Bioremediation Technology for Plastic Waste

Mohd. Shahnawaz • Manisha K. SangaleAvinash B. Ade

BioremediationTechnology for PlasticWaste

Mohd. ShahnawazDepartment of BotanySavitribai Phule Pune UniversityPune, Maharashtra, India

Plant Biotechnology DivisionCSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative MedicineJammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Manisha K. SangaleDepartment of BotanySavitribai Phule Pune UniversityPune, Maharashtra, India

Avinash B. AdeDepartment of BotanySavitribai Phule Pune UniversityPune, Maharashtra, India

ISBN 978-981-13-7491-3 ISBN 978-981-13-7492-0 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7492-0

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All the authors dedicate this book to theirrespective parents

Preface

Plastic is one of the most famous and highly used polymers throughout the world. Itis used in our day-to-day life for several activities. It serves as a better replacement ofother materials on this Earth like metals. In the past, before the discovery ofplastic synthesis, humans were using stones, woods, glasses, and metals to producegoods and utensils. However, there were various problems in using those traditionalmaterials: for example, stones can be broken due to stroke, wooden materials are alsobreakable, glasses are a unique example of a brittle material, and metals are altered intheir shapes and sizes due to strokes. The weight of those traditional materials wasalso one of the important factors which made the handling difficult, leading tomaximum breakage. In view of this, plastic, which was produced accidentally, wassuperior over these materials. Plastic can be retained for a longer time without anydamage. Furthermore, it is comparatively lightweight, making it easier to handle.Plastic is also hydrophobic in nature; therefore, it is routinely used in situationswhere water contact needs to be avoided, e.g., lamination of documents, etc.Moreover, even the food materials packed in plastics (waterproof) remain freefrom any microbial attacks, increasing the stability of food against degradation.For furniture or even vehicles, Teflon coating can solve the problem of damaging thepaints over it. The damage is otherwise caused by sunlight, rainwater, moisture,harmful radiations, pollution, etc. Plastic material is the ultimate solution.Depending on the requirement, plastic can be molded and converted into strongerand durable substances by adding a certain material in it e.g. plasticisers. Due tothese fine qualities, the use of plastic has reached an alarming level worldwide. As itis not breakable and more durable, there is a problem regarding its disposal anddecomposition. If the production rate of plastic is not balanced with the decomposi-tion rate, then naturally there is a great accumulation of plastic throughout the world.After using various kinds of plastic, it goes to the garbage which further finds its wayto mix with the water, and through the water streams and rivers, it ultimately reachesthe oceans. It is deposited at the bottom of the sea and forms a huge layer like that ofthe material of the Earth’s crust. If it is done, the release of the toxic substances willgradually occur, which then contaminates the living organisms (both aquatic andterrestrial) on this Earth. In view of this, there is a need for novel ideas and conceptsfor the proper handling of plastic waste. We have started the research work on thebioremediation of plastic with the polymer polythene, in which we found the

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considerable contribution of the microbes for the polythene degradation. In thisbook, we tried to incorporate our results. There are other books also in the marketthat discuss plastic waste management, but these are the superficial and introductorytype which only highlights the concept. We intended to write a book that shows thereality in the management of plastic waste with respect to the comparison of differentstrategies for handling and selection of bioremediation as a sustainable strategybased on our own experiences with plastic.

This book is an attempt to discuss the impact of plastic on our lives in differentaspects. It also suggests certain strategies to manage plastic waste. The present bookis comprised of 12 chapters that discuss the different angles of plastic. Chapter 1provides a general introduction related to the synthesis, uses, and properties ofplastics. Chapter 2 overviewed the research updates about microplastic composition,different types of plastics, and their impact on the environment. Chapter 3 discussesthe different possible methods to handle plastic pollution. Chapter 4 is concernedwith plastic disposal by microbial degradation. Chapter 5 highlights our experiencesof measuring the potential of bacteria for plastic bioremediation. Chapter 6 isconcerned with the role of fungi in plastic degradation. Chapter 7 emphasizes themethods that are possibly useful, i.e., on-site and off-site methods in remediationtechnology for plastic degradation. Chapter 8 discusses the social awareness of thethreats caused by plastic waste to human being and the rest of the biota. Chapters 9and 10 are concerned with the fate of polythene after degradation that can beanalyzed by the critical assessment of the products formed and the toxic effects ofthese products on the living organisms. Chapter 11 briefed the policies andlegislations/regulations adopted by different countries throughout the globe tohandle plastic waste. Overall, this book emphasizes the bioremediation ofplastic. Finally, Chapter 12 concludes and suggests future practices for the bioreme-diation of the plastic waste in a sustainable way. Suggestions are welcome, from thereaders to help in the improvement of ideas and proficiency in the implementation ofthe regulations to minimize the generation of plastic waste and in identifying thealternatives of the plastic.

Jammu, India Mohd. ShahnawazPune, India Manisha K. SangalePune, India Avinash B. Ade

viii Preface

Acknowledgment

We bow our heads before the Almighty Allah, the most beneficent and mostmerciful, for his endless blessings on all of us. We are thankful to the Director ofthe Board of College and University Development (BCUD), Savitribai Phule PuneUniversity (SPPU), Pune, for their financial assistance. We are highly indebted toProf. N. P. Malpathak, Head, and Former Heads (Prof. S.S. Bhargava, Prof. S. S.Deokule, Prof. V. R. Gunale, and Prof. B. B. Chaugule) of the Department ofBotany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, for providing us the necessary facilities.We are thankful to Dr. Marie Helenelund and Dr. Minna Hakkarainen, Departmentof Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,Sweden, and Prof. Dr. K. Kathiresan, Director, CASMB, Annamalai University,Parangipettai, TN, India, for sharing their research with us. We would like toacknowledge the authorities of Central Instrumentation Facility, SPPU, forproviding access to SEM, FTIR, and GC-MS facility. The help of Dutech IndiaLaboratories, Pune, India, for testing tensile strength of polythene strips is alsoacknowledged. The Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune-411008, isacknowledged for the identification and authentication of sample specimen of theAvicennia marina and for availing library facility. We are also thankful to ourM. Sc. student (2015 batch) Mr. Rajkumar Damodhar Kherdekar for his extendedefforts to make the chapter 7 possible. We are highly indebted to Dr. R. Deopurkar,Former Head and Professor, Department of Microbiology, SPPU, Pune, forproviding us with departmental facilities. First author is thankful to SPPU, UGC-BSR, UGC-MANF, and DST-SERB N.PDF for providing fellowships from time totime. The second author is also thankful to UGC-BSR for their financial assistance inthe form of fellowship.

The permission granted by Springer Nature publishing house to reproduce ourown published data (Order Number: 4473771230998 and Order Number:4473770885933), exclusively in Chapters 5, 9, and 10, is dully acknowledged. Itis of immense pleasure to acknowledge the help and support tendered by the editorial

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and production team (especially Dr. Sawhney Bhavik and Mr. John Ram Kumar) ofSpringer Nature, New Delhi, India.

Last but not least, we are thankful to our respective parents for their trust, love andsupport throughout this work.

Mohd Shahnawaz (Khakii)Manisha K. Sangale

Avinash B. Ade

x Acknowledgment

Contents

1 General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Bioremediation: Natural or Induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3 Purpose of Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4 Types of Environmental Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.5 Discovery of Plastic Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6 Advantages of the Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.7 Lacunae in the Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.8 Need of the Present Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.2 Primary Microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.3 Secondary Microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.4 Sources of Microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.4.1 City Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.4.2 Marine Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.4.3 Personal Care Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.4.4 Plastic Pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.4.5 Road Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.4.6 Synthetic Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.4.7 Tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.5 Potential Impacts of Microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Plastic Waste Disposal and Reuse of Plastic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.2 Most Dangerous Environmental Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.3 Percentage of Plastic in Total Environmental Waste

at Global Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.4 Factors Affecting Degradability of the Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.4.1 Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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3.4.2 Molecular Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233.4.3 Hydrophobic Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233.4.4 Size of Molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233.4.5 Introduction of Functionality and Additives . . . . . . . . . 233.4.6 Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243.4.7 Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3.5 Methods Employed to Tackle the Plastic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . 243.5.1 Landfilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243.5.2 Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.5.3 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.5.4 Construction of Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.5.5 Production of Petrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.6 Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263.6.1 Physical Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273.6.2 Mechanical Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273.6.3 Chemical Properties or Structural Changes . . . . . . . . . . 273.6.4 Molecular Weight Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273.6.5 Photodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273.6.6 Thermo-oxidative Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283.6.7 Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

4 Case Studies and Recent Update of Plastic Waste Degradation . . . . 314.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314.2 Types of Plastic Targeted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324.3 First Report of Plastic Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334.4 Types of Plastic Degradation (Photodegradation,

Oxy-photodegradation, Bioremediation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334.5 Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344.6 Mechanism of Biodegradation of Polythene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354.7 Microbes with Plastic Degradation Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5 Bacteria as Key Players of Plastic Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455.2 A Case Study of Polythene Degradation by Bacteria

as a Key Player . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465.2.1 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495.3.1 Survey and Collection of the Soil Samples

for Isolation of Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495.3.2 Identification and Authentication of the Avicennia

marina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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5.3.3 Physiochemical Analysis of the Rhizosphere Soiland Adjoining Water Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.3.4 Isolation of the Bacterial Isolates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525.3.5 Screening of the Polythene-Degrading Bacteria . . . . . . 565.3.6 FTIR Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605.3.7 SEM Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6 In Situ Bioremediation Technology for Plastic Degradation . . . . . . 716.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716.2 Reports of In Situ Plastic Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

6.2.1 In Situ Degradation of Plastics in the MangroveSoil (Kathiresan 2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

6.2.2 In Situ Biodegradation Assay of LDPE Films(Kapri et al. 2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6.2.3 In Situ Biodegradation Assay and Recoveryof Degraded Film (Negi et al. 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6.2.4 In Situ Degradation of Polythene and Plasticsin the Soil (Priyanka and Archana 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . 74

6.3 Most Efficient Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

7 Ex Situ Bioremediation Technology for Plastic Degradation . . . . . . 777.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777.2 Reports of Plastic Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

7.2.1 Reports on Ex Situ Degradation of the Plastic . . . . . . . 787.3 Preparation of Bacterial and Fungal Inoculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807.4 Inoculation of the Bacterial and Fungal Cultures into

the Pots with Dumped Polythene Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807.5 Analysis of Polythene Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817.6 Most Efficient Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

8 Social Awareness of Plastic Waste Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858.2 Total Amount of Plastic Waste Generated Worldwide . . . . . . . . 868.3 Effect of Plastic Waste on Marine and Terrestrial Animals . . . . . 878.4 Effect of Plastic Waste on Soil Fertility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878.5 Effect of Plastic Waste on the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888.6 Alternate to Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888.7 Recommendations to Minimize the Use of Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . 898.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

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9 Analysis of the Plastic Degradation Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

9.2.1 Dilution of the Plastic Degradation Products . . . . . . . . 949.2.2 Solvent for the Plastic Degradation Products . . . . . . . . 95

9.3 Reports of Polythene Degradation Products (PEDP)Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959.3.1 GC-MS Analysis of the PEDP Produced Due

to Action of Bacteria (Shahnawaz et al. 2016) . . . . . . . 959.3.2 GC-MS Analysis of PEDP Produced Due

to the Action of Fungi (Sangale et al. 2019) . . . . . . . . . 979.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

10 Toxicity Testing of Plastic-Degrading Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10310.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10310.2 Effect of Plastic Degradation Products on Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

10.2.1 Collection of the Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10410.2.2 Obtaining Polythene Degradation Products

and Their Dilution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10410.2.3 Assessment of Toxicity Testing on Sorghum Seeds . . . . 105

10.3 Effect of Plastic Degradation Products on Animals . . . . . . . . . . 10510.3.1 Source of the Animal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10510.3.2 Acclimatization of the Edible Fishes

in the Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10510.3.3 Addition of PEDP for Toxicity Testing on Fishes . . . . . 10610.3.4 Mortality Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

10.4 Reports of Toxicity Testing of Polythene DegradationProducts on Plants and Animal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10610.4.1 Effect of Plastic Degradation Products on Plants . . . . . . 10610.4.2 Effect of Plastic Degradation Products on Animals . . . . 109

10.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

11 Policy and Legislation/Regulations of Plastic Waste Aroundthe Globe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11311.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11311.2 Policies and Regulations of Maharashtra Government

to Tackle with the Plastic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11411.3 Policies and Regulations of the Government of India

to Manage Plastic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11811.4 Policies and Regulations to Address the Plastic Waste

in European Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11911.4.1 Plastic Ban in Certain Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12011.4.2 Consumption Reduction Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

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11.4.3 Obligations for Producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12011.4.4 Collection Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12011.4.5 Labeling Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12011.4.6 Awareness-Raising Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

11.5 Policies and Regulations Followed by the United Statesto Control the Plastic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12111.5.1 US Regulation of Solid Waste Disposal (Keller and

Heckman 2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12111.5.2 Impact of Policies and Regulations on the Practical

Plastic Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12211.6 Waste Management Initiatives in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

11.6.1 Public Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12311.6.2 Private-Formal Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12311.6.3 Private-Informal Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

11.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

12 Conclusions and Future Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12712.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12712.2 Future Needs in Plastic Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

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About the Authors

Dr. Mohd. Shahnawaz is DST-SERB National Post-doctoral Fellow at Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road,Jammu-180001, Jammu and Kashmir, India. He hasserved as Lecturer in Botany (Academic ArrangementBasis) at the Department of Botany, Govt. Degree Col-lege Kishtwar, Kishtwar-182204, Jammu and Kashmir,India (2016–2017). Under the guidance of Prof. Dr.Altafhusain B. Nadaf and Prof. Dr. Avinash B. Ade,he has earned his M.Phil. and Ph.D. in Botany from theDepartment of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune Univer-sity, Pune-411007, Maharashtra, India.

He is recipient of various fellowships awarded bySavitribai Phule Pune University (SPPU), UniversityGrants Commission (UGC), and Department of Science& Technology (DST)-Science and EngineeringResearch Board (SERB), India. His research interest isin ecology, microbiology, bioremediation, and plantbiotechnology. He has served as a Reviewer for a num-ber of international journals. He is Editorial BoardMember of various international journals and currentlyacting as Academic Editor of the Asian Journal ofBiological Sciences (SCIENCEDOMAIN International).He has more than 1 year teaching experience in cellbiology, microbiology, and plant biotechnology. Hehas also published more than 15 research articles in thepeer-reviewed international journals and authored/coauthored 5 books.

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Dr. Manisha K. Sangale is an Assistant Professor(CHB Basis) in Botany at the Department of Botany,Rayat Shikshan Sanstha’s S. M. Joshi College,Hadapsar, Pune-411028, Maharashtra, India. She hasalso served as an Assistant Professor (CHB Basis) atthe Department of Botany, Rayat Shikshan Sanstha’sYashwantrao Chavan Institute of Science, Satara,Maharashtra, India (2016–2017), at both UG and PGlevel. Under the guidance of Prof. Dr. B. B. Chauguleand Prof. Dr. Avinash B. Ade, she has earned her M.Phil. and Ph.D. in Botany from the Department of Bot-any, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune-411007,Maharashtra, India. She is recipient of variousfellowships and awards conferred by Savitribai PhulePune University and University Grants Commission(UGC), India. Her research interest is in mycology,ecology, microbiology, and bioremediation. She hasserved as Referee for a number of international journals.She has more than 1 year teaching experience in phy-cology, mycology, and microbiology and plant biotech-nology. She has also published more than 15 researcharticles in the peer-reviewed international journals andauthored a book.

xviii About the Authors

Dr. Avinash B. Ade is Professor at the Department ofBotany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune-411007, Maharashtra, India. He has earlier served asAssociate Professor (2005–2009) and Assistant Profes-sor (1997–2009) in the Department of Botany, Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India. His research interestis in ecology and cytogenetics with specialization inplant-microbes interaction and bioremediation. He hasbeen conferred with various prestigious awards, notablyDr. M. A. Dhore Gold Medal for standing first in theorder of merit in M.Sc. (Botany) Examinationconducted by Amravati University, Amravati (1996).He has served as Referee for a number of national andinternational journals. He has more than 20 years ofteaching experience in plant ecology, cytogenetic,genetics, plant pathology, and bioremediation. He hasalso published more than 50 research articles in the peer-reviewed international journal and authored orcoauthored 6 books and 11 book chapters. He is aMember of many international scientific societies andorganizations, importantly Life Member of MarathwadaBotanical Society, Maharashtra Society of Genetics andPlant Breeding, Indian Society of Genetics and PlantBreeding, and Indian Society of Plant Pathologists.

About the Authors xix