND,NE,NH,NJ,

NL,NM,NS,NU,NY,OH,OK,ON,OR,PA,PE,QC,RI,SC,

SD,SK,TN,TX,UT,VA,VT,WI,WV

-CO,IA,MO

AL,AB,AR,CA,IA,IL,IN,KS,KY,LA,MB,MI,MD,MN,

MO,MS,ND,NE,NU,OH,OK,ON,PA,QC,SD,SK,TN,

TX,WI

-NC

species bands recoveries bands recoveries recovery locations bands recoveries recovery locations

(total boreal forest) (western boreal forest) (eastern boreal forest)

he American black duck, or black duck as most people know it,

breeds largely in the northeastern United States (Maine west to Michigan)

and eastern Canada (Newfoundland west to Ontario and occasionally in

northeastern Manitoba). Fifty per cent of the total black duck population

breeds in the boreal forest of Québec and many of the black ducks banded here have

been recovered throughout the eastern U.S. (figure 1). The boreal forest also provides

important moulting and staging habitat. Black ducks winter along the coastal areas of the

American Black Duck

northeastern states and south to Florida.Open water along the Great Lakes is alsoused during the winter.

The black duck is closely related to themallard and the mottled duck. The maleand female black ducks are similar inappearance except for the bill, which isgreenish yellow on the male and a dullolive green to black on the hen. Com-pared to the mallard, black ducks haveconsiderably darker brown bodies. Thecontrast between its light brown head andbrown-black body is one visual cue foridentification. Other key distinguishingtraits are its lack of white bars on thewing above the iridescent blue speculum,

35


canard noir

T

American Black Duck

Anas rubripesAnas rubripes

and the absence of white tail feathers,which the mallard exhibits.

Habitat

Black ducks choose a wide variety of wet-lands for breeding, ranging from marineand estuarine systems on the east coast to beaver ponds and inland lakes in theboreal forest. For brood-rearing in theboreal forest, black ducks move fromsmall to larger wetlands and to lakes.Black ducks winter on shallow coastalwaters along the east coast as well as onmarshes near agricultural fields.

Diet/Feeding Behaviour

Black ducks eat a wide variety of food andtypically feed by dabbling at or just belowthe surface. They may also make shallowdives to feed on submerged plants. Blackducks eat mostly seeds, buds and tubers of aquatic plants and grains (mainly wastecorn) during late fall and winter. Theywill also feed on mussels, snails and aqua-tic insects, particularly during winter whenthey frequent coastal wetlands, and forfemales during pre-laying and egg-layingstages.

Breeding

Pair bonds are established as early asSeptember, but usually later in the year.Most black ducks arrive on breeding areasalready paired. Males defend their matesfrom other black ducks to secure qualitybreeding habitat. They prefer to nest onthe ground in wooded, bushy or grassyareas under overhanging vegetation thatprotects and conceals the nest. Femaleslay an average of nine greenish buff orcreamy white eggs, which are incubatedfor an average of 26 days. Males will typ-ically abandon the females during mid-incubation and move to larger lakes and

wetlands to moult their feathers. Renest-ing attempts for black ducks are commonif a nest is depredated or destroyed butfewer eggs are laid. Once hatched, thefemale will stay with her ducklings for 58 to 63 days until they are able to fly.

Migration/Winter Range

Three-quarters of black ducks migrateusing the Atlantic Flyway, particularly astretch along the coast from Florida tothe Maritimes, while the other quarteruses the Mississippi Flyway. Movingshort distances between their breedingand wintering grounds, many individuals

have overlapping summer and winterranges. Black ducks usually arrive on thesouthern breeding grounds in late Marchto early April, and late May on the north-ern breeding grounds in the boreal forestsof Newfoundland and Labrador, Québecand Ontario. Typically most black ducksbegin their fall migration in late Sept-ember, arriving on the wintering groundsby mid-October. They have a tendency to return to the same wintering areaannually.

36


Figure 1: Banding and recovery sites – American black

duck (19,503 banded; 2,900 recovered)

Fifty per cent of the total black duckpopulation breeds in the boreal forest of Québec.

DEN

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Black ducks choose a

wide variety of wetlands

for breeding, ranging from

marine and estuarine sys-

tems on the east coast to

beaver ponds and inland

lakes in the boreal forest.

he American wigeon (or baldpate) is well known for its bright

plumage and high-pitched whistle. It is widely distributed, breeding from

the coast of the Bering Sea, across the entire Canadian boreal forest to New-

foundland and south to the Prairies. Although many people think of the

wigeon as a prairie duck, it is truly a boreal duck. Presently, more wigeon breed in the

boreal forest than in the Canadian and U.S. prairies combined. The portion of the breed-

ing population counted in the western boreal forest increased from 45 per cent in the 1950s

American Wigeon

Tto 61 per cent by 2005; however, the esti-mated breeding population in the trad-itional survey area remains well below thewaterfowl population management goalseverywhere except in Alaska.

The breeding male wigeon has a dis-tinctive white crown, a vibrant green eyestreak, and a bold white shoulder patch,all visible in flight. Females have brown-ish crowns, creamy white eye streaks, andreddish-brown flanks. Both sexes haverounded heads, a short blue-grey bill witha black tip, white underbellies (conspic-uous in flight), and a dark speculum

tinted with iridescent green. The male’sslow three-note whistle is also diagnosticof the species.

Habitat

During the breeding season, wigeon usesluggish rivers, marshes and shallow pondswith exposed shorelines and submergentvegetation. These wetlands are oftenlocated adjacent to dry meadows orbrushy areas that are suitable for nesting.Migrating wigeon rely on small and largelakes, quiet rivers, flooded fields and

Anas americana

37


canard d’Amérique

freshwater inlets where food is plentiful.Winter habitat includes freshwater lakes,rivers, marshes, sheltered marine estuariesand bays.


Wigeon are among the most herbivorousof dabbling ducks and their short narrowbill, similar in structure to that of geese,is well adapted for grazing. For the mostpart, they obtain leaves and roots of sub-merged vegetation by dabbling, tippingup or grazing. However, in deeper waterthey occasionally will steal food broughtup by diving birds. Wigeon wait alertlyfor divers to resurface with vegetation,and either snap up whatever the diverdrops, or snatch vegetation straight fromthe diver’s bill. Wigeon are often observedfeeding with canvasbacks, redheads, scaupand coots. They are sometimes even boldenough to steal from geese and muskrats.During the breeding season, the wigeon’sdiet is supplemented with aquatic invert-ebrates, like insects and mollusks, whichare important for producing eggs andduckling growth. During migration andover winter they also graze on uplandgrasses, clovers and agricultural crops.

Breeding

Pairs begin to form late in the fall andmost females are paired when they arriveon the wintering grounds. Competitionfor females is fierce, as the sex ratio of the population is heavily skewed towardsmales. Males use a number of groupcourtship displays and flights to attractfemales, intimidate other males and toobtain a mate, such as swimming withhead thrust forward and wings pointedupwards. An unseemly courting ritual also used by other dabbler species is “theburp”, in which the male emits a high-pitched vocalization while stiffening his

upper head feathers and his body in anerect posture. Wigeon have strong pairbonds, but like many dabbler species,males occasionally break existing bonds or participate in forced copulation. Theduration of wigeon pair bonds is variablebut in many cases these last until the eggshatch and rarely beyond this. Males willgroup with other post-breeding or un-paired birds to moult on larger wetlands.

Wigeon conceal their nests in denseleafy or shrubby upland cover, usuallywithin 50 metres of water. The female lays nine to 12 eggs and incubates themfor 25 days. Soon after eggs hatch, thefemale leads the ducklings to a nearbywetland to forage. There she attends tothem and, unlike many other species, shedoes not allow other broods to join hers.If the habitat is appropriate, the femalewill moult on the rearing pond; other-wise, she will abandon her young, oftenbefore they can fly, in search of a suitablemoulting area.


Most wigeon initiate fall migration in all four flyways in late August or earlySeptember. However, almost half of thepopulation uses the Pacific Flyway withmany of the wigeon banded in the borealforest being recovered here as well (figure2). In fact, American wigeon are also the

most abundant dabbling duck alongcoastal British Columbia. Winter habitatconsists of marshes, rivers, lakes, coastalestuaries and agricultural areas along thePacific coast south to Mexico, on the eastcoast from Connecticut south into theCaribbean and all throughout the south-central U.S. Wigeon migrate in mixedspecies flocks, often with gadwall andmallards. Most flocks contain about onehundred individuals; however, severalflocks of 500 and even a few of over 3,000birds have been observed on the Peace-Athabasca and the Saskatchewan Riverdeltas.

38


Figure 2: Banding and recovery sites – American

wigeon (4,379 banded; 512 recovered)

Although many peoplethink of the wigeon asa prairie duck, in facthalf of its breedingrange lies within theboreal forest.

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he Barrow’s goldeneye is a medium-sized sea duck with a very

limited breeding distribution. The western population of about 200,000

birds breeds in British Columbia, the Yukon and Alaska, while the eastern

population of approximately 4,000 breeds in the St.Lawrence Estuary in

Québec. More than 50 per cent of the breeding population is in the boreal forest. Like all

sea ducks, Barrow’s goldeneyes migrate to coastal habitats for the winter. Birds banded

in the Yukon’s boreal forest have been recovered in central and coastal Alaska during the

Barrow’s Goldeneye

Twinter (see table, page 38), while others win-ter further south, along the Pacific andAtlantic coasts.

The Barrow’s goldeneye is distinguishedfrom the common goldeneye by body size,shape of the bill and head, as well as theshape of the white patch on the head. Themale Barrow’s goldeneye has a long androunded crown with a white crescent-shaped patch in front of the eye, whereasthe common goldeneye has a sloped crownand a round eye patch. The female is sosimilar to the common goldeneye (brownhead, grey back, wings and tail, a white

Bucephala islandica

39


garrot d’Islande

The Barrow’s goldeneye is a medium-sized seaduck with a very limited breeding distribution.

belly and breast, a yellow eye) that theycan only be distinguished during the latewinter and spring when the Barrow’s billis entirely yellow and the common gold-eneye’s is only yellow at the tip.

Habitat

In summer, Barrow’s goldeneyes prefersmall lakes and alkaline wetlands withopen water, very little emergent vegeta-tion, high invertebrate populations and anabsence of fish. They also require forestedstands with abundant cavities for nesting.In the west, they generally occur in borealforests, aspen parklands, ponderosa-pine,subalpine stands, and closed coniferousforests. In the east, they breed in blackspruce or balsam fir/white birch borealforests, and seem to prefer small, high-elevation, lakes. During migration theyuse large inland lakes and rivers and inthe winter they inhabit sheltered coastalareas, and ice-free interior lakes andrivers.


This species normally feeds by divingalong shallow shorelines, but will occa-sionally dabble as well. Typical dives areone to three metres below the surface.Their diet is dependent on their locationin fresh or salt water, and is made up ofaquatic invertebrates, crustaceans, mol-lusks, and smaller amounts of seeds, greenplant material, fish and fish eggs.

Breeding

Sexual maturity occurs in their second or third year. Like most waterfowl, court-ship displays are initiated in the winterand are fairly complex – performed ingroups of five to 20 birds and involving a series of head throws and leg kicks,mainly by the male. Pair bonds will nor-

mally remain intact, until the female hascompleted egg laying. The male will thenleave the breeding area to moult.

The female lays an average of nine eggsin existing cavities of dead or dying trees,or in artificial nest boxes between two and15 metres above the ground. Larger clutchsizes are usually an indication of nest par-asitism. Incubation lasts for about 30 days,and like most cavity nesters, nest successis quite high. Renesting is rare, and onlyoccurs when a nest has been destroyedduring the very early stages of incubationAbout two days after hatching, when theyoung have had a chance to dry off, thefemale beckons the young to the ground.One by one, they jump out and follow heron the sometimes kilometre-long trek towater. The female is aggressive to otherfemales and broods during brood rearing;however, brood amalgamation is commonif a female abandons her brood beforethey are able to fly, at about 56 days.


Paired Barrow’s goldeneyes are known to travel to their breeding grounds alone,while non-breeders and unpaired birdsnormally fly in small groups. Some non-breeding birds fly directly from the win-

tering areas to the moulting areas. Fallmigration typically occurs later than otherduck species. Most Barrow’s goldeneye do not leave their staging areas until thefreeze-up. Males normally arrive on theirwintering grounds earlier than femalesand young-of-the-year birds. Western and eastern populations remain isolatedfrom each other year-round.

40


More than 50 percent of the Barrow’sgoldeneye populationbreeds within theboreal forest.

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Female Barrow’s goldeneye

lay an average of nine eggs

in existing cavities of dead

or dying trees, or in artificial

nest boxes between two

and 15 metres above the

ground. About two days

after hatching, when the

young have had a chance

to dry off, the female

beckons the young to

the ground.

he black scoter is one of North America’s least known sea ducks,

due in part to its very limited and remote distribution. It has two distinct

populations: the eastern population breeds mostly in the boreal forests of

Québec and Labrador, and the western population breeds on the tundra in

Alaska. Both populations spend the winter along their respective coasts.

The male black scoter is completely black except for the large orange-yellow bulge at

the base of its bill, and a grey fringe on the flight feathers. Female and immature black

Black Scoter

Tscoters are dark brown with light greypatches on the throat and cheeks, and adarkly capped head. Both sexes havedusky-coloured feet, unlike the surf andwhite-winged scoters, which have yellow-ish or pinkish feet.

Habitat

In the east, breeding black scoters preferrelatively shallow and small lakes with little emergent vegetation, and rocky sub-strates. They avoid large, deep lakes, andare associated with rivers only during the

Melanitta nigra

4 1


macreuse noire

first few weeks of arrival. In Alaska, theyuse areas like sloughs, riverbanks and tundra wetlands. During migration and in the winter, black scoters occupy shallowmarine waters. They forage over cobble orbedrock throughout most of their winterrange, though a notable exception occursin New Hampshire and Massachusettswhere they more commonly forage onsandy beaches than rocky headlands.


The diet of the black scoter is about 90per cent animal matter and 10 per centvegetation. On the breeding grounds, theyeat freshwater insects, larvae, fish eggs,mollusks, duckweed, pondweed and watermilfoil. In winter, black scoters dive formollusks and small crustaceans, usually inwaters less than 10 metres deep. Underwater, black scoters use their feet forpropulsion and their wings as rudders.Because most prey items are small, theyare swallowed whole while under water.The incredibly muscular gizzard crushesthe shells.

Breeding

Little is known about the black scoter’sbreeding behaviour or specific habitatrequirements. Researchers suspect thatlike other sea ducks, black scoters reachsexual maturity at two years of age. Court-ship begins in spring on the winteringgrounds. Males perform a variety of dis-plays including bowing, tail snapping andforward rushing. These displays are oftenperformed by groups of males, directedtoward a solitary female. Shortly after thefemale selects her mate, the pair migratesto the breeding grounds together. Blackscoters stay monogamous throughout thebreeding season.

The female selects the nest site, oftenwithin 30 metres of the water’s edge.

Small lakes surrounded by dense shrubbycover are preferred. Nests begin as merescrapes in the ground but are soon linedwith grass and down. Once the femalelays her clutch of eight to nine pale ovaleggs, she begins incubation, which willlast about 29 days. At this point, malesleave the breeding grounds for coastalareas. Shortly after the ducklings hatch,they are led to water, where they areattended for seven to 21 days. Most fe-males will abandon their precocial youngbefore the young can fly, about 42 days.At this time, females fly to the coast tojoin males and non-breeders to moult.The young continue to forage on insectsand larvae until the flight feathers emergeand they too can fly to the coast.


When breeding is completed, black sco-ters fly to the coast to moult and stagebefore migrating south. James Bay in theeast and Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta inAlaska are two important moulting areas.The St. Lawrence estuary and the Dal-housie area of New Brunswick are bothmajor staging grounds for eastern blackscoters. Fall migration begins in Sept-ember and lasts until November. Mostmigrants from the eastern boreal forestare bound for Atlantic Ocean winteringareas. They winter as far north as Nova

Scotia and as far south as Florida. Somebirds also winter along the Gulf coastfrom Texas to Florida, and others winteron the Great Lakes. The Pacific popu-lation winters from Alaska to California.Spring migration begins in April and bylate May, most birds have arrived on thebreeding grounds just after the springthaw.

42


The easternpopulation of black scoters reliesheavily on the boreal forest for its survival.

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ERY The western population

breeds on the tundra and

taiga wetlands of Alaska,

Yukon and Northwest

Territories. Small lakes

surrounded by dense

shrubby cover are pre-

ferred sites for nesting.

lue-winged teals are among the continent’s smallest

ducks, and are true world travelers, flying to many

parts of North America in the spring and

returning to Mexico, Central and South

America for winter. Bluewings breed from Alaska to Nova Scotia with the highest con-

centrations occurring in parts of the prairie pothole region; however, the second most

important region is the boreal forest. The wetlands of the boreal forest serve as insurance

Blue-winged Teal

in times of poor habitat conditions furthersouth, and could become even more criticalas climate change will likely lead to poorerbreeding conditions on the Prairies.

The male blue-winged teal is easily iden-tified by his steel-blue head and whitefacial crescent. The large blue shoulderpatch, iridescent green speculum and bril-liant white border also make him easilyidentifiable. The female blue-winged tealis drab and mottled brown, and her wingpatch is subdued with an almost black-green speculum and no white border. Thebill of the male bluewing is blue-black,and the female’s is dusky with black spots.

Habitat

Breeding bluewings prefer shallow wet-lands with an abundance of aquatic invert-ebrates. They nest in a variety of forested(e.g. beaver ponds) and open (e.g. grassy

meadows, marsh edges) habitats. Duringthe brood rearing period, females oftenmove to larger wetlands that have abun-dant submergent vegetation. Although a few thousand birds winter along thecoasts of California, South Carolina andthe Gulf States, most leave the breedinggrounds in favour of the warmer climatesof Central and South America.

Anas discors

43

Sarcelle à ailes bleues

BBlue-winged teals are among the continent’s smallestducks, and are trueworld travelers.


A bluewing’s diet changes dramaticallywith the season. Although plant mattermakes up most of their diet, invertebratesare important for females during thebreeding season. Bluewings eat stems andleaves of duckweed, widgeon grass, coon-tail and pondweeds, and the seeds of bul-rushes, sedges, smartweeds and millets.On occasion, they also consume grainsfrom agricultural crops. Throughout thebreeding season, aquatic invertebrates likeinsect larvae, snails and worms becomeessential in meeting protein requirementsof egg production and energy demandsof incubation. Blue-winged teals oftenfeed by dabbling or gleaning the surfaceof shallow wetlands and mud flats, ratherthan tipping up.

Breeding

Blue-winged teals breed across NorthAmerica, although they can occur at lowdensities in many parts of their range.When conditions are good, the highestdensities occur in the prairies and park-lands; however, bluewings also breed inmany parts of the boreal forest. Further-more, when prairie habitat conditions arepoor, many blue-winged teal settle in theboreal forest.

Bluewings establish pair bonds on thewintering grounds and during springmigration. The male is very territorial –and unlike promiscuous northern pintails,extra-pair copulations are uncommon.Blue-wings are one of the last ducks toarrive on the breeding grounds and areconsidered to be a late nester.

The female often chooses a nest site ina grass meadow or a sedge meadow nearwater. She scrapes a bowl-shaped depres-sion into the ground, and lines it withgrasses within her reach. She lays an aver-age clutch of 10 eggs, and adds down and

feathers from her breast to aid in incu-bation. When the female leaves to forage,she covers her eggs with vegetation andfeathers to help keep them warm andconcealed. Breaks from attending the nestbecome shorter and less frequent as theclutch is completed and incubation pro-gresses. Incubation lasts about 24 days.The strong pair bond proves to be temp-orary, however, and around the third weekof incubation, the male departs to under-go his annual wing moult.

Soon after the ducklings hatch, thefemale leads them to a nearby wetland,which may be several hundred metresaway. The ducklings fledge at between 35 and 44 days. The female will abandonthe brood at that time.


Perhaps because of their exceptionallylong commute, blue-wings get an earlystart on fall migration. They depart fromCanada in late August or early Septemberand follow various routes to their winter-ing grounds. The most populous route isacross the Great Plains to the Louisianacoast where they await favourable weatherconditions before setting out for areas asfar south as Argentina in South America.

Other important migratory routes includean easterly path from the central Prairies,across the Mississippi Flyway to Florida,or from the eastern Prairies straight eastacross Canada and then down the Atlan-tic coast. Blue-wings that were banded inthe boreal forest are recovered along theirentire migration path (figure 3). Springmigration starts in January or Februaryand can take several months. Arrivals inCanada’s boreal forests occur until mid-May.

44


Figure 3: Banding and recovery sites – blue-winged

teal (23,669 banded; 1,022 recovered)

The wetlands of theboreal forest serve as insurance for blue-winged teals in times of poor habitat conditions further south.

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Blue-winged teals establish

pair bonds on the wintering

grounds and during spring

migration. Early migrants,

they depart from Canada

in late August or early

September.

onsidering the small size and active nature of the bufflehead, it

seems out of character that this duck’s nickname should be butterball,

so named by hunters to describe how fat the bufflehead becomes during

fall migration. As buffleheads migrate from their breeding grounds in

boreal forests and aspen parklands to their wintering grounds, they stop to rest and feed

on wetland invertebrates, many of which are also in the boreal forest. Estimates indicate

that about 65 per cent of the buffleheads counted on spring surveys in the traditional

Bufflehead

Csurvey area were counted in the westernboreal forest.

The name ‘bufflehead’ is an abbreviatedversion of the original ‘buffalo head’, sonamed for the disproportionately largehead of the male. The forehead, chin andneck of the male are black with a tinge ofpurple and green, and his cheeks and napeare covered with a large white patch. Fe-males are drab brown with a small whitepatch behind the eye. Buffleheads are easilydistinguished from goldeneyes by theirsmaller size and the location of the whitepatch behind the eye rather than in front.

Habitat

Poplar or aspen trees within a few hundredmetres of small and permanent freshwaterwetlands are ideal nesting habitat. Larger,more open water is avoided until moult-ing. Once the breeding and moulting arecomplete, buffleheads will migrate to thewintering grounds on either coastal orinland ice-free waters. On the coast, theyuse shallow, secluded coves, harbours andestuaries. They avoid open coastlines anddeep water, while inland, buffleheadsselect shallow wetlands, lakes, reservoirs

Bucephala albeola

45


petit garrot

and even slow-moving rivers that remainice-free.


Buffleheads forage by diving in sheltered,shallow water for aquatic invertebrates.Only the downy young will, at times, dab-ble at the surface. Buffleheads feed in openwater or along the edge of emergent vege-tation, preferring not to dive through anykind of dense vegetation. They commonlyremain under water for 15 to 25 secondswith pauses of five to 10 seconds betweendives.

Buffleheads often dive in groups, leavingjust one or two individuals at the surface,seemingly to watch for danger. Inverte-brates such as dragonflies, water boatmen,mayfly nymphs and midge larvae domi-nate the bufflehead’s diet. Buffleheadsconsume seeds of pondweeds and bul-rushes in lesser amounts. For buffleheadswintering in marine areas, crustaceans,mollusks, pondweed and some fish cons-titute the diet.

Breeding

Buffleheads form pair bonds when theyreach sexual maturity at about two yearsof age. During courtship, the male per-forms an elaborate series of displaysincluding a “dance” whereby he swimswith his bill up, neck stretched out, andhead puffed up to twice its normal size,showing off his white head patch. Hethen stands almost erect with his bill heldagainst his swollen breast. Appearingexhausted but still eager, he then quicklydives under the female to complete theact. Throughout, there is much head-bobbing and body movement.

Buffleheads nest exclusively in tree cavities or nest boxes. The most commonsource of natural cavities is abandonednorthern flicker holes. Buffleheads can

squeeze through holes as small as 58millimetres in diameter. Their small sizeeliminates competition with most othercavity nesters such as the common gold-eneye; however, starlings and flickers stillcompete with the bufflehead for cavities.If a female nests successfully, she willoften return to the same tree the follow-ing year.

Nests are initiated between early andmid-May. Females lay between six and 11eggs and incubate them for 28 to 33 days.Once the eggs hatch, the ducklings spend24 to 36 hours in the nest before leapingto the ground to begin the trek to water.

The bufflehead has a relatively highnest success; however, competition fornesting cavities can be fierce. If the fe-male is driven off the nest by an intrudershe may abandon it altogether, resultingin failure. When ducklings are 35 to 42days old, the female abandons them,often before their first flight, which doesnot occur until about 50 to 55 days. Theducklings will continue to forage and gainstrength until they are able to migrate tothe staging grounds themselves.


Buffleheads congregate in large flocks

during moulting and staging periods.DUC staff have observed several flocks of more than 500 individuals at moultingand staging areas in the boreal forest,including a single flock of 15,000 birdsthat was once observed on Utikuma Lakein north-central Alberta. Their migrationfrom these staging areas to the winteringgrounds begins in late October. Buffle-heads migrate in small flocks, but some-times gather into groups of 500 to 1,000in wintering areas.

46


The current guide-lines for riparian zone buffers are often too narrow tosustain buffleheadpopulations.

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The name ‘bufflehead’ is

an abbreviated version of

the original ‘buffalo head’,

so named for the dispro-

portionately large head of

the male. Estimates indicate

that about 65 per cent of

the buffleheads counted

on spring surveys were

counted in the western

boreal forest.

he canvasback, often considered the “aristocrat of ducks,” is

one of the larger diving ducks endemic to North America. Canvasbacks

breed primarily in the prairies, parklands and boreal forests of western

Canada and Alaska, and the northernmost United States. Because of their

specific nesting and foraging requirements, they are considered to be an ecological special-

ist, dependent on deep, stable wetlands. Many boreal wetlands make ideal breeding and

Canvasbackmoulting habitat. Since the 1980s, anaverage of about 35 per cent of canvas-backs counted on spring surveys in thetraditional survey area were spotted inthe boreal forest. Canvasbacks banded inthe boreal forest have been recovered inthe fall and winter along the Pacific andAtlantic coasts of the United States, aswell as down the central and Mississippiflyways as far south as the Gulf coast (seetable, page 38).

Canvasbacks are readily identifiable bytheir striking profile. Their sloping fore-head angles directly into their long blackbill, creating a sharp and triangular headprofile. The male’s head and neck are

Aythya valisineria

47


fuligule à dos blanc

TBecause of their specific nesting andforaging requirements,canvasbacks are con-sidered to be an eco-logical specialist.

chestnut-coloured, his chest is black andhis back is white. The female has a similardistinctive profile to the male but has alight brown breast and greyish sides.

Habitat

Canvasbacks breed in small freshwaterlakes, deep water marshes, sheltered bays,permanent and semi-permanent wetlandsand shallow river impoundments. Pre-ferred wetlands vary in size and are bor-dered by a variety of dense emergentvegetation, including cattails, rushes andgrasses.

During the rearing/moulting period,females and their broods move to nearbylakes. Males, on the other hand, leave thebreeding grounds for moulting areas thatare located on northerly lakes, many ofwhich are in the boreal forest. During falland spring migration, canvasbacks makefrequent stopovers in coastal marine andfreshwater habitats, including estuaries,brackish marshes, saltwater lagoons, slow-moving rivers and flooded fields. Thepreferred wintering habitat of this speciesincludes deep freshwater lakes, coastalbrackish estuaries and shallow bays andharbours.


During moulting and migration, canvas-backs forage in loose groups of varioussizes; groups of more than 1,000 duckshave been seen feeding together duringfall migration. Canvasbacks feed on bothplant matter and aquatic insects. Adaptedfor diving, individuals dive half a metreto nine metres below the water’s surfaceand probe the bottom substrate with theirlong narrow bill, in an attempt to excavatefood items such as pondweed tubers, clamsand snails. They also feed on aquatic in-sects such as damselflies, dragonflies andmayfly nymphs.

Breeding

Mate selection is initiated by females,who perform a courtship display calledinciting, where they alternate betweentwo postures: a lowered head while main-taining a threatening demeanour towardsthe males, and a neck stretch display.Mate selection is completed when the chosen male and female exchange mutualneck stretches while chasing other malesaway.

Nest site selection is a paired effort,while nest building is the responsibility of the female. Nests are usually locatedover the water in cattails, bulrushes orsedges and are constructed of the samevegetation. Female canvasbacks lay sevento 10 greyish-olive eggs and incubationlasts about 27 days. Within 24 hours ofhatching, the ducklings leave the nest,and at about 63 days, they fledge.

Canvasback nests are subject to eggparasitism, where other species of water-fowl lay eggs in the host’s nest. The mostcommon species to parasitize canvasbacknests is the redhead, with individuals bullying females off their nests and dep-ositing their own eggs. Canvasback duck-lings in broods with parasitic redheadducklings have a lower survival rate forthe first week after hatching than canvas-back broods that include redhead young.


Fall migration for canvasbacks occursfrom mid-October to November. Femalesand juveniles migrate earlier than males,as males undergo a moult migration toboreal wetlands and aspen parklands incentral and western Canada. Surveys conducted in August and September byDUC have located numerous flocks ofmoulting males, sometimes up to 2,000individuals, on various boreal wetlands.Canvasbacks winter from the PacificNorthwest, south along the Pacific coastto the Baja peninsula and east across thesouthern half of the U.S. to the Atlanticcoast.

48


Surveys have located numerousflocks of moultingmales, sometimes upto 2,000 individuals, on various boreal wetlands.

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Canvasback nest site

selection is a paired effort,

while construction is the

responsibility of the female.

Nests are usually located

over the water in cattails,

bulrushes or sedges.

ommon goldeneyes are also referred to as “whistlers” because

of the sound their wings make during flight. These medium-sized

diving ducks breed throughout the boreal forest. Except for breeding

males, both sexes are difficult to discern from the Barrow’s goldeneye.

Body size, shape of the bill and head, and breeding plumage are the main distinguishing

characteristics. The breeding male has a greenish-black head with an oval white patch

between its yellow eye and black bill (the Barrow’s goldeneye patch is crescent-shaped).

Common Goldeneye

CHe has white sides, breast, belly and sec-ondaries, which contrast sharply againstthe black wings and tail. Females aresmaller, with brown heads, grey backsand tails and white bellies, yellow eyesand bills tipped yellow in the breedingseason. Immature males resemble females.

Habitat

The common goldeneye nests in tree cav-ities or artificial nest boxes, most oftennear wetlands, lakes and rivers, but some-times even up to one kilometre away

Bucephala clangula

49


garrot à œil d’or

Common goldeneyesare one of the lastwaterfowl species to leave the breedinggrounds and the first to return.

from the nearest water. Goldeneyes areincapable of making their own nest cav-ities, so they are dependent on naturalevents and other species such as wood-peckers to create cavities for them.

Preferred wetlands are small and open,with high invertebrate populations, littleemergent vegetation, and an absence offish. During migration, they stop brieflyon large inland lakes and rivers to feed.Common goldeneyes winter in shelteredcoastal bays, estuaries and harbours, andoccasionally on large inland ice-free lakesand rivers.


The common goldeneye normally feedsby diving and occasional dabbling alongshallow shorelines. These expert diversuse their feet for underwater propulsionand tails for steering. Their diet is depen-dent on their location in fresh or saltwater, and is made up of crustaceans (e.g.crabs, shrimp), aquatic invertebrates (e.g.caddis fly larvae, dragonflies), mollusks(mussels and snails), and smaller amountsof vegetation like pondweed and bulrush,as well as fish and fish eggs.

Breeding

The common goldeneye breeds in forestedregions from the Maritimes to Alaska.The majority breed in the boreal forest,though sizable populations also occuraround the Great Lakes, in aspen park-lands and in montane forests. The south-ern breeding extent is the northern statesalong the U.S.-Canada border.

Common goldeneyes form pair bondson their wintering grounds. Males per-form spectacular and complex courtshipdisplays, including 14 distinct behaviours.These courtship rituals are usually per-formed in groups of four males to everyfemale – and displays include throwing

the head back, kicking the water andcalling. Once paired, the male tends tothe female, driving away other males,until she departs for the breeding groundswith him in tow.

Males perform elaborate territorial displays and defenses during the breedingseason including migration. The maleguards his mate while she lays seven to 10 eggs, but abandons her soon after theclutch is completed. Common goldeneyefemales often “dump” their eggs in otherfemales’ temporarily unattended nests.Female goldeneyes can also be victims ofnest dumping and may end up raising theyoung of several species. The incubationperiod is approximately 30 days. Able tofeed themselves as soon as they hatch,young may jump from the nest withintwo days of hatching. Females protectthe young for a period of time, but typi-cally abandon them before they can fly,sometimes even as a result of a territorialdispute with other females. Broods willfrequently merge after being abandonedby females. Only about a third of com-mon goldeneye ducklings will survive tofledge.


Common goldeneyes are one of the lastwaterfowl species to leave the breedinggrounds and the first to return. They

migrate in small flocks, congregating atsuitable stopover points, especially inspring when ice-free locations are limited.All populations are migratory, even wherethey occur year-round, but individualsmay only migrate as far as necessary tofind open water. During moulting and fall staging periods, common goldeneyeshave been observed in flocks of up to 500on several boreal wetlands. Many of thebirds banded throughout the boreal foresthave been recovered in the northwesternU.S., California, the Great Lakes area andthe eastern seaboard during the winter(figure 4). Common goldeneyes also win-ter inland across southern Canada, theU.S. and northern Mexico.

50


Figure 4: Banding and recovery sites – common

goldeneye (1,742 banded; 157 recovered)

During moulting and fall staging periods, commongoldeneyes have been observed inflocks of up to 500 on several boreal wetlands.

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ommon mergansers are fish-eating sea ducks that breed in

the world’s boreal forests. In North America, most breed in the boreal

zone from Newfoundland to Alaska, yet their range extends south into

British Columbia and the Great Plains as well. During the spring

breeding population survey conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Can-

adian Wildlife Service, estimates for all three species of mergansers (common, hooded

and red-breasted) are combined since distinguishing between these species at a distance

Common Merganser

is difficult. Furthermore, most of theirbreeding range is not covered by the trad-itional survey area, and therefore thecommon mergansers breeding populationis not well known. However, total pop-ulation is estimated between 600,000 andone million birds. Common mergansersnest in tree cavities formed by brokentree-limbs or by pileated woodpeckers,most often in mature stands. Their win-tering grounds include coastal areas ofCanada and the northern United States,as well as lakes, rivers and reservoirs ofthe interior U.S. and Mexico.

The common merganser is a large,handsome bird. In his breeding plumage,the adult male has an iridescent greenish-black head, a white neck, side and belly,and contrasting black wings with whitesecondaries, speculum and upper coverts.His larger size, white breast and sides,and the lack of a crest on his head distin-guish him from the closely related red-

breasted merganser. The adult female has a brownish-red crested head – distinctlycontrasting her white chin patch –and greyish sides, breast andback. She also has a whitebelly, and wings similar tothose of the male but with greyupper coverts. Both sexes havean orange bill and dark browneyes. When males are ineclipse plumage in themiddle of summer, theyclosely resemble females.

The common mer-ganser’s flight is fast,although their takeoff is not swift because theyrequire a running startacross water to obtainflight. Their profile inflight is long and pointed,and when in the water theyappear to sit low. They are

Mergus merganser americanus

5 1

grand harle

C

excellent divers and can stay submergedfor up to two minutes, diving to a maxi-mum depth of six metres.

Habitat

Common mergansers prefer to breed andnest on large lakes and rivers in maturemixed wood and coniferous forests ofboreal Canada. The dense forest providesan area with few disturbances and ampletree cavities for nesting. Brood-rearingtypically takes place on moving waterleading to larger lakes, bays and rivers.Depending on the location, coastal waters,estuaries, large lakes, rivers and reservoirsare used as stopovers during migrationand also as more permanent winteringgrounds throughout the United States.


The common merganser’s diet consistsmainly of small fish captured underwaterusing its serrated bill. They are generalistfeeders, meaning rather than preferringcertain species of fish, they feed on what-ever suitably sized fish is most readilyavailable. They also feed on crustaceans,aquatic insects, amphibians, small mam-mals and plants. Broods initially feed onaquatic invertebrates such as caddisflies,dragonflies and backswimmers, but switchto fish about two weeks after hatching.The common merganser is an excellentunderwater hunter and will visually pur-sue prey using their superior underwatervision and diving skills. They use onlytheir feet for propulsion. Large groups of mergansers have been observed coop-eratively hunting by forming a loose lineand pushing their prey ahead of them.

Breeding

Common mergansers do not attempt tobreed until their second year. Pair bonds

are formed on the wintering grounds, andthe birds arrive at the breeding grounds in pairs within larger flocks. The femalegenerally begins to lay eggs two weeksafter her arrival in April or May. Thefemale chooses the nest site, often in anexisting tree cavity, but sometimes in arock crevice, an exposed tree root, a holein a bank or even in a nest box. Malesremain with the females for about twoweeks, then leave to moult on largerbasins. The clutch of nine to 12 eggs isincubated for approximately 32 daysbefore hatching. Nest success is highbecause their cavity nests are fairly in-accessible to predators. Ducklings answerthe hen’s call one or two days after hatch,and jump from the nest to the water orthe ground outside the cavity. Young fly at approximately 63 to 77 days.


Common mergansers are among the ear-liest spring migrants and are among thelast to migrate again in the fall. They useall four flyways and typically fly at nightin small groups (three to nine individuals),but may also form large flocks on stop-overs. Common mergansers winter on

open water as far north as possible. Al-though they use saltwater basins, they aremuch more abundant on freshwater. Eachyear they spend about four months on thewintering grounds, two months in migra-tion and six months on the breeding andmoulting grounds.

52


Degradation of the common merganser’s breeding and wintering grounds is a continual conservation concern.

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(2)

Common mergansers

prefer to breed and nest

on large lakes and rivers in

mature mixed wood and

coniferous forests of boreal

Canada. The dense forest

provides an area with few

disturbances and ample

tree cavities for nesting.

he gadwall is perhaps the most discreetly dressed dabbling

duck known to breed in Canada’s boreal forest. Like the boreal forest itself,

the gadwall’s charm lies in its subtle beauty and hardy persistence across

the landscape, not in bright colouration or bold habits. Although several

other waterfowl species have declined in recent decades, the gadwall has increased and

expanded its range. The gadwall breeds from New Mexico to the Yukon and Northwest

Territories, and from B.C. to Québec – with increased sightings in New Brunswick and

Gadwall

Nova Scotia. The gadwall’s winteringrange includes reservoirs and wetlandsthroughout the southern United Statesand Mexico as well as coastal estuariesalong both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts.

Unlike its close relatives the mallardand the American wigeon, the gadwallmale is distinguished not by brilliantsplashes of colour, but by a tweed-likepattern of woven grey back feathers, amottled brown head and brown, blackand white wing patches. Females areidentified mainly by their white belliesand similar black and white wing patches.

Both sexes have steep foreheads, narrow,greyish-black bills and yellow legs.

Habitat

Most gadwalls in North America (theyoccur in Eurasia as well) breed across themixed prairies of the Dakotas, Manitoba,Saskatchewan and Alberta, however rela-tively high densities also occur in theprairie parklands. In the boreal forest,the Saskatchewan River Delta and PeaceAthabasca River Delta provide suitablebreeding, moulting and staging habitat.

Anas strepera

53


canard chipeau

T

Gadwalls are famous for finding islandgetaways on which to nest. They preferalkaline lakes to fresh water and seek outlakes with abundant submerged vege-tation. Once a wetland is selected, thefemale gadwall chooses the nest site andbuilds the nest, usually well hidden ingrassy or brushy vegetation.

During the spring migration, gadwallstypically use smaller wetlands as stopoverhabitat, and during fall migration theytarget larger, more permanent marshesand reservoirs. Once on their winteringgrounds, gadwalls use a variety of wetlandtypes (e.g. reservoirs, wetlands, fresh andbrackish marshes).


Gadwalls feed by dabbling on the surfacefor submerged plants, and only occasion-ally dive for food. They eat leaves andstems of aquatic plants like pondweed,widgeon grass, millet and smartweed andalso consume seeds, algae, insects andcrustaceans when available. The young eatsurface invertebrates during their first fewdays on the pond until they learn to dabblefor plants.

Breeding

Courtship displays that lead to pair bondsare initiated during the winter monthsand most pairs are formed by November.Despite the early pair establishment, gad-walls are one of the last ducks to arriveon the breeding grounds. The majorityof pairs arrive by early April, but they donot begin nesting until late May or earlyJune. The pair remains together until thefemale has completed her clutch in earlyJune when the male abandons her andjoins other males and non-breeders tomoult on larger lakes in the region.

Females lay an average of 10 creamywhite eggs in a shallow nest built of

twigs, leaves and branches. Incubationaverages 26 days, and the female will siton the nest for 85 per cent of each day.Gadwalls rear only a single brood eachsummer; however, if a nest fails early inincubation, they will often make anotherattempt. Soon after the eggs hatch, thefemale leads her ducklings to a nearbywetland. The young are precocial, andfind their own food. Females defend theirbroods and territories from other broods,pairs and lone birds, and ducklings beginto fly at between 48 and 52 days of age –and are not abandoned by their mothersuntil about 70 days post hatching. Afterabandonment, juveniles fly to larger wet-lands to join moulting adults before themigration south. Sexual maturity occursat age one; however, yearling breedersexperience lower nest success rates thanolder, more experienced ducks.


By mid-September, gadwalls begin fallmigration from the prairies, parklandsand boreal forests of Canada to theirwintering grounds in the south. Mostmigrants fly south over the Great Basinstates, down the Mississippi Valley andinto the saltwater and brackish marshes of the Gulf coast. Gadwalls from westernCanada may also fly southwest to thePacific coast or to inland marshes of the

western states. Those breeding furthereast fly to the coastal marshes of theAtlantic states. Gadwalls banded in theboreal forest have been recovered in 14states and three provinces (see table, page38), with the most being recovered inLouisiana. Gadwalls migrate at night inflocks of less than a hundred individuals.By mid- to late October most of themhave arrived safely at the winteringgrounds.

54


Like the boreal forest itself, the gadwall’s charm lies in its subtle beauty and hardy persistence across the landscape.

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Although several other waterfowl species

have declined in recent decades, the gadwall

has increased and expanded its range.

f all the bay ducks, a grouping which also includes the ring-

necked duck, lesser scaup, canvasback and redhead, the greater scaup

is the only one to have an entirely circumpolar distribution. Though

primarily a tundra nesting species, breeding populations of greater

scaup are also found in Canada’s boreal forest, including in the Mackenzie River Delta,

Great Slave Lake, Lake Winnipeg and Labrador’s Ungava Peninsula. These areas and

other large boreal wetland systems also serve as critical stopover habitat during long,

Greater Scaup

cross-continental migrations. Greaterscaup banded in the boreal forest havebeen recovered in eight states and twoprovinces (see table, page 38). These recov-eries suggest greater scaup migrate laterallyacross the continent. In 2005, the com-bined breeding population for greater andlesser scaup was estimated at 3.8 million,which is about 35 per cent below thelong-term average.

The greater scaup closely resembles thelesser scaup and even a trained eye hasdifficulty distinguishing between the twospecies at a distance. For this reason, bothscaup species are counted as “generic”scaup during aerial surveys. There are,however, subtle differences. The greater

Aythya marila

55


fuligule milouinan

O

In 2005, the com-bined population forgreater and lesserscaup was estimatedat 3.8 million, about35 per cent below thelong-term average.

scaup is slightly larger and the male’s headis rounder and tinted green, not purplelike the lesser scaup. Both sexes have alonger, wider bill and white wing patchesthat extend further into the primaryfeathers. Lesser and greater scuap femalesboth have a white patch at the base oftheir bill and are otherwise brown. Theonly unique feature is the barely discern-able light auricular patch that the greaterscaup has in the summer.

Habitat

Greater scaup use an assortment of fresh-water and marine wetlands throughoutthe year. During the breeding season,they use shallow lakes and wetlands withlittle or no flowing water. Submergentand emergent vegetation in these areasprovide excellent protection and conceal-ment, as well as abundant aquatic inver-tebrates as a food source. Greater scaupmove to large shallow lakes to moult.These areas may be located near, or hun-dreds of kilometres away from, the breed-ing grounds. During winter they inhabitmarine bays or river inlets where silt andsand substrates support high densities ofmollusks and crustaceans.


The diet of the greater scaup often variesdepending on time of year and the avail-ability of food resources. They consumesnails, crustaceans, aquatic insects, seedsand parts of aquatic plants, though clamsmake up the majority of their diet. Theintroduced zebra mussels have become animportant food source for migrants whostop to feed or even overwinter on theGreat Lakes. Their main foraging strategyis to dive, usually in water less than twometres deep. During summer, the femaleand ducklings feed on submerged andemergent vegetation along the shoreline.

In marine habitats, foraging takes place inthe intertidal zones where silty or sandybottoms host rich clam beds.

Breeding

The majority of adult greater scaup (twoyears old or older) establish pair bonds onthe wintering grounds in February andMarch. Most birds are paired before theyreach the breeding grounds in mid-May.Yearlings typically do not breed.

Nest initiation begins in late May toearly June. The female selects a nest sitein tall vegetation in an area safe fromflooding. Nests are usually less than onemetre from the water’s edge but havebeen found up to 40 metres from water.Females typically lay one olive-grey orbuff-coloured egg per day for nine daysuntil the clutch is complete. Males andnon-breeders leave for traditional moult-ing areas like Great Slave Lake and LakeAthabasca when females begin incubationin late June. Females then incubate theirclutches for 25 days before the eggs hatchand the young can be led to water. Duck-lings feed on insects until they are able tofly (about 57 days).


Greater scaup in Alaska and northernCanada leave their moulting area anytimebetween mid-September and late Oct-ober. They arrive at their wintering areasalong the Atlantic and Pacific coastlinesor the Great Lakes, anywhere from lateOctober through to mid-January. Surveysflown in January show that about 60 percent of the population winters on theAtlantic coast, 20 per cent along thePacific coast and the rest in the interior.

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Large boreal wetlandsystems serve as critical stopover habitat for greaterscaup during long,cross-continental migrations.

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The greater scaup closely

resembles the more com-

mon lesser scaup. However,

the greater scaup is slightly

larger and the male’s head

is rounder and tinted green,

not purple – like the lesser

scaup.

he green-winged teal (a.k.a. greenwing) is the namesake

and symbol for Ducks Unlimited’s youth membership program. This little

dabbler is one of the smallest and fastest ducks, and with a fondness for

hiding in emergent vegetation can be very difficult to spot. Consequently,

it is one of the most underestimated ducks on aerial surveys. Approximately the size of a

pigeon and with a wingbeat almost as fast as a diving duck’s, the greenwing darts around

like a shorebird at speeds over 70 km/h, with an entire flock moving cohesively together.

Green-winged Teal

Predominantly a boreal forest and park-land breeder, the green-winged teal breedsin every Canadian province and territoryand across several northern U.S. states.Numerous greenwing broods have beenseen throughout the boreal forest duringaerial surveys conducted by DUC, andgreenwings banded in Canada’s borealforest have been recovered throughouttheir range. Green-winged teals comesecond only to the mallard in annual harvests, so it is critical to ensure conser-vation programs are in place to providenecessary habitat for this and other species.

Anas crecca

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sarcelle d’hiver

TGreen-winged tealsare a substantialcomponent of theducks breeding inCanada’s boreal for-est and the borealtransition zone.

Male green-winged teal have a darkgrey body with a russet head, and a largedark green eye patch extending to thenape. Females are light mottled brownwith a dark eye line characteristic of alldabbler females. When breeding, bothsexes have a white belly that is conspic-uous in flight and a vibrant dark greenspeculum with buff borders, often theonly obvious colour visible.

Habitat

Green-winged teal are unlike many otherdabblers in North America in that theyprefer wooded ponds to prairie potholes.They are a substantial component of theducks breeding in Canada’s boreal forestand the boreal transition zone. Green-wings will often occupy beaver ponds andflowages for breeding and brood rearing,but can also be found in deciduous wood-ed ponds surrounded by grassy uplandareas. During spring and fall migration,greenwings tend to choose shallow inlandwetlands with abundant floating andemergent vegetation, but also use tidalmud flats more often than any otherduck. Wintering greenwings will usefreshwater shallow marshes and ripariansloughs, but can also be found in salt-water estuaries and agricultural areas.


The green-winged teal’s diet is diverse,and varies according to what is mostabundant at the time. The fall diet con-sists mainly of vegetation, the seeds ofgrasses, sedge and emergent vegetation,as well as the occasional agricultural crop.During the breeding season, greenwingsrely more selectively on animal matter like aquatic insects, larvae, mollusks, crus-taceans and sometimes fish eggs. A truedabbler, greenwings feed by tipping upwith their head under the surface of the

water or collecting seeds and insects byskimming the water with their bill. Morethan any other duck, greenwings feedalong mud flats, foraging for seeds, insectsand mollusks.

Breeding

Greenwings form pair bonds relativelylate in the season compared to the otherdabbling ducks, often not until late Jan-uary or even as late as March. After anelaborate sequence of displays by themale, the female shows her approval byperforming her own inciting display. Likemost other ducks, once the pair is readyto mate they perform reciprocated headpumping, then copulate on the water.Although they break the pair bond eachyear, greenwings are largely monogamousduring the breeding season.

Nesting females often choose a nest sitewell concealed with thick brush, sedge orgrasses. The female scrapes out a bowl onthe ground to construct her nest, usingsurrounding grasses, twigs and leaves, aswell as body feathers to aid in keeping theeggs warm, dry and concealed. The sur-rounding vegetation forms a type ofcanopy, concealing the nest from pred-ators. In most cases, a female will lay one

egg per day until the clutch is complete ateight to 10 eggs. Shortly after incubationbegins, the male abandons his mate andbegins to moult. During this process, hesheds his breeding plumage and becomesdrab like the females. He remains flight-less like this for several weeks, until hisflight feathers grow in again in prepara-tion for fall migration. Meanwhile, thefemale incubates her eggs for approxi-mately 21 days, beginning after the lastegg is laid. Once her eggs have hatched,she leads the brood to water within thefirst day, where the precocial young willbe reared.


Like many dabblers, green-winged tealsleave their northern breeding grounds inlate August and early September to travelto their wintering grounds, which areequally vast. Greenwings migrate at nightin large flocks of up to a few hundredindividuals. They do not demonstrate loyalty to a given wintering area; for ex-ample, individuals found wintering inTexas one year have been found as faraway as California the next year.

58


Figure 5: Banding and recovery sites – green-winged

teal (33,251 banded; 2,350 recovered)

Predominantly a boreal and parklandbreeder, the green-winged teal breeds in every province andterritory and severalnorthern states.

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he harlequin duck is a small, relatively scarce sea duck with

two distinct populations in North America: the Pacific and the eastern

North American – with both using the boreal forest. The Pacific population

frequents the boreal forest in the Yukon, and the southwest regions of the

Northwest Territories and Alaska. Outside of the boreal forest, they are found in British

Columbia, Montana, Alberta, Washington and northern California. This population is

estimated at nearly one million birds and is considered to be healthy. By contrast, the

Harlequin Duck

eastern North American population hasabout 1,800 individuals and is listed bythe Canadian Wildlife Service as a speciesof special concern. Birds in this populationare found in Labrador, Newfoundland,along the Gulf of St. Lawrence and thenortheastern Atlantic Coast.

The male harlequin is one of the mostcolourful ducks in North America. Breed-ing males are a slate blue with chestnutflanks and white patches on the head andbody. Females are distinguished by brownchests, three white spots on the head andlack of white patch on the wing.

Histrionicus histrionicus

59


arlequin plongeur

TThe eastern NorthAmerican populationis listed by the Can-adian Wildlife Serviceas a species of special concern.

Habitat

The harlequin duck uses both coastal andinland locations, particularly undisturbedparts of the boreal forest, montane andtundra habitats. Inland breeding habitatsare usually fast-flowing streams, surroun-ded by forests or patches of willow oralder, while preferred coastal winteringhabitats are usually ice-free and exposedledges. Harlequins also show a liking oflarge reef systems, which provide relieffrom predators and human disturbances.


The diet of the harlequin duck is mainly a seafood buffet of crustaceans, mollusks,insects and fish. Predominantly a diver,the harlequin duck can submerge three to five feet in swift currents. This duck,however, has also been known to dabbleand skim the surface of water for food,or pick insects from overhanging branches.

Breeding

The harlequin duck begins to form pairbonds on the wintering grounds. Themale attempts to attract a female by rush-ing her and performing a courtship dis-play. The courting female will returnhead-nods to the most suitable suitor.Once pair bonds are formed, the duoleaves for the breeding grounds, arrivingin late April or early May. Upon arrival,the female scouts for nest sites by walk-ing along the shoreline inspecting rockcrevices and vegetation. When she finds a suitable nest site, the female beginsconstructing the nest using surroundingvegetation. The female harlequin laysthree to eight creamy buff-coloured eggs.After incubating them for 27 to 30 days,the female leads her newly hatched youngto the water to be reared. By 40 to 50days old, the young are able to fly.


Fall migration consists of lateral move-ments from the inland breeding groundsto adjacent coastal areas. For males, fallmigration begins in late June or early Julywhen they leave the incubating females.Western birds move to moulting areas incoastal British Columbia and the south-ern coast of Alaska. The majority willthen head to the Strait of Georgia alongVancouver Island, while others continuefurther south to the Washington, Oregonand northern Californian coasts. In theeast, two demographically distinct pop-ulations have been identified. Birds thatbreed in southern Québec and Labradormove to moulting areas in northeastern

Labrador and Newfoundland beforeheading south along the coast to theMaritime provinces and the northeasternU.S. coast. Harlequins breeding in north-ern Québec and Labrador moult in areason the southwest coast of Greenland.Females moult in the same locations asthe males, but usually four to eight weeks later.

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The harlequin duck uses both coastal and inlandlocations, particularlyundisturbed parts ofthe boreal forest, montane and tundra habitats.

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Inland breeding habitats

of harlequin ducks usually

consist of fast-flowing

streams, surrounded by

forests or patches of willow

or alder, while preferred

coastal wintering habitats

are usually ice-free and

exposed ledges.

ooded mergansers are one of the most secretive ducks in

North America. Highly wary of humans and human activity, less

is known about their breeding and brood-rearing habits than most

ducks. There are two populations of hooded mergansers, the west-

ern – which breeds in central British Columbia – and the eastern that reaches its highest

densities from the boreal forest of central Ontario and Québec to the forest of Minnesota.

A large portion of its breeding range is in the boreal forest.

Hooded Merganser

During the spring breeding populationsurvey conducted by the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service and Canadian WildlifeService, estimates for all three species ofmergansers (common, hooded and red-breasted) are combined since distinguish-ing between these species at a distance is difficult. Furthermore, most of theirbreeding range is not covered by thetraditional survey area. Therefore, thehooded mergansers breeding population is not well documented; however, a crudeestimate of the total population is bet-ween 300,000 and 600,000 birds.

The male hooded merganser is distinc-tive in his breeding plumage, which hedoes not reach until his second breedingseason. When raised, the crest shows alarge white patch bordered in black; andwhen depressed, it shows a broad whitestripe with a black edge. The eyes are yellow, and his buffy sides have two blackvertical stripes alongside a white chest.Female and immature male hooded mer-gansers have backward-slanting crests ontheir russet-brown heads, and are darkgrey overall. The smallest of the threemergansers, this species has a thin, ser-

Lophodytes cucullatus

61


harle couronné

H

rated bill, long tail and narrow wings, andrides so low in the water that often littleis visible other than the head. They flywith very rapid wingbeats, which are soshallow that they often appear to be fly-ing with only their wingtips.

Habitat

During the breeding season, hooded mer-gansers are most often found in denselywooded streams or small wetlands, wherethere is little human disturbance or activity.Older forests are preferred for the highernumber of tree cavities available for nest-ing. Brood rearing takes place in a widevariety of habitats, like emergent marshes,small lakes, beaver ponds and forestedcreeks and rivers, with a preference forstreams with cobbled bottoms. Winteringhooded mergansers use shallow freshwaterand brackish bays, estuaries, tidal creeksand ponds, as well as emergent marshes,wetlands, rivers and creeks.


The hooded merganser’s diet consistsmainly of small fishes, crustaceans, aquaticinsects and amphibians. With superiorunderwater vision and a bill designed tograsp and handle moving prey, the hood-ed merganser is an excellent underwaterhunter. It uses its feet for propulsionunder water, completing multiple dives in search of food. Broods tend to feed inshallow water with low turbidity, prefer-ring crustaceans, amphibians and insectlarvae.

Breeding

Hooded mergansers arrive on the breed-ing grounds in early spring, with femalesdemonstrating strong homing back totheir previous nesting areas. Pairingbegins on the wintering grounds, where

the male performs elaborate courtshipdisplays such as crest-raising (raising andlowering the crest), head throws – wherehe tosses his head back with his bill in the air – and a rapid head-pumpingaction. The female will respond by bob-bing and uttering a hoarse gaaaack. Themale will remain with the female untilincubation begins, at which time he willnormally fly north of the breedinggrounds to moult.

Hooded mergansers nest in tree cavitiesand they will also use man-made nestboxes. Cavities are usually close to water,and often have been prospected by thefemale the summer before. Nests are linedwith the material from inside the cavity,although the female will sometimes addvegetation. Down is not deposited untilthe last two or three eggs are laid. Hoodedmerganser eggs are creamy white andalmost spherical, with thick shells. Clutchsizes range from seven to 13 eggs, withone egg laid every second day. Some nestsare parasitized by other mergansers orwood duck females. Eggs are dumped inthe nest, resulting in larger clutches.

When the eggs hatch, ducklings remainin the nest for about 24 hours. The femalethen flies to the ground and calls for herbrood to join her. One by one, ducklings

ascend the cavity wall to the opening andleap to the water or ground. If they arenot already on a wetland, the female willlead them to nearby water so they canbegin to feed.


Hooded mergansers are not long-distancemigrants. Males and non-breeders, whichgo north to moult, leave for the winteringgrounds about the same time as the breed-ing females and immature birds usuallyjust ahead of the winter ice late in the fall.Most western breeding birds winter insouthern B.C. – or further south alongthe Pacific coast – while eastern breedingmergansers migrate to the southern U.S.

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Despite the threats,positive trends in population indicessuggest that, particularly in the eastern range, thisspecies is making a recovery.

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During the breeding

season, hooded mergan-

sers are most often found

in densely wooded streams

or small wetlands. They are

tree-nesters, but will also

use man-made nest boxes.

Nest sites have often been

prospected by the female

the summer before.

raditionally, lesser scaup (a.k.a. blue bill) have been one of the

most abundant ducks in North America; however, over the last 20 years,

the population has spiraled downward reaching an all time low of about

3.7 million birds in 2005. Distinguishing between the greater and lesser

scaup at a distance is difficult; thus, population estimates for the two species are com-

bined. Lesser scaup, however, make up the vast majority of the combined population.

While lesser scaup have declined throughout most of their breeding range, the steepest

decline has occurred in the western boreal forest. This wetland-rich region supports about

Lesser Scaup67 per cent (long-term average) of thescaup counted in the traditional surveyarea during the breeding population sur-vey as well as some of the highest breed-ing densities. Consequently, the westernboreal forest is recognized as one of themost important breeding and moultingareas. Furthermore, many biologistsbelieve the answer to the decline in lesserscaup populations lies in the boreal forestand as a result more and more research isbeing conducted there to investigate.

The breeding male lesser scaup sports ablack-purple glossed (and slightly peaked)head, a blue bill, a grey and white back,and a short white wing stripe. The drabbrown female has a white face patcharound her bill and a short white wingstripe.

Aythya affinis

63


petit fuligule

TMany biologistsbelieve the answer to the decline in lesser scaup pop-ulations lies in the boreal forest.

Habitat

During breeding, lesser scaup use semi-permanent and permanent wetlands inthe boreal forest and in the boreal trans-ition zone, and small seasonal and semi-permanent wetlands in the prairies andprairie-parkland regions. In the fall andwinter, they move to larger, more perm-anent wetlands such as lakes, rivers andestuaries. Typically, lesser scaup use wet-lands with large quantities of submergentand emergent vegetation – which areimportant for feeding, nesting and cover.


The lesser scaup diet demonstrates tem-poral and spatial variability. For much ofthe early breeding season, they feed onaquatic invertebrates like amphipods,midges, clams, snails and zebra mussels.Seeds from aquatic plants, such as the yellow pond lily, may dominate the dietduring the late summer and at othertimes of the year. The winter diet variesgeographically. For example, lesser scaupalong the Columbia River eat tremendousamounts of waterweed and pondweed,while scaup wintering in South Carolinaeat mostly mollusks. Lesser scaup makeshort dives for food. Food is taken eitherfrom the water column or by shovellingthrough soft bottom substrates. Mostfood is swallowed under water, but somelarger items are handled at the surface.

Breeding

Lesser scaup begin courtship in December,continue through spring migration, andare paired by the time they reach theirbreeding grounds. Although yearlingfemales can successfully breed, most donot until they are two or three years old.

Lesser scaup nest in dense cover onislands, uplands, floating mats of vege-

tation or in emergent vegetation. Theaverage clutch size is nine eggs and in-cubation lasts between 21 and 27 days.Once hatched, ducklings can walk, swimand dive almost immediately. Broodswill sometimes amalgamate, creatinglarge groups with many ducklings andoften more than one female. Ducklingsare able to fly at 47 days. Males deserttheir mates roughly midway throughincubation and form large post-breedingflocks.


Lesser scaup start moving north fromtheir wintering grounds in February.They arrive on their breeding groundsfrom late March to early June. Duringmoult migration, males, unsuccessfulfemales and non-breeders will migrate to large lakes or marsh complexes likeUtikuma Lake in Alberta, the Peace-Athabasca River Delta or the Saskatch-ewan River Delta to undergo their pri-mary feather moult. Numerous groups of several hundred – and some of up to6,000 scaup – have been observed byDUC staff on these and other borealwetlands during staging surveys. In thefall, lesser scaup are some of the lastducks to venture south. The main mig-ration route from boreal banding stationsto their southerly wintering areas is along

the Mississippi River, as indicated by thenumber of banded scaup recovered in thisregion (figure 6). They typically wait forice and snow to force them to migrate,moving only as far south as necessary.They begin arriving on their winteringgrounds in the southern U.S. and pointssouth in November. Wintering scaup areoften seen in large flocks numbering inthe thousands.

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Figure 6: Banding and recovery sites – lesser scaup

(15,834 banded; 1,300 recovered)

While lesser scauphave declinedthroughout most oftheir breeding range,the steepest declinehas occurred in thewestern boreal forest.

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he long-tailed duck, once known as the oldsquaw, is one of

Canada’s northernmost breeding diving ducks. Its breeding range includes

Canada’s Arctic, Subarctic and northern fringes of the boreal forest. Breed-

ing population surveys conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

only cover a small portion of the long-tailed ducks breeding range. However, in this trad-

itional survey area, about 55 per cent of the long-tailed ducks counted here since the 1990s

have been in the boreal forest with the rest largely being on the Alaska tundra.

Long-tailed Duck

Furthermore, the steepest sustaineddeclines have occurred in Canada’s west-ern boreal region where populations haddecreased by an estimated 3.4 per centannually from 1961 to 2005. Birds bandedin Canada’s boreal forest – from as farwest as the Yukon – have been recoveredby hunters on the Great Lakes and theAtlantic seaboard in the winter (see table,page 38). The boreal forest is critical inproviding breeding habitat, and also forproviding much needed stopover habitatduring migration.

Clangula hyemalis

65


harelde kakawi

TThe long-tailed duck,once known as theoldsquaw, is one ofCanada’s northern-most breeding diving ducks.

Males are easily identified by the verydistinct long black tails. During the win-ter and spring, the male’s head, back andbelly are white, but the chest, lower back,wings and neck are black. He has a greyeye patch and a black bill. During theother two plumage phases, the colour-ation is much duller. Though females donot have long tail feathers, they are easilyidentified by their black and white colour-ation and a grey eye patch. Long-tailedducks fly with an erratic pattern of shortwingbeats and side-to-side movements.They stretch their wings well down inflight but only slightly above the body onthe upstroke, making their flight distinct.

Habitat

Long-tailed ducks nest on islands as wellas on the open tundra and in the borealforest. In Alaska, long-tailed ducks preferdeep wetlands with submerged vegetationearly in the season, and shallow sedge orgrassy wetlands while breeding. Afterbreeding, they move to deeper wetlands,open lakes and coastal lagoons for moult-ing. During fall migration, long-tailedducks stop to rest and feed at marineestuaries and inlets. Inland stopover hab-itat has not been well documented forcross-continental migrants and requiresfurther investigation. Long-tailed ducksspend the winter on protected marinewaters, often over cobble or bedrockshelves, or on large ice-free interior lakes.


Depending on the time of year, the dietof the long-tailed duck can consist oflarvae, aquatic insects, crustaceans, mus-sels, herring spawn, clams, and fish eggsand small fish. They dive for food usingtheir feet for propulsion and their wingsto steer. Although long-tailed ducks gen-erally feed in water less than nine metres

deep, they can reach depths of up to 60metres – deeper than any other divingduck.

Breeding

The courtship begins on the winteringgrounds. Males court females using avariety of displays: bill tossing, lateralhead shaking, dipping the head and neckunder water, rear end and chest displaysand vocalizations. By spring most birdshave formed bonds and leave the winter-ing grounds together.

Nesting begins in late June. Femalessearch for suitable nest sites while malesremain on the lookout. After the first eggis laid, the female constructs the nest withsurrounding vegetation. The eggs are palegrey to olive in colour and the averageclutch size is seven. When the clutch iscomplete and the hen begins incubation,the male leaves for the sea to gather withother males and non-breeders to moult.

Incubation lasts about 26 days. Afterthe ducklings are dry (about 24 hours) thefemale leads them to a nearby wetland.Once on the water, brood amalgamationis common, and crèches of 32 ducklingswith just one attendant adult have beenobserved. Ducklings fledge at 35 to 40

days and usually fly to the sea to beginpreparing for migration.


On the east coast, long-tailed ducks beginspring migration in late March to earlyApril, but from the west coast or theGreat Lakes, they begin in late February.Males and non-breeders will migrate tomoulting areas in late June and femalesand fledglings in August. Winter migra-tion typically begins in October and thenpeaks in late November to early Decem-ber. Long-tailed ducks winter along all of Canada’s coasts as far south as thenorthernmost U.S., and as far north as southern coasts of Greenland.

66


The boreal forest iscritical in providingbreeding habitat, and also for providingmuch needed stop-over habitat duringmigration.

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Males are easily identified

by their distinct long black

tails. During the winter

and spring (left), the male’s

head, back and belly are

white, but the chest, lower

back, wings and neck are

black. Though females do

not have long tail feathers,

they are easily identified

by their black and white

colouration.

sk someone to name a type of duck, and many people will answer

readily: the mallard. Arguably the most identified and recog-

nizable duck in North America, the mallard is well

known for its colourful appearance and dis-

tinctive call. What few people recognize however, is that

Canada’s boreal forest is a prime breeding area for mallards,

second only to the prairie pothole region, which is based on breeding population surveys

Mallard

conducted by the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService. Since the 1960s, ten-year averagessuggest about 30 per cent of the mallardscounted in the traditional survey area arein the boreal forest. During drought yearson the prairies, many mallards are sus-pected to continue flying north to theboreal forest. Bands from birds banded in the Canada’s boreal forest have beenrecovered in almost every state, provinceand territory (figure 7).

With an iridescent green head, green-yellow bill, chestnut breast, curly blacktail feathers, violet-blue speculum andorange feet, the male mallard certainlystands out. The female is drab brown with a violet-blue speculum, orange feetand an orange and black bill. Like manydabbler females, she also has a dark eye-line. During the eclipse plumage, malesare virtually identical to females except for the yellowish-green bill of the male.

Habitat

The mallard occupies nearly everytype of habitat, from human alt-ered landscapes like city parksand golf courses to remote wetlands deep in the forest. Inthe boreal, mallards occupy veg-etated and productive wetlandswith open water. During mig-ration, they occupy flooded agri-cultural fields and shallow marshesand ponds. Even though mostmallards winter in the U.S. interior,large numbers do spend winters in coldenvironments like southern Canada andGreenland. These hardy birds require littlemore than a patch of open water and asecure supply of food to survive. As aresult, they are the most abundant duckobserved during Christmas Bird Countsin Canada.

Anas platyrhynchos

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As a member of the dabbling duck group,mallards feed by either ‘tipping up’ ordabbling along the surface. They have anopportunistic and generalized diet, dom-inated by animal foods – such as insectlarvae and aquatic invertebrates – duringthe breeding season and by seeds, aquaticvegetation and cereal crops during fallmigration and winter.

Breeding

Pairing begins as early as August and is 95per cent complete by the end of December.Males accompany their mates onto landwhile she selects a nesting site. Sites maybe several hundred metres away from thewater’s edge and are established in a vari-ety of habitat types. They construct thenest with vegetation. Mallards generallylay one egg per day – with an averageclutch size of nine. Before the femaleleaves the nest to forage, she covers hereggs with nest material to conceal andinsulate them.

During the egg-laying period, timespent on the nest increases with each egglaid. Incubation begins in earnest whenthe last egg is laid. Soon after the duck-lings have hatched, the female leads themto a nearby wetland. Renesting is fairlycommon following a predation event,though fewer eggs are laid the secondtime. Most males abandon their matesonce incubation begins. The males willrelocate to larger wetlands and gatherwith others to begin moulting. Femalesremain with their young until they areable to fly – usually at 52 to 60 days – andoften moult nearby on rearing wetlands.


Mallards are one of last of the dabblingducks to leave the breeding grounds in

the fall. They also have one of the longestfall migration seasons, running from latesummer to early winter. The MississippiFlyway is heavily used by mallards duringmigration, earning it the nickname of“The Mallard Flyway”.

Their winter range extends through parts of southern Canada and the conti-nental U.S., though wintering populationshave also been recorded as far north asNunavut, Yukon and the Northwest Ter-ritories. Along with pintails, mallards areamong the earliest spring migrants toarrive on the breeding grounds each year.

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Figure 7: Banding and recovery sites – mallard


Canada’s boreal forest is a prime breeding area for mallards, second only to the prairie pothole region.

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(2) Mallards occupy nearly

every type of habitat, from

human altered landscapes

like city parks and golf

courses to remote wetlands

deep in the forest. In the

boreal, mallards occupy

vegetated and productive

wetlands with open water.

he northern pintail is one of the most elegant ducks in North

America, not only for its beauty, but also its grace in flight. The pintail is

also one of the most widely distributed and recognizable ducks in North

America, breeding throughout the northern half of the continent. In 2005,

the pintail population was estimated at 2.56 million birds, 38 per cent below the long-term

average and 46 per cent below the North American Waterfowl Management Plan goal.

Since the 1960s, decadal averages suggest that about 20 per cent of the pintails counted

Northern Pintail

in the traditional survey area are in theboreal forest. Each year about 150,000pintails breed in the Mackenzie RiverDelta and Yukon’s Old Crow Flats. Morerecent information indicates that pintailsmarked with satellite transmitters duringthe winter in California, New Mexicoand Texas migrate to the boreal forestand points north. The number of pintailsbreeding in the boreal forest is even high-er when the Prairies are suffering fromdrought conditions since, like many otherducks that typically nest in the Prairies,they overfly this region to breed in the

Anas acuta

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canard pilet

TThe number of pintails breeding in the boreal forest is even higher whenthe Prairies are suffer-ing from droughtconditions.

boreal forest and elsewhere. Returns frompintails banded in the boreal forest indi-cate they use all four migration corridorsto travel to and from their winteringgrounds, further highlighting the need to ensure that boreal forest and otherhabitats are conserved to maintain thesepopulations.

Male and female pintails have a long,slender neck, tapered body, long narrowwings, blue-grey legs and a high posture.Breeding male pintails have a chocolatebrown head, grey back, white belly andneck stripe and long black tail feathers.The female is mottled brown, like mostother dabbler females, though a slendersilhouette makes her distinct. The male’sspeculum (wing patch) is a brownish-green, with buff below and white above,whereas the female has a dull brown orbronze speculum.

Habitat

Pintails use a variety of habitat acrosstheir extensive range. In the boreal forestand on the Arctic tundra, they use marsh-es and meadows with low, open sedgeand herbaceous growth. In the prairiepothole region, they use shallow temp-orary or semi-permanent wetlands withemergent vegetation and low uplandcover, with dry margins. During springand fall migration, pintails stage on largeopen lakes, reservoirs and saltwater estu-aries. Wintering pintails use a variety ofshallow wetlands, both freshwater andintertidal, as well as flooded agriculturallands and estuarine habitats.


Pintails feed by tipping up or dabblingalong the surface of the water. Their dietconsists of a wide variety of foods, whichis dependent on the time of year and geo-graphic area. While the seeds of pond-

weed, sedges and grasses make up a largeportion of their spring diet, females willswitch to eating more invertebrates duringthe breeding season to prepare for egglaying. In fall and winter, pintails feed onwheat, barley and rice primarily, but otherfoods are also consumed.

Breeding

Mate selection is largely completed beforespring migration begins. Because of thewell documented male promiscuity, how-ever pair bonds are considered to be weak.During the breeding season, mated malesattempt to copulate with many females.This behaviour is referred to as extra-paircopulations or forced copulation – andcan result in the male fathering multiplebroods in one season.

Along with mallards, pintails are one ofthe first ducks to arrive on the breedinggrounds. Pintails primarily nest in sparsecover (e.g. short grass prairie, grain stub-ble, sedges) but will also nest in winterwheat, buck brush and planted nestingcover. They will often nest as far as twokilometres from the nearest wetland.Females lay seven to 10 pale green toolive buff eggs in a nest constructed ofsurrounding vegetation and feathers, andincubation lasts about 23 days. Afterhatching, the female leads ducklings to a

nearby wetland to feed. If a nest or entirebrood is destroyed, birds will renest once;however, more than two attempts are rare.Young fledge at about 46 to 57 days.


Pintails begin migrating in February andarrive on their northern breeding groundsin May. They migrate north as fast as theretreating ice and snow allows them to.Pintails begin fall migration in Augustand arrive on their wintering grounds bylate November. Most winter in the Sac-ramento Valley or in the Gulf coast states,but some winter on the Aleutian Islandsand coastal B.C. During spring and fallmigration thousands of pintails use borealwetlands like those around Great SlaveLake and the Mackenzie Delta.

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Figure 8: Banding and recovery sites – northern

pintail (64,492 banded; 5,197 recovered)

Each year, about150,000 pintails breedin the Mackenzie RiverDelta and Yukon’s Old Crow Flats.

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Pintails use a variety of

habitat across their exten-

sive range. In the boreal

forest, they use marshes

and meadows with low,

open sedge and herb-

aceous growth. During

spring and fall migration,

pintails stage on large

open lakes, reservoirs

and saltwater estuaries.

he northern shoveler is a highly specialized dabbling duck.

The prairie pothole and parkland regions are the heart of the shoveler’s

breeding range, however the western boreal forest is also important since

about 17 per cent of shovelers counted in the traditional survey area are in

the boreal forest. Survey data have shown an increase in population across much of the

shoveler’s range beginning as early as 1961. This species is one of the few that has ex-

ceeded population goals identified in the North American Waterfowl Management

Northern ShovelerPlan, with the largest increase in long-termaverage occurring in Alaska and the OldCrow Flats in Yukon. The boreal forestalso provides valuable habitat for shovelersand other waterfowl during moulting andstaging periods. Bands from northernshovelers banded in the boreal forest havebeen recovered by hunters in 14 states and5 provinces (see table, page 38). Northernshovelers winter throughout the southernUnited States and Mexico.

Northern shovelers are often referred to as “spoonbills” or “spoonies” because of their unique spatula-shaped bill. Thebreeding male is distinguished by a green

head, white body, reddish-brown flanks and

black bill. The female is grey-brown withsubtle black streaking. She has an olive-green bill, a green speculum and blueshoulder patches. At a quick glance, a henshoveler could be mistaken for a femalemallard, though with a closer look mostobservers would notice the unique coloursof the wing and the large silhouette of the bill.

Habitat

Shovelers inhabit open, shallow andmuddy wetlands with an abundance ofsubmergent vegetation. These wetlandsare usually adjacent to open grassy areas,which provide the necessary cover for

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nests. Similar habitats are used duringspring and fall migration. Freshwater andsaline marshes, industrial cooling ponds,agricultural wastewater ponds, coastallagoons, estuaries and mangrove swampsprovide wintering habitat.


In the summer, the northern shoveler’sdiet is dominated by small crustaceans,seeds and larvae. Favourite foods includethe water boatman, midge and caddis flylarvae, copepods and ostracods. In winter,shovelers consume larger quantities ofsmall mollusks, aquatic insects and zoo-plankton. The unique bill morphologyallows shovelers to excel at filter feeding.The large bill contains comb-like teethcalled lamellae that are used to filter fooditems from the water. Moving its headfrom side to side, the shoveler extractsfood by filtering water through the lam-ellae. Occasionally they forage in groups,rotating like pinwheels to stir up the suspended food in the water column.

Breeding

Shovelers begin pairing in December.Typically, groups of males court a singlefemale with a variety of visual and audi-tory displays including lateral dabbling,head dipping, wing flapping and jumpflights. Once the female has chosen hermate and pair bonding is complete, pairsdepart for their breeding grounds to-gether. Breeding season site fidelity ishigh, especially if the female bred success-fully the previous year. Males defend their mates and territories diligentlythrough the season.

The male shoveler will accompany his mate while she searches for an appro-priate nest site, most often in short grassprairie or vegetation less than 0.3 metrestall. The female builds the nest by first

scratching a depression into the ground,then building a nest bowl with surround-ing vegetation.

Females lay one egg each day until aclutch of eight to 12 pale olive-colouredeggs is deposited. The eggs are incubatedfor 20 to 25 days. Within 24 hours of thesynchronous hatch, the female leads theducklings to water. The ducklings are ableto fly between 47 and 54 days. If a nest isdestroyed by a predator, the female willrenest. However, the second clutch size is often smaller.


Shovelers depart from the winteringgrounds in late March and are one of the last ducks to arrive on the breeding

grounds. Male depart their breedinggrounds in late summer, making themone of the earliest fall migrants. Femalesand young do not depart until Septemberor October. Surveys conducted at variouslocations throughout the boreal forestshow that most staging flocks containabout 100 individuals. Although, at somepopular staging areas such as the Peace-Athabasca River Delta, flocks of up to5,000 birds have been observed by DUCfield staff.

Shovelers usually migrate in small iso-lated flocks of 10 to 25 and travel bothday and night. In North America, twomigration corridors are favoured. Onepassage extends through the CentralPlains, along the Mississippi and Mis-souri valleys to the Gulf coast and Mexico.The other corridor extends from westernCanada, through intermountain regionsof California to the west coast of Mexico.

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Approximately 36 per cent of theshoveler populationbreeds within theboreal forest and even more stop there during springand fall migration.

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Shovelers inhabit open,

shallow and muddy wet-

lands with an abundance

of submergent vegetation.

These wetlands are usually

adjacent to open grassy

areas, which provide the

necessary cover for nests.

Within 24 hours of the

hatch, the female will lead

the ducklings to water.

his medium-sized sea duck breeds almost exclusively in the

boreal and Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere. Decadal averages

of the breeding population survey indicate that about 90 per cent of the

estimated 600,000 mergansers (all three species combined) counted are

in the boreal forest. This population estimate is likely low since it includes only about

half of their continental range. Unfortunately, little is known about historic red-breasted

merganser population trends as they have not been specifically targeted in surveys. How-

Red-breasted Merganser

ever, between 1961 and 2005, merganserpopulations increased about one per centper year in western boreal Canada, and2.5 per cent overall.

Red-breasted mergansers are medium-sized ducks with dark bodies and longred bills. The male red-breasted mergan-ser is distinguished from the commonmerganser by its ragged double crest,white collar and reddish chest. Both themale and female have red bills, irises andlegs. The red-breasted merganser is one of the fastest ducks in flight, traveling upto 130 km/h. It flies with rapid wingbeats

and tip reversal to increase its propulsion.When underwater, it propels itself withits webbed feet as do many diving ducks.

Habitat

Red-breasted mergansers nest along theforested shorelines of rivers and lakesthroughout the boreal forest. On the tun-dra they tend to use larger, deeper lakesthan the average Arctic wetland. Thoughmostly solitary nesters, red-breasted mer-gansers sometimes form loose colonieson rocky islets or islands. Red-breasted

Mergus serrator

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mergansers use waterways with submer-gent vegetation for rearing their broods.Habitat selection is also probably affectedby the availability and abundance of smallfish. In winter, red-breasted mergansersmove to sheltered coastal bays and estu-aries. They also target areas with submer-gent vegetation such as seagrass beds.On the eastern seaboard of the UnitedStates, red-breasted mergansers show a preference for rocky, silty and sandysubstrates over muddy bottoms.


The red-breasted merganser diet is com-prised mostly of small fish (usually lessthan 10 centimetres), which it capturesunderwater with its serrated bill. It huntsin groups or alone by swimming alongthe surface with its head submerged,looking for prey. The red-breasted mer-ganser is considered an opportunisticfeeder, consuming crustaceans, worms,aquatic invertebrates, amphibians, smoltsand herring eggs when available.

Breeding

Red-breasted mergansers acquire adultplumage and become sexually matureafter their second year. Pair bonds areinitiated on the wintering grounds inDecember, and solidified in March dur-ing migration. Male courts females withhead shaking, chest and crest lifting, wingflapping and ritualized bathing demon-strations. Pairs arrive on the breedinggrounds in late May and often nest atthe same location several years in a row.They are tolerant of other nesting birdsand often form loose colonies with gulls,terns and other ducks.

Females will choose nest sites on theground, unlike the common and hoodedmergansers, which are both cavity nesters.Red-breasted merganser nests are usually

well concealed in dense and overhangingcover such as the low, drooping branchesof conifers. In unique documented cases,nests have been found in an abandonedigloo and under an inverted wooden box.Typical vegetation cover includes nettles,thistles, gooseberry and Labrador tea.

The female builds her nest out of vege-tation found at the nest site. She lays anaverage of seven olive-buff coloured eggsin early June and then begins incubationwhich takes about 30 days. Males leavethe breeding grounds for their moultingareas as soon as incubation begins.

Once synchronously hatched, theyoung spend up to 24 hours at the nestsite drying off. They are then led to waterwhere they forage on fish, insects, larvae,worms and crustaceans. Brood amalgam-ation often occurs and crèches are formed,attended by one or more females. Theyoung remain on the water for up to 60days before they fledge and ultimatelybegin their migration southward.

Because red-breasted mergansers arelate nesters and breed in the Arctic andboreal zones where the season is short,renesting is unlikely.


In general, band returns are used to helpdetermine migration routes, but becausethere are very few red-breasted mergan-

sers banded, their travel corridors are typ-ically determined by other methods. Inthe fall, most birds fly from the breedinggrounds toward either the Atlantic orPacific coasts. Some fly to inland winter-ing grounds like the Great Lakes or GreatSalt Lake in Utah. Birds usually migratein flocks of five to 15, though flocks aslarge as 500 and rafts as large as 15,000have been reported. Pairs and small flocksbegin spring migration in late March tolate April, and reach the breeding groundsby mid to late May, just as ice begins torecede from wetlands.

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Between 25 and 49 per cent of the red-breasted mergansers breedingrange lies within theboreal forest.

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Red-breasted merg-

ansers nest along the

forested shorelines of

rivers andlakes through-

out the boreal forest.

Though mostly solitary

nesters, they sometimes

form loose colonies on

rocky islets or islands.

edheads are exclusively North American ducks, found nowhere

else on earth. These medium sized diving ducks breed in high concen-

trations in the prairie pothole region, along the shores of Ontario’s Great

Lakes and the St. Lawrence River in Québec, and on inland river

deltas of the boreal forest, such as the Saskatchewan and the Peace-Athabasca. The boreal

forest provides moulting and staging areas for large numbers of prairie breeding redheads

Redheadas well. DUC staff have observed num-erous flocks of several hundred and even a few flocks of close to 5,000 redheadsduring fall surveys in the boreal. Bandsfrom redheads banded in the boreal foresthave been recovered in 27 states and fiveprovinces (figure 9). In the winter, red-heads will congregate along the Gulf ofMexico, the Atlantic coast and at inlandwetlands of the Midwest.

Although redheads are fittingly namedfor the male’s brightly coloured head,they could just as easily be called ‘round-heads’ for their distinct sillhouete. Red-heads has a greyish-blue bill with a blacktip, a black chest and tail, grey back and

sides, white belly, grey legs and yelloweyes. Females are more difficult to iden-tify since they are almost entirely brown.They have dark eyes circled by a whiteeye-ring and a greyish-blue bill. Theirgrey wings have a light grey band, whichextends into the primaries, resemblingthose of several other diving duck species.The redhead’s flight pattern is erratic and fast.

Habitat

Redheads are opportunistic when selectingwetlands. They use a variety of wetlandtypes and sizes including seasonal and

Aythya americana

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semi-permanent wetlands, natural lakes,and reservoirs. For breeding and broodrearing they prefer deep water wetlandssurrounded and interspersed with vege-tation such as cattails, sedge and bulrush.For moulting, they prefer clear, shallowlakes (one to two metres in depth) withabundant submerged vegetation. Winter-ing redheads use shallow coastal waterswith abundant sea grasses – as well asinland lakes and reservoirs.


Redheads are highly adaptable, and areable to alter their feeding strategy to suitfood availability. Depending on waterdepth, they feed by diving, gleaning fromthe surface, or dabbling just below thesurface. They eat seeds, buds and tubersof submergent aquatic plants, as well aslarvae, eggs, snails and other aquaticinvertebrates. During egg production andincubation, the female – like most ducks– consumes more protein-rich inverte-brates than normal.

Breeding

Pair bonds are initiated in late winter.Courtship increases during spring mig-ration and peaks in late April. Redheadsare a late-nesting species and prefer tonest over water in bulrush, cattails orsedges. The redhead has the greatestpropensity of all ducks to carry out nestparasitism, in which the female redheadwill muscle eggs into the nests of otherducks. Canvasbacks and other redheadsare primary targets. Because of the highdegree of nest parasitism, the averageclutch size for redheads is often difficultto establish. The best estimate is 11 eggs,three to four of which may be the eggs ofanother female. When on her own nest,the female incubates for 25 days beforethe eggs hatch. The male abandons the

female shortly after incubation is initiatedand therefore renesting is rare.

Unsuccessful females congregate withmales in large flocks to moult and stagebefore the fall migration. If the female issuccessful and the eggs hatch, she stayswith her brood for 42 to 56 days. Duck-lings are able to fly at about 60 days ofage. Although sexual maturity occurs atage one, many individuals do not breed in the first year. It is thought that thetiming of hatching and the quality ofconditions on the natal wetland willaffect the timing of first breeding.


Redheads arrive on the breeding groundsas soon as the ice breaks in the spring.Fall migration begins in September and

most arrive on the wintering grounds bymid- to late October. Redheads migrateoverland in tightly packed small groups offive to 35 individuals. They do not fly inlarge flocks like canvasbacks or scaups,but do congregate by the thousands atstopovers and on the wintering grounds.

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Figure 9: Banding and recovery sites – redhead

(1,448 banded; 186 recovered)

DUC staff haveobserved numerousflocks of several hundred and even a few flocks of close to 5,000 redheads during fall surveys in the boreal.

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The redhead has the

greatest propensity of

all ducks to carry out nest

parasitism, in which the

female redhead will muscle

eggs into the nests of other

ducks. Canvasbacks and

other redheads are

primary targets.

he ring-necked duck is one of the most abundant ducks of the

western Canadian boreal forest. The core breeding area for ring-necked

ducks is the boreal forest of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and parts

of the Northwest Territories. About 85 per cent of the ring-necks counted

in the traditional survey area are counted in the western boreal forest. The prairie pothole

region is largely avoided by breeding ring-necked ducks. Ring-necks winter across most

Ring-necked Duck

of the southern and coastal U.S., as well as Mexico and the Caribbean. Many ring-necks banded in the boreal forest havebeen recovered in the eastern U.S., espe-cially in the Great Lakes area, Florida and the southern coast (figure 10).

The ring-necked duck is misleadinglynamed for the chestnut-coloured ringaround the black neck of the breedingmale, as it is barely visible when iden-tifying birds from a distance. This speciesis sometimes mistaken for some of its diving duck relatives, like the lesser andgreater scaup, but there are some key dif-ferences to distinguish them. A breedingmale has a black back, a white triangle

in front of the folded wing, an angularhead, white bars on the bill, and uniform-ly dark wings. In contrast, scaup specieshave a grey back, rounded head, plain billand a white line on the wing. Femalesresemble scaup and redhead females withthe angular head, white band near the billtip and white eye ring as distinguishingfeatures.

Habitat

Unique to diving ducks, ring-neckedducks prefer shallow wetlands fringedwith emergent, submergent or floatingvegetation like bulrush, pondweed and

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pond lily. They are generally shallowdivers when feeding, so they do not tendto exploit the deeper water habitats pre-ferred by their diving duck cousins. Andunlike many other divers, the ring-neckedduck can take off from a puddle, withouthaving to run along the water’s surface,and flies swiftly and erratically in smallcompact groups, possibly a result of thesmall woodland wetlands it inhabits dur-ing breeding. Wintering ring-necks canbe found on wild rice lakes or on othershallow wetlands rich with submergent or emergent plants.


Feeding by shallow dives, as well as dab-bling at or just under the surface, ring-necked ducks are much more generalizedfeeders than other diving ducks. They eatmostly plant matter like seeds and tubersof submergent vegetation, but also feedon snails, insects, leeches as well as otheraquatic invertebrates. Like many dabblingand other bay ducks, their diet varies forfemales during high energy cost periods,such as egg production and nesting, whenthey will consume more protein-rich in-vertebrates. Young ducklings depend onanimal matter exclusively, but as theyreach maturity they gradually shift to adiet made up of mostly plants.

Breeding

Pairing usually occurs during spring mig-ration, so unpaired ducks arriving on thebreeding grounds are likely non-breeders.Females build nests over water in emer-gent vegetation on wetland fringes, usuallyconsisting of sedges and woody plants likeleatherleaf. Before a female ring-neckedduck begins laying eggs, she builds a looseplatform of nest material, which developsin size and structure as laying proceeds.When they are completed, nests require

constant maintenance to prevent flooding.Females lay an average of nine eggs, andincubate them for 25 to 29 days. The malemay accompany the female from feedingareas to the nest during egg laying, butdoes not stay to defend the nest, and thepair bond abates soon after she startsincubating. There is no evidence of terri-toriality in this species, and ducklings arethe most docile of all diving ducks. Thefemale hides her brood in emergent vege-tation along a wetland edge, unlike otherdiver broods that are commonly seen inopen water.


Ring-necks are midseason migrants, arr-iving on the breeding grounds from lateMarch to end of May, depending on thedestination. Fall migration occurs fromlate September to early December. Malesare first to depart in the fall, with femalesand young following. The bulk of traveltakes place at night in smaller flocks thanmost duck species.

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Figure 10: Banding and recovery sites – ring-necked

duck (1,828 banded; 252 recovered)

Careful monitoringand planning is necessary to ensurethat the ring-neck’spopulation is notbeing affected bychanges in boreal forest habitat.

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uddy ducks are small, stocky, stiff-tailed ducks. Their unique

look and coloration, along with their bizarre breeding behaviours, make

them popular among birders and naturalists. In North America, ruddy

ducks primarily breed throughout the prairie pothole and parkland

regions; however, they also breed in the boreal transition zone and southern portions of

the boreal forest. The majority of ruddy ducks winter along the U.S. coasts. Ruddy ducks

Ruddy Duck

have been banded at several locations inthe boreal forest; however, there have notbeen many of these birds recovered (seetable, page 38), mainly because they arenot highly preferred by waterfowlers.

The breeding male ruddy duck’s upperbody, neck and sides are a deep chestnut.He has a dark tail that often stands up-right, dark brown wings, a white belly, asky-blue bill, white cheeks and a black-capped head. The female’s cheek patchhas a single dark line through it and isless distinct than the male’s. She has aslate-grey bill, no black cap, and a grey-brown body. During the non-breedingseason, males lose the blue colour on their

bill and the reddish-brown of their body,and begin to closely resemble females andimmature birds.

Ruddy duck feet are set far back on thebody, a common characteristic of gooddivers. When confronted with dangerthey prefer to dive rather than fly. Longrunning takeoffs are required to gainflight, but once in the air they are swiftand direct – though not that highlymanoeuvrable.

Habitat

Ruddy ducks breed on wetlands of varioussizes. They prefer wetlands with extensive

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emergent vegetation and ample openwater for easy landings and takeoffs.Brood rearing typically takes place onsemi-permanent and permanent basinswith abundant emergent vegetation.There is little information regardingmoult site selection, but it has been sug-gested that males and non-breeders moulton large wetlands and lakes north of theirbreeding grounds in the boreal forest.Surveys conducted by DUC have notedgroups of up to 300 ruddy ducks on borealwetlands in September and October.During their migration and on the win-tering grounds, ruddy ducks generallyuse large lakes, reservoirs or other perm-anent wetlands.


Ruddy ducks feed on aquatic plants inshallow water by diving and occasionallyfeeding at or just below the surface. Plantmaterial like seeds, tubers and leafy partsof pondweed, bulrush and aquatic grassesare popular. Aquatic invertebrates likemidge larvae and mollusks are especiallycritical to young birds on natal ponds.

Breeding

Males migrate to the breeding groundsbefore females and pair bonds form shortlythereafter. Depending on latitude andlocation, peak arrival is anywhere frommid-March to mid-May.

The ruddy duck’s “bubbling display” isused both as a courtship display and as a demonstration of aggression. The bub-bling display involves a rapid head bob, abeating of the head against the breast, anda fanning of the erect tail. The action ofthe head beating against the breast createsbubbles in the water.

Despite the ruddy duck’s small stature,it is one of the more aggressive ducks inNorth America. Both members of a pair

defend their breeding and nesting territoryfrom encroaching waterfowl. Females withbroods are very defensive and aggressive,especially towards lone males. In one studya ruddy duck was observed chasing offrabbits along a wetland shore.

Ruddy ducks nest over water in vege-tation like bulrushes, sedges and cattails.Nests are normally built up from themarsh bottom, although some nests float.The average clutch size is eight largeeggs, and they are incubated for about 25 days before hatching. Nest success ishigh among ruddy ducks and renestingseldom occurs. Ruddy ducks are alsoknown to be parasitic egg layers. Thedeparture of males from the breedinggrounds varies widely, from midwaythrough incubation to after the clutchhatches; some males even moult on theirbreeding grounds. The female abandonsthe young before they are able to fly,which doesn’t occur until 42 to 49 days of age. This early abandonment may con-tribute to the high brood mortality rate.They often attempt to breed in their first

year, but like many waterfowl species,breeding is more likely to be successful in the second or third year.


Ruddy ducks typically arrive on theirwintering grounds before other divingducks. Their fall flight begins as early asAugust with peak migration occurring inOctober. Ruddy ducks make use of allfour continental flyways and typically flyat night in small groups of five to 15 indi-viduals. However, larger flocks may buildwhen multiple groups rest and feedtogether.

The ruddy duck’s winter range includesthe Pacific coasts of the U.S. and Mexico,the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U.S.and the U.S. interior. The San FranciscoBay area and the large interior valleys inCalifornia, as well as the Chesapeake Bayarea in Virginia are key wintering areasfor the ruddy duck.

80


Conservation of breeding andmoulting sites withinthe boreal forest could contribute to the maintenance of this species’population.

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The ruddy duck’s bubbling display is used

both as a courtship display and a demon-

stration of aggression.

he surf scoter (a.k.a. skunk-head) – unlike its sea duck relatives,

the white-winged and black scoter – is endemic to North America. Surf

scoters breed in the boreal forest of northern Canada and Alaska, and spend

the winter diving for clams and mussels along the Pacific and Atlantic

coasts. Other than their most basic life history characteristics, very little is known about

surf scoter ecology or population dynamics, let alone the role of the boreal forest in

maintaining those populations. This may soon change however, as a rapidly declining

Surf Scoter

scoter population (all three species com-bined) has triggered a cascade of partner-ships and research initiatives aimed atbetter understanding scoter ecology, andhopefully quelling the decline.

The male surf scoter is identified bythe prominent white patches on his fore-head and neck, by the bright orange andwhite bill, and the overall black plumage.Females have dark back and light brownbellies, as well as a white patch on theircheek. During courtship, surf scotersmake some interesting vocalizations,including a gurgling sound by the male

Melanitta perspicillata

81


macreuse à front blanc

TOther than their mostbasic life history char-acteristics, very little is known about surfscoter ecology orpopulation dynamics.

and a crow-like call emitted by the hen.Surf scoter wings also make a whistlingsound as they cut through the air inflight, which is characteristic of all threescoter species.

Habitat

Surf scoters breed on shallow lakes, smallwetlands and muskeg bogs. They use lakeswith rocky edges and little or no emergentvegetation in both western boreal Canadaand in Québec. Surf scoters will gather in marine waters to moult. Some knownmoulting areas include Boundary Bay,British Columbia, the Bering Sea off ofAlaska and the St. Lawrence Estuary ofQuébec. On the wintering grounds, theyfrequent coastal areas, above both rockyand sandy substrates within one kilometreof land.


Surf scoters feed by diving for prey inshallow water, usually less than 10 metres.Dive length is generally less than 30 sec-onds and synchronous diving is common.During most of the winter, surf scotersforage for mussels and clams; however,when Pacific herring begin spawning,surf scoters – like many other waterfowl – gorge on the nutrient-rich herring roe.Shortly after the spawn, surf scoters willmigrate to their breeding areas. Here,they forage on benthic invertebrates likecrustaceans and worms.

Breeding

Surf scoters develop pair bonds on thewintering grounds and breed for the firsttime at two to three years of age. Pairsarrive in the boreal forest from mid-Mayto early June and begin nesting soon after.The female conceals the nest under thelow sweeping branches of conifers, usually

a good distance from water. The few neststhat have been observed were made frommosses, needles, feathers, twigs and bark.

After laying an average of seven creamywhite eggs, the female begins incubation,which lasts for about 30 days. Males leavefor their moulting grounds as soon asincubation begins, having spent only threeweeks on the breeding grounds. Becausethe males leave so early, renesting is rare.If a nest is successful, the female leads thenewly hatched ducklings to a nearby wet-land to feed for about 55 days before theyfledge.


Spring migration starts in mid-March.Scoters fly along the coasts and overlandto reach their breeding grounds. DUChas recorded groups of up to 50 surf scoters on wetlands in the western borealforest during spring migration. Not allscoters migrate however; immature birdsoften forgo this first spring migration infavour of remaining on the winteringgrounds all year. For those who do breed,moult migration begins in mid-June formales and mid-August for females. Fallmigration occurs from August to Nov-ember. Surf scoters migrate at night inlarge flocks from hundreds to thousandsof birds.

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Scoter populations in western NorthAmerica have declinedby approximately 50 per cent since the 1950s.

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Surf scoters breed on

shallow lakes, small wet-

lands and muskeg bogs.

They use lakes with rocky

edges and little or no

emergent vegetation

in both western boreal

Canada and in Québec.

hite-winged scoters (a.k.a. white-wings) are the largest

of three North American scoters. Their flocks resemble long black

strings, as these sea ducks spread out in single-file across the horizon.

Relatively little is known about their ecology since they breed, moult and

winter in isolated areas like the boreal forest. Furthermore, breeding population estimates

for white-wings are confounded since it is difficult to distinguish them from surf and black

scoters from the air. There is however, evidence that suggests a severe decline in the long

term population trend across its breeding range, most of which is in the boreal forest.

White-winged Scoter

For many residents of northern com-munities, the whited-winged scoter isconsidered the black duck of the north,because there are virtually no colourmarkings on either sex – however, themale does have a white teardrop belowthe eye, an orange bill and a bright whitespeculum that contrasts markedly on theblack wing. There is also a white specu-lum, albeit duller, on the otherwise drab-coloured female. Both sexes have pinkishfeet.

Melanitta fusca

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macreuse brune

WFemales often returnto the same area tonest, and some evenuse the same nestbowl year after year.

Habitat

During the breeding season, white-wingsuse large freshwater and brackish lakes.Densities are particularly high on lakeswith islands that have low shrubs anddense vegetation. They place nests undershrubby, even thorny, vegetation likegooseberry, snowberry and rose – and often nest far from water, some times atdistances of up to 800 metres. White-winged scoters prefer to nest near lakeswith abundant submergent vegetation andsandy bottoms. During migration, theystop over on large lakes, rivers and coastalestuaries – and prefer the shallow inshorewaters of bays, estuaries and coastlines inthe winter.


White-winged scoters dive to depths ofone to three metres during the breedingseason. Amphipods comprise the majorityof their summer diet but clams, mussels,snails and insects are consumed as well.On the marine wintering grounds white-wings dive much deeper, to depths of fiveto 20 metres for clams, mussels, snails,amphipods and crabs. Small fish and plantmaterial make up a small percentage oftheir diet.

Breeding

Although several white-winged scoternests and broods have been recorded inQuébec near the Little Whale River,Caniapiscau River and James Bay, his-torically their primary breeding rangeextended from the Ontario-Manitobaborder west to central British Columbiaand north to the treeline in Alaska. Over60 per cent of the breeding season pop-ulation now occurs in the boreal forest.

Pairing for this late-nesting specieslikely begins during migration and is

completed on the breeding grounds.Males perform a neck-erect-forward dis-play while swimming rapidly so that theneck appears thick. Pairs perform mutualdisplays prior to copulation. The maledefends the female during egg laying butleaves once incubation begins. Femalesoften return to the same area to nest,and some even use the same nest bowlyear after year.

Females lay approximately 10 eggs andincubate them for 25 to 30 days. Soonafter hatching, ducklings are led to water.Females protect their young aggressivelyfor one to three weeks before leaving forthe moulting grounds. Abandoned youngoften form aggregate broods of 30 to 55

ducklings, though groups of up to 150have been observed. Research indicatesthat duckling survival is extremely low inthe southern edge of their breeding range,between 1.4 per cent and 10 per cent sur-viving the breeding season. If they survive,they fledge about 70 days after hatching.


White-winged scoters are one of the lastspecies of waterfowl to migrate from theirbreeding grounds. Leaving in September,they fly in flocks of up to 300 on their

way to the Pacific and Atlantic coasts asindicated by some band returns (see table,page 38). On the Pacific coast, white-wings will winter from the Aleutian

Islands to California, occasionally as farsouth as the Baja peninsula of Mexico.Along the Atlantic coast, they can befound from Newfoundland to northernFlorida. They are occasionally observedalong the Gulf coast and on large reser-voirs, lakes and rivers in the southernUnited States.

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There is evidence that suggests a severedecline in the longterm population trend throughout its breeding range,most of which is in the boreal.

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During the breeding

season, white-winged

scoters use large fresh-

water and brackish lakes.

Densities are particularly

high on lakes with islands

that have low shrubs and

dense vegetation. They

place nests under shrubby,

even thorny, vegetation

like gooseberry, snow-

berry and rose.

he wood duck is a perching duck, and is one of the most colour-

ful ducks in North America, both in terms of its plumage and its habits.

It is the waterfowl species most closely associated with mature forested

wetlands and therefore this feature is a critical component in its conser-

vation. Wood ducks occur in the southern boreal forest of central and eastern Canada, as

well as in the Pacific Northwest and most of the eastern U.S. Because of their unique

habitat needs, wood ducks require unique management strategies – which thankfully

have led to a recent upturn in population size.

Wood Duck

The male wood duck has an iridescentgreen and blue crested head, with purplish-black cheeks. The white from its chin andneck extend into two white “fingers” onthe cheeks and two narrow white linesabove and behind the eye. The drake’sbreast is chestnut with small white flecks.The back, rump and upper tail coverts area bronze-green. The female is also well-dressed; she has a grey-brown crested headwith a greenish gloss, conspicuous whiteeye markings and a white chin and throat.The rest of her upper body is grey-brownwith a bronzy gloss on her tail.

Aix sponsa

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canard branchu

TBecause of theirunique habitat needs,wood ducks requireunique managementstrategies.

Habitat

Wood ducks will use riparian areas, fresh-water marshes, beaver ponds and woodedswamps throughout the year. During thebreeding season they require wetlandswith abundant food resources, sufficientoverhead concealment, and adequate cavity nesting sites. They prefer maturestands containing trees at least 30 centi-metres in diameter for nesting. Commonspecies include aspen, maple, ash and oak.

Very little information is available onthe number of wood ducks breeding inthe boreal forest due to the remoteness ofthe habitat and the low density of birds.However, an increase in wood duck den-sities was noted in Québec with a 109 percent increase from the 1990s to 2003.


The wood duck diet varies seasonally andgeographically. In the breeding seasonthey feed mainly on insects and insect larvae, but will also eat aquatic plants andseeds. Migrating and wintering woodducks rely on aquatic vegetation, acornsand waste grain.

Wood ducks often feed in small groups,pecking at food along the surface of thewater and occasionally tipping up to reachsubmerged food. They also dive down asdeep as one metre to gather acorns, albeitinfrequently. Wood ducks can consume asurprising amount of food for a duck oftheir size. For example, 30 acorns wereonce found in the esophagus of one woodduck.

Breeding

Wood ducks begin courting in late Oct-ober. Most are paired by late February.Many nesting females return with theirmates to the same nesting area each year,and even use the very same nest tree;

others seek new areas. Wood ducks arecavity nesters, building their nests insidepreformed tree cavities created by brokenbranches, lightning scars and broken tree-tops. But unlike other cavity-nestingducks, wood ducks rarely use holes madeby woodpeckers. They also use artificialnest boxes.

Females select an appropriate cavityclose to or over water. Normal clutch sizeis 12 eggs; however, because of prolificdump nesting, in which multiple femalesuse the same cavity, some clutches mayreach 40 eggs. Nest initiation varies bygeographic location. In Manitoba, surveysconducted by DUC have estimated woodducks start nests around May 23, which isseven weeks later than average initiationdates in Georgia.

Males remain with their mates untilshortly before the ducklings hatch, atabout 30 days. Just 24 hours after theducklings hatch, the female leaves thenest and calls for her brood to jump tothe ground. Ducklings can jump safelyfrom as high as 89 metres. Once theyreach a wetland, ducklings begin feedingimmediately. The female stays with herbrood for 28 to 42 days, and ducklings are able to fly at 46 to 70 days.


Since the breeding range overlaps withmuch of the winter range, migration isnot necessary for about 33 per cent of theeastern population, and 75 per cent of thePacific population. The others begin fallmigration in September or earlier whenbreeding in the boreal forest. Timing ofspring migration depends on latitude withmany wood ducks arriving at northernareas in late April or early May. Most ofthese boreal ducks winter in the south-eastern United States as is evident fromband recoveries (see table, page 38).

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Although the woodduck populationis now stable, conservation measures need to continue and expandto ensure their long-term sustainability.

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Wood ducks prefer mature

stands containing trees at

least 30 centimetres in

diameter for nesting. Just

24 hours after the ducklings

hatch, the female leaves the

nest and calls for her brood

to jump to the ground.

Ducklings can jump safely

from as high as 89 metres.

he brant is a relatively small goose that has a distinct role in

the coastal ecosystem. However, recent telemetry studies indicate that wet-

lands in the boreal forest may provide vital rest stops for brant migrating

between the coast and the Arctic, especially through Ontario and Québec.

The species name bernicla is the Latin name for barnacle, a highly specialized, intertidal

crustacean. Brant feed just below the tide line on partially submerged intertidal seagrasses.

Brant spend their winter feeding along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts from Alaska to

Mexico, and from Maine to Florida. They breed on Arctic tundra from Russia in the west

Brant

to Greenland in the east. The North Am-erican brant population is estimated at280,000 individuals. The Atlantic popu-lation makes up the largest component,but its size fluctuates greatly from year toyear. The Pacific population has steadilydeclined since the 1960s and is still belowhistoric levels.

Brant have black heads, necks, chests,bills, feet and tails, and a whitish patch oneach side of the neck. The relatively largewings are a dark greyish-brown. Thereare two subspecies in North America, thePacific and the Atlantic. The Pacific brant

(also called the black brant) has a darkbelly and neck patches that meet in thefront, while the Atlantic subspecies – alsoknown as the light-bellied brant, has apale grey belly and neck patches that donot meet in the front. Males and femalesare nearly identical; only the slightlybroader neck patch on the male distin-guishes them.

Immature brant are identified by thepresence of a white trailing edge on theirwing coverts.

Branta bernicla

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bernache cravant

T

Habitat

In the lower Arctic, brant nest in saltmarshes, on gentle coastal slopes, withinriver deltas and on islands or gravel spits.In the high Arctic they use inland lakes,braided river valleys, and deltas. Whilemoulting, brant use freshwater, inlandlakes with peat shorelines, lagoons andcoastal protected bays. On the winteringgrounds, brant use shallow, protectedwaters such as estuaries, lagoons and bays.


On the breeding grounds, brant graze on short grasses, forbs and mosses in saltmarshes, meadows, along shorelines andin open tundra. During the non-breedingseason, they forage almost exclusively onintertidal eelgrass beds. When eelgrassis in short supply, they survive on sealettuce, green algae and other saltwaterplants. Brant feed in flocks by walkingthrough exposed seagrass beds, dippingtheir heads below the surface or by up-ending in deeper water. Brant are famousfor returning to the same feeding areasyear after year, and are also very sensitiveto disturbances while at these stopoverareas; they will alight quickly at the sightof an eagle flying overhead or a personwalking too closely on the beach.

Breeding

Like most geese, brant mate for life.They arrive on the breeding groundsalready paired, nesting in colonies and in single pairs. Colonies are often locatedon islands inaccessible to most predators,however, avian predators like gulls andsnowy owls can still cause disturbances.Nests are built in shallow depressions inthe permafrost. They are lined with downto help warm and protect the relativelysmall clutch of three to five eggs.

Incubation lasts 22 to 26 days. Younggeese develop quickly and spend most ofthe long Arctic days feeding. Both parentsremain on the breeding grounds untiltheir goslings fledge at 40 to 50 days afterhatching. Reproductive output is low asbrant do not commonly renest followingnest failure, and they do not breed untilthey are three years of age.


Brant fly in low, loosely formed flocks.Flock formations are long and ragged(lacking structure) but their flight is fast,and may average up to 99km/h with theassistance of prevailing winds. They leavethe breeding grounds in late August or

September and head for their traditionalstaging areas such as James Bay, Ontarioand Izembek Lagoon, Alaska. There theyfeed, rest and await good weather. Onceon migration again, they stop only onceor not at all until arriving on their coastalwintering grounds.

The Pacific brant population is actuallycomposed of two subpopulations, one thatbreeds in the western high Arctic andwinters in Puget Sound, and the otherthat breeds in the western low Arctic andwinters along the Pacific coast. Pacificbrant migrate along the coast and rarelyfly overland. Atlantic brant are also com-posed of two subpopulations; a smallgroup that breeds in the eastern highArctic and winters in Ireland, and the restthat breed in the eastern low Arctic andwinter along North America’s Atlanticcoast. These Atlantic brant take a moredirect route between breeding and winter-ing grounds by flying overland. A mig-ratory pathway from coastal New Jerseyand Connecticut to James Bay has recentlybeen documented. Boreal wetlands likelyserve as important stopover habitat duringsuch migrations.

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Recent telemetry studies indicate thatboreal wetlands mayprovide vital rest stopsfor brant migratingbetween the coast and the Arctic.

DEN

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)

The North American brant

population is estimated at

280,000 individuals. The

Atlantic population makes

up the largest component,

but its size fluctuates

greatly from year to year.

The Pacific population has

steadily declined since the

1960s and is still below

historic levels.

anada geese are one of the most recognizable waterfowl species

in North America. Their black heads with white cheeks and chin, long

black necks and greyish bodies are distinguishing features. In 2004 how-

ever, the American Ornithologists’ Union separated Canada geese into

two species (Canada goose and cackling goose), making identification more difficult.

Furthermore, there are 11 subspecies (seven of which belong to the Canada goose, and

four to the cackling goose species) complicating identification further.

Canada Goose

While the extremes can easily be distin-guished from one another, there is suchoverlap between the smaller Canada geeseand larger cackling geese that determiningwhich is which can only be accomplishedthrough measuring the size and bill pro-portions – and even then, it can still bedifficult. These two species of geese havebeen subdivided into 15 managementpopulations, regardless of affiliation tospecies/subspecies, so identification isconfounded further.

Because of the complexity of the pop-ulation units and species taxonomy, the

following account describes the generalwhite-cheeked goose life history.

Habitat

Due to their extensive range across NorthAmerica, white-cheeked geese have a vastarray of wetlands and associated habitatsavailable to them. Whether in tundra,boreal forest, parkland, prairie, coastalregions or urban settings, pairs prefer tonest in open areas near permanent watersources (e.g. lakes, marshes, beaver ponds,rivers, reservoirs). Nesting sites vary and

Branta canadensis

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bernache du Canada

C

Cackling GooseBranta hutchinsiibernache de Hutchins

include islands, human-made nestingstructures, hay bales, beaver and muskrathouses, dikes, ditches, sandbars and evenan occasional tree or rooftop. Brood rear-ing is typically carried out in shallowwater with gradual sloping banks to alloweasy access to water. Ample grasses andother plant materials are important whenthey choose brood rearing locations. Onthe wintering grounds they tend to staynear shallow water, like mudflats, wetgrasslands and both saltwater and fresh-water marshes. Agricultural fields arepopular migration and winter habitats.


Canada and cackling geese normallygraze in upland areas, although they willdabble on submerged aquatic plants andseeds. Their diet largely consists of grasses,sedges and rushes though they have be-come accustomed to feeding in croplands(e.g. peas, wheat, corn), especially duringmigration and winter. As most city dwell-ers will confirm, they have also adapted tograzing on grass in urban areas.

Breeding

White-cheeked geese are monogamousfor life and form pairs before arrival onthe breeding grounds. Habitat selectionfor nest sites is expansive, but nests aregenerally near water and allow a secureview of the surrounding area. They areamong the earliest nesting waterfowlspecies. Both sexes are extremely terri-torial, defending their mates, nests andyoung.

Within the array of subspecies, clutchsizes range up to 12 eggs, with 90 percent of the clutches containing four toseven eggs. The incubation period alsovaries within subspecies, but is generallybetween 24 and 30 days, and renesting isminimal, and it is not uncommon to see

broods larger than the average clutch size.This occurrance is usually the result ofbrood amalgamation, where several broodscombine.

The young goslings reach flight stagein 42 to 63 days. It is common for thefledged young to stay with the parentsthroughout the fall and winter, and evento accompany their parents on springmigration back to the breeding grounds.Young from the previous year may becomepaired and breed in their first year, butmore likely won’t mate until their secondor third year.


White-cheeked geese use all four flywaysto migrate from wintering to breedinggrounds and back, and individuals oftenreturn to the same locations year afteryear. Individual birds banded in Canada’sboreal forest during the summer havebeen recovered in 46 states, 10 provincesand one territory (figure 11). Migrationdistances between the breeding and win-tering grounds vary widely among sub-species and management populations.Some birds are non-migratory (residentsouthern populations), while others movebetween Arctic Canada and the southernUnited States. In general, the smaller,tundra-breeding birds migrate the farthestsouth.

Migration timing for each populationdepends on the origin and destination.Fall migration for some geese begins inlate August, and most are on their winter-ing grounds by mid-December. White-cheeked geese can often be early springmigrants, some leaving their winteringgrounds in late January. And dependingon the latitude and weather conditions,they can arrive on the breeding groundsbetween mid-March and the end of May.

It has been noted that a second, non-breeding wave of migrants move throughsome areas about one month after thefirst, causing potential confusion in breed-ing population estimates. These geesemigrate during the day and night inflocks of 300 to 1,000, but occasionallyform larger groups, which are most likelycomposed of several smaller sub-flocks.

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Figure 11: Banding and recovery sites – Canada goose


A few populations,particularly in easternNorth America and inboreal and subarcticregions, have beenexperiencing annualdeclines.

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his Arctic goose, fondly known as the “specklebelly”, is North

America’s widest ranging Arctic goose. Greater white-fronted geese breed

across the Arctic tundra and boreal forests from Alaska to Nunavut. There

are two populations of greater white-fronted geese in North America: the

Pacific population and the mid-continental population. In 2005, there were about 444,000

white-fronted geese in the Pacific population and about 525,000 in the mid-continental

population. While the Pacific population has increased at roughly two per cent per year

since 1996, the mid-continental population has declined steadily since the 1990s. Between

Greater White-fronted Goose

25 and 49 per cent of the continentalbreeding population is in the boreal forestand an even greater percentage likely usethe boreal forest for moulting and mig-ration. Because white-fronts have a fewkey staging areas in the boreal forest, theyare particularly vulnerable to changes inhabitat availability at those sites. Primarystaging areas in the boreal forest includethe Mackenzie, Anderson, Peace andSaskatchewan River Deltas. White-frontswinter west of the Mississippi, from Ark-ansas south to Chiapas, Mexico. Greaterwhite-fronted geese banded in the boreal

Anser albifrons

91


oie rieuse

TBecause white-fronts have a few key staging areas inthe boreal forest, andare particularly vuln-erable to changes inhabitat availability at those sites.

forest have been recovered in 10 statesand two provinces (see table, page 38).

The nickname “specklebelly” refers tothe dark blotches and irregular bars ontheir breasts. Both sexes are brown-greywith a striking white mark on their fore-heads, and their pinkish-orange bill andred-orange legs further distinguish themfrom other Arctic geese. In North America,there are two recognized subspecies; theTule goose (A. a. gambelli) is restricted toCook Inlet, Alaska – and is larger anddarker than the greater white-frontedgoose (A. a. frontalis).

Habitat

Greater white-fronted geese nest in themuddy emergent vegetation near streamedges, deltas, moss meadows, and otherlow-lying wetlands. Bogs, raised polygonedges, hummocky ground and immaturefens are also used. On the tundra, nestcover is primarily sedges, grasses, willows,birches and raspberries but in the borealforest it is more often tall willows, sprucesor larches. Nests have also been observedin recently burned areas. Immature fens,inland lake systems and meadows are usedduring the moult. In winter, they aggre-gate in salt marshes, along the edges oflakes and rivers and in cultivated fields.Throughout their range, greater white-fronted geese are associated with Canadageese and snow geese.


Greater white-fronted geese forage onland and in the water using a variety oftechniques, from dabbling and tipping tograzing and gleaning. In the winter theirdiet consists mainly of seeds and grains,supplemented by both aquatic and uplandvegetation. In upland habitats, they gleanwaste cereal grains and graze on winterwheat, barley, rice and peas. On water,

they peck or probe for both emergentvegetation and raised clumps of submer-gent vegetation. Summer diets consist ofgrasses, berries, tubers and rhizomes.

Breeding

Long-term pair bonds are formed in thewinter and early spring. Pairs form whentwo individuals perform a mutual court-ship display called the “triumph ceremony,”which involves lateral head movementsand somewhat combative behaviour.

Breeding commences between Marchand May depending on latitude. Nestbuilding starts in April or May. Femalesselect the site, then scrape out a smalldepression in the ground and line it withnearby plant material. They add smallamounts of down to the nest bowl as theclutch progresses. Females lay betweenfive and seven creamy white eggs andincubate them for 23 to 25 days. Withinone or two days of the eggs hatching, thefemale leads the young to water. Within42 to 49 days they fledge. Young geeseremain with their parents for at least thefirst year, and may maintain an associationfor even longer.


During fall migration, the Pacific pop-ulation uses the Pacific Flyway, departing

in August and flying across the Gulf ofAlaska to the mouth of the ColumbiaRiver to stage. From there they fly southto California or northern Mexico, arrivingin October. The mid-continental pop-ulation, which is composed of individualsbreeding in the boreal forest and westernCanadian Arctic, use the Central Flyway.They fly south from the breeding groundsin late August or early October, stage insoutheastern Alberta and southwesternSaskatchewan, and then continue southto the wintering grounds along the Gulfcoast. Spring migration begins in earlyFebruary and is usually complete by mid-April.

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Between 25 and 49 per cent of the continental populationbreeds in the borealforest and an evengreater percentage use the boreal duringmoult and migration.

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geese nest in the muddy

emergent vegetation near

stream edges, deltas, moss

meadows, and other low-

lying wetlands. Bogs, raised

polygon edges, hummocky

ground and immature fens

are also used.

he Ross’ goose is the smallest and the rarest of Canada’s

white geese. The Queen Maud Gulf Migratory Bird Sanctuary, located in

Canada’s central Arctic, is home to about 95 per cent of all nesting Ross’

geese. The other five per cent are spread out across Canada’s eastern Arctic

and the west coast of Hudson Bay.

In 1931, the entire population was estimated to be only 5,000 to 6,000 individuals. By

the 1960s the population had increased to about 30,000. The population has since increased

at a rate of about eight per cent annually. In 1998, there were an estimated 982,000 Ross’

Ross’s Goose

geese in North America, and now thereare over one million. Some colonies havebecome so populous that they actuallythreaten the health of the tundra. Everyyear, thousands of Ross’ geese stop at staging areas in Canada’s boreal forestsand prairies on their way north from theirwintering areas in Mexico, New Mexico,California and Texas. These stopoverhabitats are important to the successfulcompletion of migration for Ross’ geese,especially when any inclement weatherstops geese from moving further north.

Other than a minor size difference,

Chen rossii

93


oie de Ross

TDuring migrationthrough the borealforest, they use inlanddeltas and shallowwetland complexesto rest and to feed.

males and females are indistinguishable.Their plumage is uniformly white, otherthan the black tips of their wings. Theyhave pink feet and legs and a pinkish bill.Ross’ geese can be distinguished from theclosely related snow geese by their shorterbill, shorter neck, rounder head, smallersize, and lack of “grin patch.”

Habitat

Ross’ geese nest on islands or near shallowlakes in the low Arctic tundra. Patches ofdwarf birch, willows and rock piles areused for cover and protection. Duringmigration through the boreal forest, theyuse inland deltas and shallow wetlandcomplexes to rest and to feed. On thePrairies they use a variety of wetlandtypes, ranging from ephemeral wetlandsin crop fields to permanent lakes. Ross’geese spend the winter feeding primarilyin agricultural fields and roosting at nightin shallow wetlands and reservoirs.


Ross’ geese are strictly vegetarian. Theyforage on grasses, sedges, legumes andgrains. Their stumpy bill enables them toclosely crop even the shortest vegetation,so they can survive on small patches oftundra. During the breeding season, theyeat the seeds and blades of grasses andsedges found close to the nest. In winter,they consume rice, barley and millet, aswell as native grasses, sedges and cloversfrom up-land habitats.

Breeding

Ross’ geese nest in colonies with lessersnow geese. These mixed species coloniescan include anywhere between 10 and360,000 individuals. Ross’ geese formmonogamous pairs and share breedingseason duties. Females initiate nest con-

struction within the first week of arrivingon the breeding grounds. They lay anaverage of four non-glossy, light cream-coloured eggs and then begin incubationimmediately. Females forage only in shortspurts during the 22-day incubation periodand can lose up to 44 per cent of theirbody weight. The male does not helpincubate, but instead guards the territoryagainst intruders. To do so, he performsvarious threatening displays, includingstretching his neck and wings out whileemitting a low nnnggg vocalization.

Once hatched, the young are led towater, where they feed on grasses, sedgesand dwarf birch. Goslings grow quicklyand can fly within 40 to 45 days. Bothsexes defend the young from predatorsand may group with other families toincrease the chances of survival. Youngmaintain close relationships with parentsand siblings for the first year of life, andreturn to the breeding grounds the fol-lowing year as a family. Ross’ geese willbecome sexually mature during their second year.


Although the Ross’s goose is one of thefirst to leave the Arctic breeding groundsin the fall, they never appear to be inmuch of a hurry. Ross’ geese have beenspotted on staging areas across Canada’s

boreal forests and Prairies from earlySeptember into late October. As temp-eratures drop and food becomes scarce,Ross’ geese head south for the winter.Ross’ geese banded in the boreal forestnear Hudson Bay, have been recoveredfrom Northwestern Manitoba to Sask-atchewan prairies down to the Gulf coaststates (see table, page 38). In spring, theytravel northward along the same routes,following the spring thaw. Ross’ geeseleave the southern wintering grounds inlate February and arrive on the breedinggrounds by early June.

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Every year, thousands of Ross’ geese stop at staging areas inCanada’s boreal forests and prairies on their way south.

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now geese are one of the most abundant waterfowl species in the

world, yet oddly, one of the least familiar to many. Snow geese breed in

colonies in the high Arctic and winter in huge, gregarious flocks at specific

locations in the United States and Mexico. If you happen to live where they

do, you have likely witnessed the amazing spectacle of thousands of white geese dropping

from the sky into fields and reservoirs. If you live elsewhere, you may have never seen

one. The snow goose has two recognized subspecies, the lesser snow goose that breeds in

the western and midcontinental Arctic, and the greater snow goose that breeds in the

Snow Goose

eastern Arctic. This account describesboth subspecies.

Snow geese are medium-sized geese.The lesser snow subspecies has two dis-tinct colour phases, white and blue; thegreater snow subspecies is only white.White morph snow geese are primarilywhite with black wing tips and grey pri-mary coverts. They can be distinguishedfrom the Ross’s goose by their larger sizeand black grin patch present on the bill.Blue morph snow geese have dark grey-blue bodies, backs and wings. Their headsand necks remain white. Young birds are

various shades of grey. When the geeseforage by digging and grubbing in iron-oxide-rich sediments, their faces andnecks stain orange.

Habitat

Snow geese breed on coastal Arctic andsubarctic tundra. Colonies are most oftenlocated on low-lying grass or on sedgemeadows near freshwater bodies, thoughin the high Arctic they also breed inlandon more exposed slopes, ravines and hills.Nests are preferably placed on hummocks

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and other raised features that clear ofsnow early in the season, and also escapespring flooding. During migration and inthe winter, snow geese seek out protected,shallow wetlands for feeding. In coastalenvironments they occupy deltas, brackishmarshes, estuaries and shallow bays. Inthe interior, they use freshwater wetlands,marshes, reservoirs and cultivated fields.


Snow geese are voracious foragers, feedingintensively for long periods of time inconcentrated areas. They forage by shear-ing off plants at the ground level, pickingoff fruits and berries, or gleaning wasteseeds from the ground. They also pull upplants from the ground to get at the highlynutritious roots or rhizomes, a techniquecalled grubbing.

On the breeding grounds they eat leafygrasses, sedges, rushes and willows as wellas rhizomes and tubers of aquatic plants.Goslings feed on fruits and flowers, freshshoots and insect larvae. In the winter,snow geese eat a variety of native and non-native grasses as well as cultivated grainslike rice and corn.

Breeding

Snow geese pairs mate for life, and arriveon the breeding grounds already paired.The female selects the nest site and buildsthe nest with grasses, leaves and seaweed,often at the same spot year after year.She incubates her clutch of three to fiveelliptical eggs while her mate stands atten-tively nearby, defending the nest againstpredators like foxes and gulls. When pre-dators approach, he responds aggressivelyby running toward the predator withwings spread out and neck outstretched.

Eggs are incubated for 24 days – andwithin 24 hours of hatching the goslingsleave the nest and begin to feed on their

own. At about 43 days, they are able to fly.Family groups then migrate to their tradi-tional staging areas, and remain togetheruntil the following summer.


The western population breeds along thecoast from eastern Russia to the NorthwestTerritories. They winter at several locationsin the west including the Fraser RiverDelta and Central Valley in California.The mid-continental population breeds in the central Arctic and winters in thesouth-central U.S. from Nebraska to theGulf coast. The eastern population breedsin Nunavut and Hudson Bay, and wintersalong the Atlantic coast from Massachu-setts to South Carolina.

Snow geese fly at high altitudes (over600 metres) along relatively narrow mig-ratory corridors. In fall, flocks are large(over 1,000 birds) but in the spring mostflocks range from only 35 to 400 birds.During both periods, migrating flocksamass on staging wetlands in the thou-sands and may stay in these areas for amonth or longer. Timing and durationof migration is largely dependent on theweather. Typically, spring migration startsin February and ends when pairs arrive onthe breeding grounds in late May or earlyJune. Fall migration starts in late Augustand continues into November.

Conventional wisdom holds that snowgeese skip over boreal wetlands duringboth migration periods, but observationsof large flocks of snow geese in the Peace-Athabasca Delta, the Mackenzie RiverDelta and near the Saskatchewan RiverDelta by DUC staff and others wouldsuggest otherwise.

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Figure 12: Banding and recovery sites – snow goose

(791 banded; 70 recovered)

A dramatic increase in population as aresult of increased winter food supply has become the major concern in snow goose management.

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he trumpeter swan is a symbol of beauty and grace and is North

America’s largest endemic waterfowl species. Because of its attractive white

plumage, the trumpeter swan became a prized species and was hunted

relentlessly for its skin and feathers from the 1600s to the 1800s. Eliminated

from many parts of its range and nearly wiped out south of Canada, it has since become

a focus for conservation efforts and international cooperation. These efforts have resulted

in increased numbers and re-colonization of many parts of its original range.

Trumpeter Swan

The trumpeter swan’s historic breedingrange was extensive, covering much ofNorth America from Alaska to SouthCarolina, however now it is reduced tojust a few pockets in Alaska, westernCanada and the northern United States.The largest contiguous breeding areas arelocated in the boreal forest, where swanshave been less exposed to disturbance andhabitat loss than elsewhere. Trumpeterswans migrate inland and winter alongthe Pacific coast from Alaska to Oregon.Several birds banded in the boreal forest

have been relocated on inland waters ofthe western U.S., presumably on route tothe coast (see table, page 38).

Trumpeter swan surveys were initiatedacross North America in 1968, and since1975 have been conducted every five years.The trumpeter swan population grewfrom about 3,722 birds in 1968 to 23,647in 2000. The Pacific Coast populationincreased from 2,847 to 17,551; the RockyMountain population increased from 811to 3,666; and Interior population from 64to 2,430 over the same time period.

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The trumpeter swan is completely whitewith a straight black bill that lacks theyellow lores of the tundra swan, or theorange bill of the mute swan. Therefore.trumpeter swans can be distinguished withsome effort.

Habitat

The trumpeter swan’s preferred nestinghabitats are shallow wetlands with nume-rous elevated nesting sites (e.g. muskrat orbeaver lodges), diversity of aquatic foods,little human disturbance, a stable waterlevel, at least 100 metres of open water fortakeoff and an early ice-free date. Duringmigration they stage on marshes, rivers,lakes and estuaries, and in winter trum-peter swans often forage in agriculturaland aquatic habitats – using sand andgravel bars for roosting and loafing.


The diet of breeding adults is essentially100 per cent vegetation, consisting of sub-mergent and emergent aquatic plants,grains and grasses). Cygnets eat about 95 per cent vegetation and five per centinvertebrates. Adults can consume up tonine kilograms of vegetation daily; foodintake is lower when highly nutritiousfood (e.g. wheat during migration or onthe wintering grounds) is available.

Trumpeters will occasionally feed oninvertebrates, fish eggs, and in winter,grains, and waste potatoes. Because oftheir long necks and ability to uproot sub-merged vegetation with their feet, swansare able to forage in deeper water thangeese and dabbling ducks.

Breeding

This long-lived species mates for life, butif a mate is killed, the surviving swan maypair again the following year. Many trum-

peters form pair bonds during the secondwinter, but generally do not start nestinguntil they are four to six years old. Pairsthat spend time together year-round willselect nest locations early in the bondingprocess, up to several years before actuallynesting. Both sexes contribute to nestbuilding and the female lays four to eighteggs in April or May. Incubation lastsbetween 32 and 37 days. Young begin tofly at about 100 days of age, remainingwith the parents or joining neighbouringfamily groups for migration.


Migration patterns of trumpeter swansare well known due to their large size andconspicuous nature. Alaskan birds moveeither along the coast via Prince WilliamSound or the Copper River Delta tosoutheast Alaska, coastal British Colum-bia, Puget Sound and the ColumbiaRiver Delta, or more often, inland up the Tanana River and then south on theeast side of the Coast Ranges and acrossto Vancouver Island and Washington.However, a few birds have returned to the Sacramento Valley. Migration andwintering areas for the eastern population

are still developing as the birds becomeestablished in new areas.

Spring migration follows fall routes inreverse, arriving on the breeding groundsin April, usually before ice melt. Swansstage on large, ice-free water until thetime when breeding habitat is accessible.

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The largest contiguous breeding areas are located in theboreal forest, whereswans have been less exposed to disturbance and habitat loss.

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The trumpeter swan’s

preferred nesting habitats

are shallow wetlands with

numerous elevated nesting

sites (e.g. muskrat or beaver

lodges), diversity of aquatic

foods, little human distur-

bance, a stable water level,

at least 100 metres of open

water for takeoff and an

early ice-free date.

he tundra swan, also known as the whistling swan, is one of

North America’s most majestic and endearing waterfowl. Tundra swans

breed in the Arctic and boreal forests of the far north, and winter along

the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Tundra swans banded in the boreal forest

have been relocated in the upper Midwestern United States (see table, page 38). The high-

est breeding concentrations occur on river deltas such as the Mackenzie and the Anderson

in the Northwest Territories. Tundra swans also rely heavily on productive staging grounds

in the boreal forests, Prairies and parklands of Canada where they spend a total of six

months a year during migration.

The tundra swan is the smallest of the three North American swans. Adults are white

with black bills, legs and feet. Many also have a tiny patch of yellow between the eyes and

the bill, a region called the lores. Both the native trumpeter swan and the non-native mute

swan closely resemble the tundra; however, the tundra’s yellow lores, its smaller size and

the whistling sound its wings make in flight make it unique.

Tundra Swan

Habitat

Tundra swans breed on coastal deltas,marshes, lakes and ponds located betweenthe Arctic coast and the treeline. Thedensity of breeding pairs increases withwetland density. Tundra swans prefershallow, unpolluted wetlands and do nottolerate much human disturbance. Stop-over habitats include freshwater wetlands,lakes and rivers, as well as brackish estu-aries. These stopover habitats are usedprimarily for refuelling – and thereforeshould contain a high density of pond-weed or other submergent vegetation.On the winter range, swans use lakes,wetlands, reservoirs, shallow estuarinebays and agricultural fields for foraging.


Sedges, pondweed and algae have beenidentified as important food items forbreeding swans in Alaska. Nesting pairsprefer to forage at lakes with high con-centrations of macrophytes, muskgrass

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cygne siffleur

T Tundra swans prefershallow, unpollutedwetlands and do nottolerate much humandisturbance.

and pondweed. Their long necks are usedto pull up submergent plants and tubers,which they share with their young. Thecygnets eat insect larvae and other aquaticinvertebrates, and although swans tradi-tionally eat aquatic plants while on theirstaging and wintering grounds, their dietsare increasingly supplemented by wastecorn and grains in agricultural fields.

Breeding

Tundra swans are admired not only fortheir beauty, but also for their dedicationto parenting and family life. The parentsshare almost all breeding season duties,and remain with their cygnets throughthe winter. Adult swans arrive on thebreeding grounds paired. They show ahigh degree of site fidelity and oftenoccupy the same territory, even the samenest site, year after year. Nests are built onwet tundra, islands and ridges where visi-bility is high. Clutch size ranges betweenthree to five eggs, and incubation lasts for31 to 32 days. Both parents incubate, but

females spend significantly more time onthe nest than males.

Cygnets are brooded for one to twodays after hatching and are attended care-fully for another 102 to 117 days while theydevelop. Once the cygnets are able to fly,the family migrates together to their firststaging area while on their way south forwinter.


There are two recognized populations of tundra swans in North America: thewestern population that breeds along thewestern coastal lowlands of Alaska, andthe eastern population that breeds fromthe Seward Peninsula in Alaska to BaffinIsland and Hudson Bay. The westernpopulation migrates to coastal BritishColumbia and the western U.S. for thewinter, and the eastern migrates to themid-Atlantic coast.

During fall migration, tundra swansmake long stopovers at boreal wetlandssuch as the upper Mackenzie Delta, the

Peace-Athabasca Delta and Great SlaveLake. In spring, when boreal wetlandsmay still be covered in ice, they spendmore time feeding in agricultural areas,especially around the Great Lakes. Theswans migrate in family groups withinlarger flocks of up to a hundred birds.

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Because tundra swans spend half their life migratingbetween the breeding and wintering grounds,conservation of keystaging areas in theboreal forest is critical.

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time. It once seemed impossible that ind-ustrial development and human settlementcould make a substantial impact on such a vast and abundant landscape.

Yet over the years, human and industrialdevelopments have advanced throughoutthe region, and the pace of these changesis increasing exponentially. Land use de-cisions made over the next few years willhave a profound influence on the long-term health of the entire region.

More than 70 per cent of Canada’sboreal forest region remains ecologicallyintact. It is one of the last extensive forestand wetland areas in the world that stillsupports a suite of native species in largeconnected ecosystems shaped by powerfulnatural forces like fire. The vast majorityof the region is publicly owned, enablinggovernments to work with aboriginal peo-ples, other local communities, industriesand conservation organizations to planproactively for the future.

That said, with less than 10 per cent ofthe region currently protected from dev-elopment – and the application of bestmanagement practices still in its infancyin many industrial sectors – time is of theessence.

Ducks Unlimited Canada’s (DUC)vision is that Canada’s boreal forest will

remain an ecologically intact and produc-tive habitat that will continue to sustain ahigh diversity and abundance of wetlands,waterfowl and associated water birds. DUCwants Canada’s boreal forest to remain avast mosaic of forest, rivers, wetlands andlakes that will continue to function withecological integrity and support historicalnumbers of breeding, moulting and mig-rating waterfowl as well as other wetland-dependent wildlife.

To attain our vision, DUC has beenworking alongside forward-thinkinggovernments, industry, First Nations andaboriginal groups, academic institutions,foundations and conservation organiza-tions to help establish a national borealconservation network that includes eco-system based sustainable development,world-leading best management practicesand an extensive network of large, wetland-rich protected areas. Achievement of ourvision depends upon human use of theregion being in better harmony with theland and its vast ecological values. Areasvital to waterfowl and other water birdsmust be recognized and conserved by theowners and users of those lands. Wherehuman activities occur, it is essential thatthey be undertaken in a manner consis-tent with the long-term sustainability of

the boreal ecosystem and guided by a setof world-leading environmental standards.

In planning and implementing thestrategies to achieve this vision, DUCwill help Canada’s boreal region becomethe world’s best-conserved ecosystem,sustaining the people who live there anddemonstrating world-class sustainableeconomic resource practices. Others willbe made aware of the value to society ofmaintaining a healthy boreal forest and of this enlightened, balanced approach toland uses.

Our goal is to help conserve all of thewetlands in Canada’s boreal forest througha combination of ecosystem-based sustain-able development that utilizes state-of-the-art best management practices, andby promoting the establishment of anextensive network of large, interconnectedwetland-rich protected areas. DUC willuse our foundation of strong science andstrategic partnerships to help us movetoward this goal.

Commitments to Boreal Conservation

DUC’s science will be pivotal in engagingpartners in support of our conservationvision and goals. It will underpin all ofour conservation planning as we continueto identify critical wetland systems, con-firm biodiversity values and develop sus-tainable-use practices and conservationstrategies. We are committed to managingadaptively and will regularly assess theadequacy of our conservation strategiesand knowledge as we strive continually toimprove our decision support tools. Wewill continue to expand our aboriginal

ationally and internationally, there is a growingrecognition that North America’s boreal forestcontains a wealth of diverse values – ecological,cultural and economic – that are important not

only to North Americans, but to life everywhere on the planet.And understanding the region’s importance has evolved over

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Achievementof our visiondepends uponhuman use of the regionbeing in bet-ter harmonywith the landand its vastecological values.

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partnerships and embed traditional landuse information in planning and decision-making processes. DUC will share dataand its investments in science to helpguide land use planning involving govern-ments, aboriginal partners, industries andothers at the local, regional and nationallevels. Our core commitments are to:

b Watershed-based Conservation

Human impacts, to date, have affectedmainly terrestrial environments. There isgrowing concern however, about regionalimpacts on surface and subsurface waterresources. The health of the forest and thenorthern economy depends on water, andprotection of water quality and supply isof vital interest to the public. There is apressing need to develop watershed-basedconservation strategies that incorporatewater and wetland objectives.

Currently there is a dearth of informationon how landscape features, climate andhuman activities influence the hydrology,water quality, nutrient status and ecologyof boreal watersheds. We are committed toacquiring a better understanding of howwetlands function across the wide rangeof natural variability in landscape position,geology and climate. We will also continueto improve our understanding of how wet-lands interact with the adjacent riparianareas, and how various land disturbances,such as timber harvesting, oil and gas dev-elopments or road building, affect thoserelationships.

DUC will continue to develop innovativeapproaches to conservation planning thatlead to easy-to-use management supportsystems. We will work with land users,managers and regulators to develop andimplement conservation plans that main-tain the full range of ecological processes,including intact watersheds, wetlands andnatural disturbances. Watershed-basedconservation plans that maintain and in-

crease forest cover and boreal wetlandswill have a significant positive influence oncarbon sequestration and other ecosystemservices.

c Sustainable Development / Best Management Practices (BMPs)

Using an adaptive management approach,DUC will assist in the development andtesting of BMPs to help ensure that theboreal forest continues to produce sus-tainable economic and ecological returns.Sustainable resource management prac-tices will require world-leading resourceconservation standards and guidelines.A key goal of sustainable resource man-agement will be healthy watersheds thatsupport regional economies and commu-nities. A primary purpose of sustainabledevelopment is responsible, sustainableuse of the renewable natural resources ofthe boreal, including its wood, water, fish,plants and wildlife. Future developmentof non-renewable resources such as oil,gas and minerals within these developedareas will proceed while meeting operatingstandards that also sustain the social, eco-logical and economic values of the borealforest and meet comparable world-leadingstandards.

d Protected Areas

Canada’s boreal forest encompasses mil-lions of hectares of wetland-rich landscapescritical to the continent’s migratory birdpopulations. These areas also often sustaintraditional land uses and lifestyles. It isessential to maintain a portion of theforest as permanent protected areas. Theconcept is to exclude resource extractionactivities from areas of sufficient size thatthey function as intact natural ecosystems.Protected areas can also help maintainbiodiversity, cultural values and ecologicalgoods and services values in perpetuity.

For the working forest, these areas serveas benchmark sites against which to com-pare the results of sustainable managementpractices.

Establishing sufficient intact naturalareas will require the co-operation of thefederal, provincial, territorial and abori-ginal governments, supported by industry,conservation organizations, private land-owners and the Canadian public. DUCwill continue to develop strategic partner-ships to help enable the identification, theestablishment and the management of anetwork of large, wetland-rich protectedareas.

Protected areas should exclude indus-trial development such as logging, mining,hydroelectric dams, oil and gas and newroads, but should also include traditionalhuman activities such as hunting, fishing,gathering and recreation. Protected areasshould respect aboriginal people’s long-term relationships with the land, andwhere possible, be established throughland use planning processes with localcommunities.

e Species of Concern

Waterfowl are important indicators ofhabitat quality and quantity, and we arecommitted to understanding the limitingfactors affecting declining boreal water-fowl populations – and also to developingeffective conservation programs for theirrecovery. Special attention will be paid tospecies of continental concern like scaupand scoters in the western boreal and theharlequin duck and Barrow’s goldeneye in the east.

f Education and Awareness

Canada’s boreal forest is truly a globalresource. Although few people realize it,the majority of the boreal forest’s naturalresources are being used by people who

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Over a third of this greatforest is waterand wetlandscritical tomigratorybirds, globalclimate andhuman health.

live in North America’s urban centres.Infact, the ecological goods and servicesprovided naturally by the boreal forest arevalued and in demand around the entireworld. There is pressing need to educatethe public, industry leaders, policy-makers,government decision-makers and othersabout the need for boreal forest conser-vation. And to accomplish this, DUCwill accelerate its communication andeducation programs, in partnership withconservation leaders from all walks of life,to raise awareness of the need for borealconservation. We will build on the strongfoundation of DUC’s marketing, commu-nications and education programs alreadyin place from coast to coast to coast.

Making Progress

We are encouraged that the need to man-age the accelerating use of natural resourcescontinues to inspire debates and dialogueamong concerned parties. In 1999, theSenate Committee on Agriculture andForestry’s Subcommittee on the BorealForest published Competing Realities: TheBoreal Forest at Risk. This report contains35 recommendations intended to guideCanadians in adopting a “national forestlandscape-based approach to managing aboreal forest that is coming increasinglyunder siege.”

However, little progress has been madeon these recommendations, and in Jan-uary 2005 the Canadian Boreal Initiative(CBI) published The Boreal in the Balance:Securing the Future of Canada’s Boreal Regionand noted, “This important region facesan uncertain future because expandingindustrial developments are outpacingconservation efforts in certain parts of thevast region.” The CBI report reflects thecomprehensive approach of the BorealForest Conservation Framework – a bal-anced national vision for the future ofCanada’s boreal region launched in 2003

by CBI, in concert with leading resourcecompanies, First Nations and conservationgroups. In October 2005 the NationalRound Table on The Environment andthe Economy (NRTEE) released its Stateof the Debate Boreal Futures: Governance,Conservation and Development in Canada’sBoreal report, stating that “Canada’s ‘Am-azon’ is under threat” and urging conser-vation action across Canada’s vast borealregion. In November 2005, the PembinaInstitute released its CBI-commissionedreport Counting Canada’s Natural Capital:Assessing the Real Value of Canada’s BorealEcosystems. Considering everything fromthe pest-control services provided by birdsto the worth of having wetlands filterdrinking water and store carbon, theresearchers calculated the boreal forestecosystem’s non-market value at morethan $93 billion annually.

The Canadian Boreal Initiative hasemerged as a committed and balancedleader of boreal conservation efforts acrossthe country. In partnership with the PewCharitable Trusts and Ducks Unlimited,CBI was established early in 2003, torespond to the unique opportunities andchallenges of Canada’s boreal forest. Inaddition to supporting boreal conservationprojects across the country, CBI convened

the Boreal Leadership Council – an un-likely alliance of resource companies, FirstNations and conservation groups – todevelop a national vision for conservationof Canada’s boreal region. DUC is proudto be an original member of the Council.

The result was the Boreal Forest Conser-vation Framework, launched in December2003, to conserve the natural, cultural andsustainable economic values of the borealforest region by protecting about half ofthe region in a comprehensive networkof protected areas and promoting world-leading industrial practices on the remain-ing landscape. CBI’s Framework representsa balanced conservation solution thatoffers the opportunity to meet ecologicalobjectives, uphold the rights and interestsof aboriginal peoples and accommodateappropriate sustainable development.DUC embraces and supports the prin-ciples of this bold conservation frameworkwhich embodies much of our vision andgoals. CBI’s Framework is a national goaland vision for the region as a whole, whichsees land use planning as a key mechanismto develop more specific solutions on theground that reflect regional conditionsand priorities. It is vital to find balancebetween development and protection,while ensuring that ecosystem functions

are maintained and the Framework offersa promising path forward for all sectors to work together to secure a meaningfulfuture for Canada’s boreal region.

Call to Arms

DUC’s urgency to conserve the borealforest is anchored by our nearly 70 yearsof delivering conservation programs onCanada’s settled landscapes. We havelearned that we’re far better off protectingintact systems while there is still oppor-tunity. In the case of Canada’s wetland-and water-rich boreal forest, we musttake advantage of this opportunity now.Canada has a unique opportunity to showthe world how to balance developmentwith protection across one of the world’slast great wilderness areas. But the keyword is unique, for it only comes aroundonce. The time for world-leading bestmanagement practices and state-of-the-art conservation planning in Canada’sboreal forest is now.

But it will not happen without leadership and support.

The need for governments, industries,other key decision-makers and conser-vationists to become involved and provideleadership and support to the conservationof Canada’s boreal has never been greater,particularly given the incredible amountof fresh water that lies within the vastregion. Over a third of this great forest iswater and wetlands critical to migratorybirds, global climate and human health.We hope that this book will help shine abrighter light on North America’s borealforest – our national treasure – and moti-vate others to become involved in one ofthe most important conservation oppor-tunities on the planet today.

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We havelearned thatwe’re far better off protectingintact systemswhile there is still opportunity.

The Physical Boreal (page 5)

Anielski, M. and S. Wilson. 2005. Counting Canada’s Natural Capital –

Assessing the Real Value of Canada’s Boreal Ecosystems. Pembina Institute

and CanadianBoreal Initiative. 78p.

Canadian Boreal Initiative. 2005. The Boreal in the Balance - Securing the

Future of Canada’s Boreal Region Status Report. pp. 72

Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers. Industry Facts and

Information. Western Canada, Alberta: Alberta Statistics over the last 8 years.

http://www.capp.ca/default.asp?V_DOC_ID=6. Accessed May 4, 2006.

Bryant, D., D. Nelson and L. Tangley. 1997. The Last Frontier Forests: Ecosys-

tems and Economies on the Edge. Washington D.C.: World Resources Institute.

Ecological Stratification Working Group. 1995. A National Ecological

Framework for Canada. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Research Branch,

Centre for Land and Biological Resources Research and Environment Canada,

State of the Environment Directorate, Ecozone Analysis Branch, Ottawa/Hull.

Report and national map at 1:7,500,000 scale. 125 pp.

Flannigan, M., I. Campbell, M. Wotton, C. Carcaillet, P. Richard and Y.

Bergeron. 2001. Future fire in Canada’s boreal forest: paleoecology results

and general circulation model – regional climate model simulations.

Canadian Journal of Forest Research 31: 854-864.

Fleming, R.A. and W.J.A. Volney. 1995. Effects of climate change on insect

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Bird Conservation Regions · 2019-05-07 · North America’s Boreal Forest 1 Boreal Ecoregions of Alaska 1 2 Taiga Cordillera 3 Boreal Cordillera 4 Taiga Plains 5 Boreal Plains 6