BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANE energy flux ADAPTATION

CASSANDRA FORTINI

Toward the Biological SystemZbigniew Oksiuta

Rensselaer Polytechnic InstituteDepartment of Architecture

may 2011

Figure 1.01 Best Foam

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CASSANDRA FORTINIZBIGNIEW OKSIUTA

JEFFERSON ELLINGERTOWARD THE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM

may 2011BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANE energy flux adaptation

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BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANE energy flux ADAPTATION

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Acknowledgments

Thank you to my family and friends for all their support and love. Thank you to Zbig-niew Oksiuta for his free spirit and a foam-tastic collaboration.

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precis _ thesis statement

MEMBRANES OF OUR UNIVERSE

A BIOLOGICAL POLYMER _ GELATIN

from nano to macro

A DWELLING FOR ONE HUMAN

THE UNIVERSAL MEMBRANE

biology and architecture

bibliography

Figures

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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precis _ thesis statement

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Homosapien activity has been altering the face of our planet for over 10 thousand years. Through a synthesis of advancement in intelligence and the salvage of the envi-ronment , humans have impeded the flow of evolution. A new form of thinking is required to continue an existence on this planet. With the developments in science examining bi-ology and the origins of life, it is important we continue a practice that is interwoven yet parallel to this research. We are at a crucial point in architecture to combat the incompat-ibility of nature and culture. At the edges of architecture, biology, and technology, new physical and conceptual living conditions will be examined.

It is important to recognize the history and origins of evolution and to draw upon it. All living organisms originate within a liquid me-dium wrapped in a membrane. Furthermore, this biological bag exists in all aspects and scales of the natural universe. At the most

basic unit of life we find the cell. It’s efficien-cy lay in its self organized and layered en-closure. The function of the cell membrane is to form a barrier between the inside and the outside, so that the chemical environ-ments on the two sides can be different. It also causes brief changes in the internal environment through movement across the membrane. These changes are the ways in which cells respond to events in the outside world.

As the varied degrees of living membranes are examined, an invaluable efficiency can be observed. Cells, organs, animals, hu-mans, and so on all embody and enclosure that adapts and changes given the different environmental and internal forces. These forces of energy create a flux within the medium [membrane] that create a biologi-cal transformation and allow the life form to continue an existence. Our third skin must be reexamined as a bio-logical membrane that dismisses ideas of rigidity and mechanics and embraces the essence of natural enclosures as undefined, semipermeable, and integrated. In a scope of architecture, technology, and biology, a protein produced by a hydrolysis of collagen extracted from the bones, tissues, and or-gans of animals, i.e. gelatin, will be tested as a building material. The anatomy and energy of folds, growths, protrusions, thickness, the structure within, and the reaction to stressors of this biological polymer will be analyzed on an architectural scale. Using this data, ma-nipulations of the gelatin are designed and redesigned combining architectural and sci-entific methods. The internal and external forces on a building enclosure is reevaluated in a biological manner to deduce the provo-

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cation and adaptation energies of a future biological living membrane.

The architectural envelope will be rede-signed in correlation to the efficiency and organizational strategies of a biological membrane rather than by political and eco-nomical systems. Examination of external and internal forces will be considered in es-tablishing the energy flux and adaptation of a gelatinous membrane on a universal scale and site. A biological polymer, gelatin, will be analyzed, manipulated, and designed as a soft living membrane.

11Figure 1.02 Universal Mem

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membranes of our universe

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Extremophiles are extraordinary organisms that can exist in environments that would be detrimental to all other life on Earth. These sites include thermal vents, acid pools, space, or even the sun. The ability to exist in these extreme environments is due to the extremophiles incredible membrane adapt-ability capabilities. This unique membrane characteristic became the initial basis and interest for further biological membrane re-search.

Different scales of membranes were ex-amined, beginning with small and biological systems to large and artificial enclosures. The research began with examining the most basic unit of life and extended to our body membranes [skin] and then our fabri-cated world. An experiment in membrane adaptation was then executed.

This kind of research enabled an under-standing of natural envelopes or enclosure

systems, as well as artificial systems we have designed. With this knowledge an un-derstanding of existing and efficient systems and implement them where we have de-signed faults in our artificial world.

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ARCHAEA CELLS

The cell is the functional basic unit of life. Organisms can be unicellular or multicellu-lar. However in the beginning of a ‘time’ cells existed as an initial system of slight complex-ity. Only through complex interaction of other simple systems do we get complex results. In no way do the initial structures foreshad-ow the result in a reaction. Therefore it can be said in nearly all life forms does the func-tion presuppose the structure.

Archaea cells are unique because there are numerous differences in their biochemistry not found in other life forms. Specifically in their reliance on ether lipids within the cell membrane, and the exploitation on greater variety of sources of energy.The most strik-

ing chemical differences between Archaea and other living things lie in their cell mem-brane.

The most common surface structures on archaea and bacteria are monomolecular crystalline arrays of protein subunits termed surface layers or S-layers. Since S-layer-carrying organisms are ubiquitous in the bio-sphere and because S-layers represent one of the most abundant cellular proteins, it is now obvious that these metabolically expen-sive products must provide the organisms with an advantage of selection in very differ-ent habitats. See fig 2.01.

Figure 2.01 S-Layer

15Figure 2.02 Vibrio Vulnificus

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EXTREMOPHILES

Well before the time of homosapiens other organisms lived, Extremophile being among the most ancient life form known now. There-fore, Extremophiles are aimed to the deep-est understanding of the origin and devel-opment of life. Their aged existence lay in their ability to survive in extreme habitats no other organism could live. This is due to the extremophile’s cellular membrane structure, as it has capabilities to adapt to extreme en-vironments.

Extremophile are so unique because of the environment they can survive in. They thrive in heats up to 200 degrees Celsius and as low as -15 degrees C, in pH levels below and above 0, in 1200 different atmospheres, 0%

oxygen, and can be 20-40 years in dorman-cy. The Water Bear has survived in space for 10 days (fig 2.04).

Cell walls are an important structural com-ponent of archaea organisms (which include Extremophiles) and essential for many as-pects of their life. Particularly, the diverse structures of the outermost boundary layers strongly reflect adaptations of organisms to specific ecological and environmental con-ditions. The genomes of some microbes, including yeasts and bacteria, are able to readjust the molecular organization of their membranes and can easily cope with ex-tremes in temperatures. They manufacture of “heat-shock” proteins which is a common biological reaction to environmental ex-tremes.

Figure 2.03 Arman

17Figure 2.04 Water Bear

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CELL MEMBRANES

As seen in Extremophiles, the function of the cell membrane is to form a barrier between the inside of the cell and the outside, so that the chemical environments on the two sides can be different. The cell controls those differences so as to optimize the workings of the chemical machinery inside the cyto-plasm. The cell also causes brief changes in the internal environment by moving stuff across the membrane in a controlled way. These changes are the ways in which cell respond to events in the outside world.

Cells have multiple layers of enclosures. The Lipid bilayer has an amphipathic structure of phospholipids that allow membranes to form a stable selectively permeable lipid barrier.

The membrane proteins are structures that can be found on the inside, outside, or mem-brane spanning. The membrane skeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to.

Endocytosis is the process by which cells ab-sorb molecules from outside the cell by en-gulfing them with their plasma membrane. It is used because not all substances can pass through the cell membrane. The membrane invaginates (folds inward) around materials from the environment, forming a small pock-et. The pocket deepens, forming a vesicle. This vesicle separates from the membrane and migrates with its contents to the cell’s interior. The process opposite to endocytosis is exocytosis. See fig 2.05

Figure 2.05 Endocytosis

19Figure 2.06 Merging Membranes

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SKIN [ HUMAN ]

The skin is the outer covering of the body. It is the largest organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of ecto-dermal tissue, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and internal or-gans. Human skin is similar to that of most other mammals except that it is not protected by a pelt. It gathers knowledge and responds to the environment. It lacks boundaries exist-ing on exposed surfaces to enclosed cavi-ties. It is living, dead, self-repairing, and self replacing. Because it interfaces with the en-vironment, skin plays a key role in protecting (the body) against pathogens and excessive water loss.

Skin performs the functions of protection,

sensation, heat regulation, control of evapo-ration, aesthetics and communication, stor-age and synthesis, excretion, absorption, water resistance. Unlike most other species humans do not have a niche on our planet and therefore find the necessity of clothing to act as a second skin.

Figure 2.07 Will Su’s Arm

21Figure 2.08 Skin Section

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2ND SKIN [ CLOTHING]

A feature of most humans societies is the wearing of clothing, a category encompass-ing a wide variety of materials that cover the body. The primary purpose of clothing is functional, as a protection from the elements. Clothes also enhance safety during hazard-ous activities by providing a barrier between the skin and the environment (fig 2.09). Further, clothes provide a hygienic barrier, keeping toxins away from the body and limit-ing the transmission of germs. Clothing per-forms a range of social and cultural functions (fig 2.10), such as individual, occupational and sexual differentiation, and social sta-tus. Clothing protects people against many things that might injure the uncovered hu-man body. Clothes act as protection from the

elements. Conversely, clothing may protect the environment from the clothing wearer. Shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing.

Figure 2.09 Scuba Figure 2.10 Meat

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habitat, separate from the environment. It lacks a n efficiency in almost all aspects.

3RD SKIN [BUILDING]

Buildings come in a vast array of shapes and functions, and have been adapted through-out history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available, to weather con-ditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons. Build-ings serve several needs of society. Primar-ily as shelter from weather and as general living space, to provide privacy, to store be-longings and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a physi-cal division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) and the outside (a place that at times may be harsh and harmful). A door is a moveable barrier used to cover the opening entrance to a building. Buildings are rigid and mechanical enclosures for human

Figure 2.11 Bevk Perovic Arhitekti Figure 2.12 Evanescence album cover

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AN EGGSPERIMENT IN HARD TO SOFT MEMBRANE ADAPTATION

An egg possesses a rigid shell membrane made of calcium carbonate to protect its in-terior much like the concept of a cell. When a raw egg is placed in an acidic solution [vin-egar] for 2 days the hard shell becomes soft. This is because when the calcium carbon-ate shell is placed in an acidic environment a chemical reaction occurs and carbon dioxide is released (fig 2.13). The chemical reaction within the membrane and environment has minor importance, but what is of great inter-est is the transformation in the membrane. As the membrane became soft it still protect-ed it’s interior elements. The soft membrane allowed for a greater durability then the hard shell. This experiment will serve as the representational basis of further biological membrane research. Specifically in regards to membrane adaptation to environment and flexibility of a hard to soft membrane.

25Figure 2.13 Shell Adaptation

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27Figure 2.14 Punctured Membrane

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A biological polymer _ gelatin

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Explorations with gelatin were executed in respects to amphipathic structural design of a soap bubble. The aspect of permeability remains as a crucial standard in membrane efficiency. As it exists now, we enter a build-ing envelope through a rigid envelop that is opened and shut. This deficiency, so to say, is not surprising of its time. Yet when observing the movement of most molecules along a biological membrane a permeability is evident where the membrane engulfs the alien matter and seals behind it .

Gelatin exists in three separate states of matter, depending on environmental ener-gies. Analysis’ were performed on the gela-tin in its different states of rigidity, soft , and liquid. The challenge becomes controlling these state changes while maintaining an earthly environment of air on the inside and outside of the membrane. The contrasts of inside and outside is transformed from a thinking of thickness and intensities. The

facade is altered to modulate the changes in the present energy streams. It exists of several layers of different density and poros-ity . It adjusts the light, heating flow, aerial changes, and sound propagation. Interior and exterior space are tied together and the facade is no longer a stiff border, but a semi-permeable membrane which modulates the energy flux.

As the gelatins states of rigid, soft and liquid, were being observed, a new manipulation of the polymer was discovered. This manipula-tion could allow for all three states of matter to be present in once instance, this discovery was foam. As new and stable foams were created and tested, a sense of permeabil-ity was reinstated, along with other unique characteristics of stable foam that had never been explored before.

Gelatin is used as the main material focus because it is a biological polymer that is de-rived from a hydrolysis of collagen extracted from the bones, tissues, and organs of ani-mals. The process of casting gelatin involves it being absorbed by water (at a specific ratio), melted in boiling water, poured into a form, and dried. It can be manipulated throughout all these stages.

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A SOAP BUBBLE MEMBRANE

Initial inspiration for material practice was drawn from natural phenomenons sur-rounding the soap bubble. Seen in fig 3.01 a water drop is colliding with a soap bubble and passing through without rupturing the bubble. This exemplifies the natural process of endocytosis present in cell membranes. Below this process is created at a larger scale. Imagine your body jumping into a pool of water, as you pass through the surface of water, it engulfs you, and seals behind. This is an example of this same concept at a hu-man scale.

31Figure 3.01 Soap Bubble

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WHEN FOAM ATTACKS

This image provided a vision of what foam at a human scale could look like. The Australian shoreline at Yamba in New South wales in August 2007 was swallowed up by a layer of foam transforming the area. Scientists ex-plain that the foam was created by impurities in the ocean, such as salts, chemicals, dead plants, decomposed fish and excretions from seaweed. These elements churned together by powerful currents and as waves started to form on the surface, the motion of the water caused the bubbles to swirl upwards, mass together, and become foam. See fig 3.02

33Figure 3.02 Sea Foam

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FREI OTTO

Frei Otto experiments with the deformation, forms, and surface dynamics of soap bub-bles. Here he experiments with the non-de-structive penetration of a soap bubbles that is accomplished using a wetted ball. During entry and exit the ball acts as a single load on the bubble surface. See fig 3.03.

Figure 3.03 Frei Otto’s Bubble Penetration

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AMPHIPATHIC SURFACES

Different kinds of structures are formed by amphipathic substances of air, water, wa-ter and oil, or water and oil as illustrated by Neil O Hardy in fig 3.04. However a desir-able membrane structure for humans would possess air on either side of the membrane. This construction is visible in the soap bub-ble membrane, which is accomplished with a thin water film in between the amphipathic layers. A smaller membrane is created then placed inside a larger one while oil is injected to the negative space. See fig 3.05

airoilair

gelatin

PhospholipidSoapAir

Water

Figure 3.04 Hardy’s Soap Film Illustrations Figure 3.05 Amphipathic Gelatin Design

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ADAPTATION TO AIR

The change in states is observed from the beginning stages of membrane design. The liquid gelatin is poured into the spheri-cal scaffold and coated on the outer edges until a gelatinous consistency is achieved. The membrane is removed from the scaffold and dried for a few days. A deformation in the membrane is observed. What was once a 1 part gelatin, 2 part water, consistency, has evaporated into a 2.5 part gelatin, .5 part water.

The membrane bulges in thinned areas and shrinks as a whole. The water content can be observed to the right of the first set of im-ages. The membrane holds a greater water content in thicker areas, but most if not all of the water evaporates. See fig 3.06.

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72 HOURS2.5 PART GELATIN.5 PART WATER

24 HOURS1.5 PART GELATIN1.5 PART WATER

4 HOURS1 PART GELATIN2 PART WATER

HOURS AFTER CREATIONCHEMICAL

COMPOSITION OF MEMBRANE

Figure 3.06 Adaptation to Air

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ADAPTATION TO HEAT

A rigid, dried, gelatin membrane is exposed to the energies of heat [35 degrees Celsius]. Areas of the gelatin skin become weak, hole open, and sag. The membrane acquires many holes that cultivate into larger chasms and eventually cave within itself. Deforma-tions occur in the thinnest regions first. See fig 3.07

39Figure 3.07 Adaptation to Heat

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faster then its breakdown.

Explorations in different gelatin foam recipes were tested. Each recipe was very specific according to its ingredients to create varying densities and structural capacities. Stabiliz-ing gelatin foam was a delicate process of controlling ratios and environmental condi-tions.

Fig 3.08 displays some of the different reci-pes and resulting densities of initial explora-tions with gelatin foam.

STABILIZING GELATIN FOAM

As the varying states of gelatin were being tested and examined, it became apparent another aspect would be necessary to ex-plore that encapsulated all three states of matter at once. This missing element was foam. At this point foam became the basis for continued gelatin research. Existing in the three states of solid, liquid, and gas si-multaneously allowed for many opportunities within the membrane. Foam could provide a permeability and yet an insulation.

Several conditions are needed to produce foam: there must be mechanical work, sur-face active components that reduce the surface tension, and the formation of foam

1 gelatin : 2 dish soap - high air pressure

1 gelatin : 2 vinegar - baking soda

1 gelatin : 3 soap bubbles - low air pressure

Figure 3.08 Varying Foam Densities

41Figure 3.09 Foam-Scape

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43Figure 3.10 Unstable Foam

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45Figure 3.11 Density Gradation

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47Figure 3.12 Foam-Scape II Interrogation

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from nano to macro

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Ideas and conclusions were generated af-ter and during material researching which led to thoughts and investigations on design. Techniques on developing a membrane within a greater membrane were tested. The membrane adaptation to drying and heating altered depending on thickness and poros-ity. It became clear the gelatin membrane needed to exist in all 3 states simultaneously to act and react as a living enclosure. What became most apparent was the inadequa-cies of the scale. Structure, form, strength, elasticity, porosity, and density would change drastically at full scale. Examining the form virtually became a necessity. 3D scanning would allow smaller objects to be transformed into an organization of points that could be used in a computer.

As different variations in membranes were being designed and analyzed, ideas relating back to cell membrane research were being considered.

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BIMEMBRANE I

Initial design investigations were made con-sidering the ideas of a membrane within another membrane so that the inner and outer membrane could adapt and change independently of the other one. A gelatin bimembrane was created simultaneously. An inner membrane was dried and placed in gelatin while the outer membrane was being created. A deformation occurred on the inner membrane as a result. See fig 4.01

51Figure 4.01 Bimembrane I

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BIMEMBRANE II

A double skin gelatin membrane was cre-ated independently. Each sphere was made separately. The outer, larger, membrane was cut and resealed to insert an inner, smaller, membrane. See fig 4.02.

53Figure 4.02 Bimembrane II

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A LIVING MEM

In order for the gelatin membrane to change and adapt to internal in external energies it will constantly be changing in its states of existence. As a hole forms and melts to al-low passage (fig 4.03), a growth of excess gelatin is generated to seal the hole, and hardens. The gelatin can also be generated or melted to control the transparencies of the membrane.

Figure 4.04 shows the conceptual design of a living membrane that adapts, changes, and grows according to its internal and exter-nal environments.

Figure 4.03 Armature Sealing Hole

55Figure 4.04 Living Mem

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3D SCANNING

In order to make accurate design investiga-tions on membrane flux, full scale explora-tions needed to be made. A membrane was created and spray painted matte gray. This allowed for a 3d scanning to occur which would generate a density of points about the actual object. These could then be altered and investigated digitally, at a full scale.

Although a form could be imposed to cast the gelatin in, natural deformations would inevitably occur because the gelatin always dries to its optimal form for strength (fig 4.06). Since the gelatin is a biological polymer it will act under natural stresses, so designing forms was a collaboration of human forces and natural forces.

Working both physically and digitally in mem-brane analysis was necessary. It allowed for comprehensive discoveries at varying scales. Once the membrane was developed digitally it could be manipulated for practical design.

3D scanning was performed under the su-pervision of Ivan Markov with his equipment. See fig 4.05.

Figure 4.05 3D Scanning

57Figure 4.06 Deformations from Sphere

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FOAM DESIGN AT A HUMAN SCALE

Once the gelatin foam recipe was perfected and stabilized a large amount was produced in attempts to creating a simulation of what passing through would be like. A rectangle with a base 2 feet by 3 feet and height of 6 feet was constructed out of 2x3 wood beams. All screws and connections were made on the inside to allow for easy removal and de-struction. Three of the exterior walls and the top ceiling was wrapped in plastic, leaving one side open. The goal was to generate a large amount of foam on the sides covered in plastic to create a foam cave at a human scale. After the foam had been created all of the supporting pieces (screws, wood, and plastic) would be dismantled so only the foam would be remaining.

As the seasons changed during the second semester, from cold winter to a humid sum-mer, the foam became more difficult to sta-bilize with the same recipe. The foam was such a delicate material that the atmospheric pressure continued to collapse the bubbles into flat surfaces rather than a foam cave. The resulting piece provided great insight on the strengths and deficiencies within this newly designed material.

The corners of the frame were coated with a stronger gelatin foam based with vinegar and mixed with baking soda during application. The surfaces were then sprayed with foam using a special machine that generated light air pressure. The mixture consisted of 1 part gelatin, 2 parts dish soap. The mixture was heated and combined then slightly cooled so the bubbles could gel a little bit before in-stantly collapsing.

Figure 4.07 Foam Gun

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Figure 4.08 Making Foam I

Figure 4.09 Making Foam II

60Figure 4.10 Standing Foam

61Figure 4.11 Sitting Foam

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A Dwelling for one human

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If we investigate the structures and forms of nature we will find the most basic unit, of high strength and efficiency - the cell. Every cell is derived from another cell. The efficiency of the biological world lay in its inherent self organization.

For programmatic purposes the membrane development will be based around a single person dwelling - one cell, were the human occupant is the nucleus and center of infor-mation. The internal forces will be based off of human needs, and the external forces will be based off environmental variances. These forces will be held accountable for modulating the energy flux and articulating the membrane form.

The external forces are defined by light/radiation, pressure, temperature, motion, fluid, strength and load. The internal forces are defined by protection from environment, air exchange, visual relationships, light, and

programmatic spaces.

The spaces within the dwelling will be estab-lished by gelatin rigidity and porosity rather than by furniture and walls. Areas for sitting, shelving, or bathing will be manipulations of the surface and exist within the continuity of the membrane. The interior will exist as a seamless, gelatin, and pure environment with varying porosities throughout, allowing unique visual relationships to the environ-ment.

The entrance into the membrane will be a passage through foam that the occupant will slip and rip through with the possibility of generating more foam behind them. The foam will spill out onto the landscape as it creates spaces of its own and has the poten-tial to become another dwelling on its own.

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N

Figure 5.01 Plan

65Figure 5.02 Sections

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67Figure 5.03 Interior Rendering I

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69Figure 5.04 Interior Rendering II

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the universal membrane

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The underlying idea of projecting the princi-ples of the cell to an architectural membrane is that it can exist in any location an integrate itself. A universal membrane was designed in the essence that it will adapt accordingly to its environment.

The gelatin was examined more generally in how it would be effected by different environ-mental factors on Earth. The three states of rigidity, gelly, and foam, allow for unique ad-aptations to the flux in the environment. The foam allows for human permeability, air flow, and insulation when using the sun radiation. The rigidity of the membrane accounts for the stable distribution of load and protec-tion from fluid. The gelly state allows for the growth of plant life, as well as the opportu-nity to add or change physical conditions that can dry over time. The dwelling becomes the medium and result of the external environ-ment and internal environment.

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Figure 6.02 West Elevation

Figure 6.03 South Elevation

Figure 6.01 Exterior Rendering

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Figure 6.05 Environmental Diagram _ Wind

Figure 6.06 Environmental Diagram _ Sun

Figure 6.04 Physical Model

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Biology and Architecture

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A collaboration of biology and architecture has become necessary to draw on basic life existence principles in order to develop a new world order as mankind tries to reinte-grate himself into a world he has destroyed. We have created a disconnect between our-selves and nature as we live within these rigid, mechanical, and imposed habitats while all other life forms exist within soft, undefined, and integrated habitats. Analyz-ing biological processes and systems allows insight on how we function and how we can reconsider our ‘built’ world.

As nature gave us material we existed within it and let it form our life, then mankind was able to grow outside of nature and impose his own forms on it. In this thesis I have re-turned to a biological material nature has provided and manipulate it. With direct ma-terial research I am able to understand the natural processes of bending energies and dynamics of the biological polymer, gelatin.

Understanding these principles allows for a collaboration between design and natural processes.

I have purposed a design that draws upon biological membrane principals and the in-herent properties of biological polymers to establish a new living membrane. The enclo-sure system will exist as a direct result of in-terior and exterior forces on the medium and disregard historical, political, or social ide-als. As the medium of internal and external energies, the membrane will be in constant flux, changing throughout the gelatin’s vary-ing states. Integrating itself into any environ-ment, the membrane will be in a constant state of change from liquid, soft, rigid, and foam like, all within a continuous membrane. Creating varying densities, porosities, and permeabilities this universal membrane will reestablish a way of life and reintegrate us within our natural environment.

As this thesis examines the manipulation of a biological polymer on an architectural scale, I would imagine the future of biologi-cal architectural membranes as a new living organism. This membrane will not only be a medium between mankind and nature, but a living species, that breaths, reproduces, communicates, and mutates.

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77Figure 7.01 Dead Mem

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bibliogrpahy

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Figures

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Figure 1.01 Best Foam _ By Author

Figure 1.02 Universal Mem _ By Author

Figure 2.01 S-Layer _ Science Photo Library. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://www.sciencephoto.com/me dia/214885/enlarge>.

Figure 2.02 Vibrio Vulnificus _ Kunkel, Dr. Dennis. “Visuals Unlimited.” Science Stock Photography Specialists | Visuals Unlimited. 2 Apr. 2011. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://visual sunlimited.photoshelter.com/im age?> Figure 2.03 Arman _ Israel, Brett. “Bizarre Super-small Microbes Discovered - Technology & Science - Science -Msnbc.com.” Msnbc.com - Break ing News, Science and Tech News, World News, US News, Local

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News- Msnbc.com. 5 May 2010. Web. 18 May 2011. <http:// www.msnbc.msn.com/id/36976220/ ns/technology_and_science- science/t/bizarre-super-small-mi crobes-discovered/>.

Figure 2.04 Water Bear _ Kunkel, Dr. Den nis. “Visuals Unlimited.” Science Stock Photography Specialists | Visuals Unlimited. 2 Apr. 2011. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://visual sunlimited.photoshelter.com/im age?>

Figure 2.05 Endocytosis _ De, Duve Christ ian., and Neil O. Hardy. A Guided Tour of the Living Cell. New York: Scientific American Library,1984.

Figure 2.06 Merging Membranes _ Kunkel, Dr. Dennis. “Visuals Unlimited.” Sci ence Stock Photography Specialists | Visuals Unlimited. 2 Apr. 2011. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://visual sunlimited.photoshelter.com/im age?>

Figure 2.07 Will Su’s Arm _ By Author

Figure 2.08 Skin Section _ Kunkel, Dr. Dennis. “Visuals Unlimited.” Science Stock Photography Specialists | Visuals Unlimited. 2 Apr. 2011. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://visual sunlimited.photoshelter.com/im age?>

Figure 2.09 Scuba _ Rayner, Gordon. “Britsh Scuba Divers Missing in

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Bali, Indonesia - Telegraph.” Telegraph.co.uk - Telegraph On line, Daily Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph - Telegraph. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://www.telegraph. co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/ indonesia/2084829/British-scuba- divers-missing-in-Bali-Indonesia. html>.

Figure 2.10 Meat _ “Gaga’s Meat Dress: Was It Real?|LADY GAGA| News | MTV European.” Music Vid eos, MTV Playlists, Reality TV, Artist News, Tours, Artist News, Contests | MTV European. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://www. mtv.tv/news/was-lady-gaga-s-meat- dress-real/>.

Figure 2.11 Bevk Perovic Arhitekti _ “House R by Bevk Perovic Arhitekti.” Mate rialicious. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://www.materialicious. com/2009/04/house-r-by-bevk- perovic-arhitekti.html>.

Figure 2.12 Evanesense Album Cover _ “Evanescence - Open Door CD Album.” CD Universe - You On line Music Store. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://www.cduni verse.com/productinfo. asp?pid=7279833>.

Figure 2.13 Shell Adaptation _ By Author

Figure 2.14 Punctured Membrane _ By Author

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Figure 3.01 Soap Bubble _ Kunkel, Dr. Dennis. “Visuals Unlimited.” Science Stock Photography Specialists | Visuals Unlimited. 2 Apr. 2011. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://visual sunlimited.photoshelter.com/im age?>

Figure 3.02 Sea Foam _ “Snopes.com: Sea Foam.” Snopes.com: Urban Legends Reference Pages. Web. 18 May 2011. <http://www.snopes.com/ photos/natural/seafoam.asp>.

Figure 3.03 Frei Otto’s Bubble Penetration _ Bach, Klaus, Erthold Burkhardt, and Frei Otto.Forming Bubbles.

Figure 3.04 Hardy’s Soap Film Illustrations _ De, Duve Christian., and Neil O. Hardy. A Guided Tour of the Living Cell. New York: Scientific American Library,1984.

Figure 3.05 Amphipathic Gelatin Design _ By Author

Figure 3.06 Adaptation to Air _ By Author

Figure 3.07 Adaptation to Heat _ By Author

Figure 3.08 Varying Foam Densities _ By Author

Figure 3.09 Foam-Scape _ By Author

Figure 3.10 Unstable Foam _ By Author

Figure 3.11 Density Gradation _ By Author

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Figure 3.12 Foam-Scape II Interrogation _ By Author

Figure 4.01 Bimembrane I _ By Author

Figure 4.02 Bimembrane II _ By Author

Figure 4.03 Armature Sealing Hole _ By Author

Figure 4.04 Living Mem _ By Author

Figure 4.05 3D Scanning _ By Author

Figure 4.06 Deformations from Sphere _ By Author

Figure 4.07 Foam Gun _ By Author

Figure 4.08 Making Foam I _ By Author

Figure 4.09 Making Foam II _ By Author

Figure 4.10 Standing Foam _ By Author

Figure 4.11 Sitting Foam _ By Author

Figure 5.01 Plan _ By Author

Figure 5.02 Sections _ By Author

Figure 5.03 Interior Rendering I _ By Author

Figure 5.04 Interior Rendering II _ By Author

Figure 6.01 Exterior Rendering _ By Author

Figure 6.02 West Elevation _ By Author

Figure 6.03 South Elevation _ By Author

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Figure 6.04 Physical Model _ By Author

Figure 6.05 Environmental Diagram Wind _ By Author

Figure 6.06 Environmental Diagram Sun _ By Author

Figure 7.01 Dead Mem _ By Author

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