Tacitus

For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation).

Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (/ˈtæsɨtəs/; Clas-sical Latin: [ˈtakɪtʊs]; c. AD 56 – after 117) was a senatorand a historian of the Roman Empire. The survivingportions of his two major works—the Annals and theHistories—examine the reigns of the Roman EmperorsTiberius, Claudius, Nero, and those who reigned in theYear of the Four Emperors (AD 69). These two worksspan the history of the Roman Empire from the deathof Augustus in AD 14 to the years of the First Jewish–Roman War in AD 70. There are substantial lacunae inthe surviving texts, including a gap in the Annals that isfour books long.Tacitus’ other writings discuss oratory (in dialogue for-mat, see Dialogus de oratoribus), Germania (in De orig-ine et situ Germanorum), and the life of his father-in-law,Agricola, the Roman general responsible for much of theRoman conquest of Britain, mainly focusing on his cam-paign in Britannia (De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae).Tacitus is considered to be one of the greatest Romanhistorians.[1][2] He lived in what has been called the SilverAge of Latin literature. He is known for the brevity andcompactness of his Latin prose, as well as for his pene-trating insights into the psychology of power politics.

1 Life

Details about his personal life are scarce. What little isknown comes from scattered hints throughout his work,the letters of his friend and admirer Pliny the Younger,and an inscription found at Mylasa in Caria.[3]

Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an equestrian family;[4]like many Latin authors of both the Golden and SilverAges, he was from the provinces, probably northern Italyor Gallia Narbonensis. The exact place and date of hisbirth are not known, and his praenomen (first name) isalso unknown; in the letters of Sidonius Apollinaris hisname is Gaius, but in the major surviving manuscript ofhis work his name is given as Publius.[5] One scholar’ssuggestion of Sextus has gained no approval.[6]

1.1 Family and early life

Most of the older aristocratic families failed to survive theproscriptions which took place at the end of the Republic,

Tacitus was probably born in Gallia Narbonensis.

and Tacitus makes it clear that he owed his rank to theFlavian emperors (Hist. 1.1). The claim that he de-scended from a freedman derives from a speech in hiswritings that asserts that many senators and knights weredescended from freedmen (Ann. 13.27), but this is gen-erally disputed.[7]

His father may have been the Cornelius Tacitus whoserved as procurator of Belgica and Germania; Pliny theElder mentions that Cornelius had a son who aged rapidly(N.H. 7.76), which implies an early death. If Corneliuswas his father, and since there is no mention of Tacitussuffering such a condition, it is possible that this refers toa brother.[8] The friendship between the younger Plinyand Tacitus leads some scholars to conclude that theywere both the offspring of wealthy provincial families.[9]

Although the province of his birth remains unknown (var-iously conjectures suggest Gallia Belgica, Gallia Narbo-nensis, or northern Italy)[10] his marriage to the daugh-ter of the Narbonensian senator Gnaeus Julius Agricolaimplies that he came from Gallia Narbonensis. Tacitus’dedication to Fabius Iustus in the Dialogus may indicatea connection with Spain, and his friendship with Plinysuggests origins in northern Italy.[11] No evidence exists,however, that Pliny’s friends from northern Italy knewTacitus, nor do Pliny’s letters hint that the two men had acommon background.[12] Pliny Book 9, Letter 23 reportsthat when he was asked if he was Italian or provincial,he gave an unclear answer, and so was asked if he wasTacitus or Pliny. Since Pliny was from Italy, some in-fer that Tacitus was from the provinces, probably GalliaNarbonensis.[13]

His ancestry, his skill in oratory, and his sympathetic de-

1

2 2 WORKS

piction of barbarians who resisted Roman rule (e.g., Ann.2.9), have led some to suggest that he was a Celt. This be-lief stems from the fact that the Celts who had occupiedGaul prior to the Roman invasion were famous for theirskill in oratory, and had been subjugated by Rome.[14]

1.2 Public life, marriage, and literary ca-reer

As a young man, Tacitus studied rhetoric in Rome toprepare for a career in law and politics; like Pliny, hemay have studied under Quintilian[15] (c. 35 – c. 100CE). In 77 or 78 he married Julia Agricola, daugh-ter of the famous general Agricola.[16] Little is knownof their domestic life, save that Tacitus loved huntingand the outdoors.[17] He started his career (probably thelatus clavus, mark of the senator)[18] under Vespasian[19](reigned 69-79), but entered political life, as a quaestor,in 81 or 82, under Titus.[20] He advanced steadily throughthe cursus honorum, becoming praetor in 88 and aquindecimvir, a member of the priestly college in chargeof the Sibylline Books and the Secular games.[21] Hegained acclaim as a lawyer and as an orator; his skill inpublic speaking ironically counterpoints his cognomen:Tacitus (“silent”).He served in the provinces from ca. 89 to ca. 93 - either incommand of a legion or in a civilian post.[22] He (and hisproperty) survivedDomitian's reign of terror (81–96), butthe experience left him jaded and perhaps ashamed at hisown complicity, giving him the hatred of tyranny evidentin his works.[23] The Agricola, chs. 44–45, is illustrative:

Agricola was spared those later years dur-ing which Domitian, leaving now no intervalor breathing space of time, but, as it were, withone continuous blow, drained the life-blood ofthe Commonwealth... It was not long beforeour hands dragged Helvidius to prison, beforewe gazed on the dying looks of Manricus andRusticus, before we were steeped in Senecio'sinnocent blood. Even Nero turned his eyesaway, and did not gaze upon the atrocitieswhich he ordered; with Domitian it was thechief part of our miseries to see and to be seen,to know that our sighs were being recorded...

From his seat in the Senate he became suffect consul in97 during the reign of Nerva, being the first of his familyto do so. During his tenure he reached the height of hisfame as an orator when he delivered the funeral orationfor the famous veteran soldier Lucius Verginius Rufus.[24]

In the following year he wrote and published the Agri-cola and Germania, foreshadowing the literary endeav-ors that would occupy him until his death.[25] Afterwardshe absented himself from public life, but returned duringTrajan's reign (98-117). In 100, he, along with his friend

Pliny the Younger, prosecuted Marius Priscus (proconsulof Africa) for corruption. Priscus was found guilty andsent into exile; Pliny wrote a few days later that Tacitushad spoken “with all the majesty which characterizes hisusual style of oratory”.[26]

A lengthy absence from politics and law followed whilehe wrote the Histories and the Annals. In 112 or 113 heheld the highest civilian governorship, that of the Romanprovince of Asia in Western Anatolia, recorded in the in-scription found at Mylasa mentioned above. A passagein the Annals fixes 116 as the terminus post quem of hisdeath, which may have been as late as 125 or even 130.It seems that he survived both Pliny (died ca. 113) andTrajan (died 117).[27] It remains unknown whether Tac-itus had any children: although the Augustan History re-ports that the emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus (reigned275-276) claimed him for an ancestor and provided forthe preservation of his works, like much of the AugustanHistory, this story may be fraudulent.[28]

2 Works

See also : Persons mentioned in the works of Tacitus

The title page of Justus Lipsius's 1598 edition of the completeworks of Tacitus, bearing the stamps of the Bibliotheca Comu-nale in Empoli, Italy.

2.2 Monographs 3

Five works ascribed to Tacitus are known to have sur-vived (albeit with some lacunae), the most substantial ofwhich are the Annals and the Histories. The dates are ap-proximate:

• (98) De vita Iulii Agricolae (The Life of Agricola)

• (98) De origine et situ Germanorum (Germania)

• (102) Dialogus de oratoribus (Dialogue on Oratory)

• (105) Historiae (Histories)

• (117) Ab excessu divi Augusti (Annals)

2.1 History of the Roman Empire from thedeath of Augustus

The Annals and the Histories, published separately, weremeant to form a single edition of thirty books.[29] Al-though Tacitus wrote the Histories before the Annals, theevents in the Annals precede the Histories; together theyform a continuous narrative from the death of Augustus(14) to the death of Domitian (96). Though most hasbeen lost, what remains is an invaluable record of the era.The first half of the Annals survived in a single copy ofa manuscript from Corvey Abbey, and the second halffrom a single copy of a manuscript from Monte Cassino,and so it is remarkable that they survived at all.

2.1.1 The Histories

Main article: Histories (Tacitus)

In an early chapter of the Agricola, Tacitus asserts that hewishes to speak about the years of Domitian, Nerva, andTrajan. In the Histories the scope has changed; Tacitussays that he will deal with the age of Nerva and Trajanat a later time. Instead, he will cover the period from thecivil wars of the Year of Four Emperors and end withthe despotism of the Flavians. Only the first four booksand twenty-six chapters of the fifth book survive, cover-ing the year 69 and the first part of 70. The work is be-lieved to have continued up to the death of Domitian onSeptember 18, 96. The fifth book contains—as a preludeto the account of Titus’s suppression of the Great JewishRevolt—a short ethnographic survey of the ancient Jews,and it is an invaluable record of Roman attitudes towardsthem.

2.1.2 The Annals

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals is Tacitus’ final work, covering the periodfrom the death of Augustus Caesar in 14 AD. He wrote at

least sixteen books, but books 7–10 and parts of books 5,6, 11 and 16 are missing. Book 6 ends with the death ofTiberius and books 7–12 presumably covered the reignsof Caligula and Claudius. The remaining books coverthe reign of Nero, perhaps until his death in June 68 oruntil the end of that year to connect with the Histories.The second half of book 16 is missing, ending with theevents of 66. We do not knowwhether Tacitus completedthe work; he died before he could complete his plannedhistories of Nerva and Trajan and no record survives ofthe work on Augustus Caesar and the beginnings of theRoman Empire, with which he had planned to finish hiswork. The Annals is one of the earliest secular historicalrecords to mention Christ, which Tacitus does in connec-tion with Nero’s persecution of the Christians.

Annals 15.44, in the second Medicean manuscript

2.2 Monographs

Tacitus wrote three works with a more limited scope.Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus JuliusAgricola; the Germania, a monograph on the lands andtribes of barbarian Germania; and the Dialogus, a dia-logue on the art of rhetoric.

2.2.1 Germania

Main article: Germania (book)

The Germania (Latin title: De Origine et situ Germano-rum) is an ethnographic work on the Germanic tribes out-

4 4 LITERARY STYLE

side the Roman Empire. The Germania fits within a clas-sical ethnographic tradition which includes authors suchas Herodotus and Julius Caesar. The book begins (chap-ters 1–27) with a description of the lands, laws, and cus-toms of the various tribes. Later chapters focus on de-scriptions of particular tribes, beginning with those wholived closest to the Roman empire, and ending with a de-scription of those who lived on the shores of the BalticSea, such as the Fenni. Tacitus had written a similar, al-beit shorter, piece in his Agricola (chapters 10–13).

2.2.2 Agricola (De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae)

Main article: Agricola (book)

The Agricola (written ca. 98) recounts the life of GnaeusJulius Agricola, an eminent Roman general and Taci-tus’ father-in-law; it also covers, briefly, the geographyand ethnography of ancient Britain. As in the Germa-nia, Tacitus favorably contrasts the liberty of the na-tive Britons with the tyranny and corruption of the Em-pire; the book also contains eloquent polemics against thegreed of Rome, one of which, that Tacitus claims is froma speech by Calgacus, ends by asserting that Auferre tru-cidare rapere falsis nominibus imperium, atque ubi soli-tudinem faciunt, pacem appellant. (To ravage, to slaugh-ter, to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and wherethey make a desert, they call it peace. — Oxford RevisedTranslation).

2.2.3 Dialogus

Main article: Dialogus

There is uncertainty about when Tacitus wrote Dialogusde oratoribus. Many characteristics set it apart from theother works of Tacitus, so that its authenticity has beenquestioned. In style it seems closer to Cicero; it lacks forexample the incongruities that are typical of his historicalworks. It may however be an early work. It is dedicatedto Fabius Iustus, a consul in AD 102. Its style may be ex-plained by the fact it deals with rhetoric. In Latin rhetoricthe structure, language, and the style of Cicero was theusual model.

3 Sources

Tacitus makes use of the official sources of the Romanstate: the acta senatus (the minutes of the session of theSenate) and the acta diurna populi Romani (a collectionof the acts of the government and news of the court andcapital). He also read collections of emperors’ speeches,such as Tiberius and Claudius. He is generally seen asa scrupulous historian who paid careful attention to hissources. The minor inaccuracies in the Annals may be

The style of the Dialogus follows Cicero’s models for Latinrhetoric.

due to Tacitus dying before he had finished (and thereforeproof-read) his work.Tacitus cites some of his sources directly, among themCluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder, whohad written Bella Germaniae and a historical work whichwas the continuation of that of Aufidius Bassus. Taci-tus also uses collections of letters (epistolarium). He alsotook information from exitus illustrium virorum. Thesewere a collection of books by those who were antitheticalto the emperors. They tell of sacrifices bymartyrs to free-dom, especially the men who committed suicide. Whilehe placed no value on the Stoic theory of suicide andviews suicides as ostentatious and politically useless, Tac-itus often gives prominence to speeches made by thoseabout to commit suicide, for example Cremutius Cordus'speech in Ann. IV, 34-35.

4 Literary style

Tacitus’s writings are known for their dense prose thatseldom glosses the facts, in contrast to the style of someof his contemporaries, such as Plutarch. When he writesabout a near-defeat of the Roman army in Ann. I, 63 hedoes so with brevity of description rather than embellish-ment.In most of his writings he keeps to a chronological nar-

4.2 Prose style 5

rative order, only seldom outlining the bigger picture,leaving the reader to construct that picture for himself.Nonetheless, where he does use broad strokes, for exam-ple, in the opening paragraphs of the Annals, he uses afew condensed phrases which take the reader to the heartof the story.

4.1 Approach to history

Tacitus’s historical style owes some debt to Sallust. Hishistoriography offers penetrating—often pessimistic—insights into the psychology of power politics, blendingstraightforward descriptions of events, moral lessons, andtightly focused dramatic accounts. Tacitus’s own decla-ration regarding his approach to history (Ann. I,1) is wellknown:

There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus’“neutrality”. Throughout his writing, he is preoccupiedwith the balance of power between the Senate and theEmperors, and the increasing corruption of the govern-ing classes of Rome as they adjusted to the ever-growingwealth and power of the empire. In Tacitus’s view, Sen-ators squandered their cultural inheritance—that of freespeech—to placate their (rarely benign) emperor.Tacitus noted the increasing dependence of the emperoron the goodwill of his armies. The Julio-Claudians even-tually gave way to generals, who followed Julius Cae-sar (and Sulla and Pompey) in recognizing that mil-itary might could secure them the political power inRome.(Hist.1.4)

Welcome as the death of Nero had been inthe first burst of joy, yet it had not only rousedvarious emotions in Rome, among the Sena-tors, the people, or the soldiery of the capital,it had also excited all the legions and their gen-erals; for now had been divulged that secret ofthe empire, that emperors could be made else-where than at Rome.

Tacitus’s political career was largely lived out under theemperor Domitian. His experience of the tyranny, cor-ruption, and decadence of that era (81–96) may explainthe bitterness and irony of his political analysis. He drawsour attention to the dangers of power without account-ability, love of power untempered by principle, and theapathy and corruption engendered by the concentrationof wealth generated through trade and conquest by theempire.Nonetheless, the image he builds of Tiberius through-out the first six books of the Annals is neither exclu-sively bleak nor approving: most scholars view the imageof Tiberius as predominantly positive in the first books,

and predominantly negative after the intrigues of Sejanus.The entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the firstbook is dominated by the hypocrisy of the new emperorand his courtiers. In the later books, some respect is evi-dent for the cleverness of the old emperor in securing hisposition.In general, Tacitus does not fear to praise and to criticizethe same person, often noting what he takes to be theirmore-admirable and less-admirable properties. One ofTacitus’s hallmarks is refraining from conclusively takingsides for or against persons he describes, which has ledsome to interpret his works as both supporting and re-jecting the imperial system (see Tacitean studies, Blackvs. Red Tacitists).

4.2 Prose style

His Latin style is highly praised.[30] His style, al-though it has a grandeur and eloquence (thanks to Tac-itus’s education in rhetoric), is extremely concise, evenepigrammatic—the sentences are rarely flowing or beau-tiful, but their point is always clear. The style hasbeen both derided as “harsh, unpleasant, and thorny” andpraised as “grave, concise, and pithily eloquent”.A passage of Annals 1.1, where Tacitus laments the stateof the historiography regarding the four last emperors ofthe Julio-Claudian dynasty, illustrates his style: “The his-tories of Tiberius, Gaius, Claudius, and Nero, while theywere in power, were falsified through terror, and aftertheir death were written under the irritation of a recenthatred,”[31] or in a word-by-word translation:

Compared to the Ciceronian period, where sentenceswere usually the length of a paragraph and artfully con-structed with nested pairs of carefully matched sonorousphrases, this is short and to the point. But it is also veryindividual. Note the three different ways of saying andin the first line (-que, et, ac), and especially the matchedsecond and third lines. They are parallel in sense but notin sound; the pairs of words ending "...-entibus ...-is” arecrossed over in a way that deliberately breaks the Cicero-nian conventions— which one would however need to beacquainted with to see the novelty of Tacitus’ style. Somereaders, then and now, find this teasing of their expecta-tions merely irritating. Others find the deliberate discord,playing against the evident parallelism of the two lines,stimulating and intriguing.[32]

His historical works focus on the inner motivations ofthe characters, often with penetrating insight—though itis questionable how much of his insight is correct, andhow much is convincing only because of his rhetoricalskill.[33] He is at his best when exposing hypocrisy anddissimulation; for example, he follows a narrative re-counting Tiberius' refusal of the title pater patriae by

6 7 NOTES

recalling the institution of a law forbidding any “trea-sonous” speech or writings—and the frivolous prosecu-tions which resulted (Annals, 1.72). Elsewhere (Annals4.64–66) he compares Tiberius’s public distribution offire relief to his failure to stop the perversions and abusesof justice which he had begun. Although this kind of in-sight has earned him praise, he has also been criticisedfor ignoring the larger context.Tacitus owes most, both in language and in method, toSallust, and Ammianus Marcellinus is the later historianwhose work most closely approaches him in style.

5 Studies and reception history

Main article: Tacitean studies

From Pliny the Younger's 7th Letter (to Tacitus), §33:

The historian was not much read in late antiquity, andeven less in the Middle Ages. Only a third of his knownwork has survived; we depend on a single manuscriptfor books I-VI of the Annales and on another one forthe other surviving half (books XI-XVI) and for the fivebooks extant of the Historiae.[34] His antipathy towardsthe Jews and Christians of his time — he records withunemotional contempt the sufferings of the Christians atRome during Nero’s persecution—made him unpopularin the Middle Ages. He was rediscovered, however, bythe Renaissance, whose writers were impressed with hisdramatic presentation of the Imperial age.Tacitus has been described as “the greatest historian thatthe Romanworld produced.”[35] Encyclopædia Britannicaopines that he “ranks beyond dispute in the highest placeamong men of letters of all ages.” His work has been readfor its moral instruction, for its dramatic narrative, andfor its prose style.[36] Outside the field of history, Taci-tus’ influence is most prominent in the area of politicaltheory.[36] The political lessons taken from his work fallroughly into two camps, as identified by Giuseppe Tof-fanin: the “red Tacitists” use him to support republicanideals, and the “black Tacitists” read him as a lesson inMachiavellian realpolitik.[37]

Although his work is our most reliable source for thehistory of his era, its factual accuracy is occasionallyquestioned. The Annals are based in part on secondarysources, and there are some obvious mistakes, for in-stance the confusion of the two daughters ofMarkAntonyand Octavia Minor, who are both called Antonia.[38] TheHistories, however, are written from primary documentsand intimate knowledge of the Flavian period, and aretherefore thought to be more accurate.

6 See also

• Republic (Plato): Tacitus’ critique of “model state”philosophies.

• Tacitus on Christ: a well-known passage from theAnnals mentions the death of Christ (Ann., xv 44).

• National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial: In-scribed on the national memorial for US law en-forcement officers is the Tacitus quote: “In valorthere is hope”.[39]

7 Notes[1] Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Tes-

tament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence EerdmansPublishing ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 pages 39-42

[2] Backgrounds of early Christianity by Everett Ferguson2003 ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 page 116

[3] OGIS 487, first brought to light in Bulletin de correspon-dance hellénique, 1890, pp. 621–623

[4] Since he was appointed to the quaestorship during Titus’sshort rule (see note below) and twenty-five was the mini-mum age for the position, the date of his birth can be fixedwith some accuracy

[5] See Oliver, 1951, for an analysis of the manuscriptfrom which the name Publius is taken; see also Oliver,1977, which examines the evidence for each suggestedpraenomen (the well-knownGaius and Publius, the lesser-known suggestions of Sextus and Quintus) before settlingon Publius as the most likely.

[6] Oliver, 1977, cites an article by Harold Mattingly in Riv-ista storica dell'Antichità, 2 (1972) 169–185

[7] Syme, 1958, pp. 612–613; Gordon, 1936, pp. 145–146

[8] Syme, 1958, p. 60, 613; Gordon, 1936, p. 149; Martin,1981, p. 26

[9] Syme, 1958, p. 63

[10] Michael Grant in Introduction to Tacitus, The Annals ofImperial Rome, p. xvii; Herbert W. Benario in Introduc-tion to Tacitus, Germany, p. 1.

[11] Syme, 1958, pp. 614–616

[12] Syme, 1958, pp. 616–619

[13] Syme, 1958, p. 619; Gordon, 1936, p. 145

[14] Gordon, 1936, pp. 150–151; Syme, 1958, pp. 621–624

[15] That he studied rhetoric and law is known from the Dia-logus, ch. 2; see also Martin, 1981, p. 26; Syme, 1958,pp. 114–115

[16] Agricola, 9

7

[17] Pliny, Letters 1.6, 9.10; Benario, 1975, pp. 15, 17; Syme,1958, pp. 541–542

[18] Syme, 1958, p. 63; Martin, 1981, pp. 26–27

[19] (1.1)

[20] He states his debt to Titus in hisHistories (1.1); since Titusruled only briefly, these are the only years possible.

[21] In the Annals (11.11) he mentions that, as praetor, he as-sisted in the Secular Games held by Domitian, which canbe precisely dated to 88. See Syme, 1958, p. 65; Mar-tin, 1981, p. 27; Benario in his Introduction to Tacitus,Germany, p. 1.

[22] The Agricola (45.5) indicates that Tacitus and his wifewere absent at the time of Julius Agricola’s death in 93.For his occupation during this time see Syme, 1958, p.68; Benario, 1975, p. 13; Dudley, 1968, pp. 15–16; Mar-tin, 1981, p. 28; Mellor, 1993, p. 8

[23] For the effects on Tacitus of this experience see Dudley,1968, p. 14; Mellor, 1993, pp. 8–9

[24] Pliny, Letters, 2.1 (English); Benario in his Introduction toTacitus, Germany, pp. 1-2.

[25] In the Agricola (3) he announces what was probably hisfirst major project: the Histories. See Dudley, 1968, p. 16

[26] Pliny, Letters 2.11

[27] Grant in his Introduction to Tacitus, Annals, p. xvii; Be-nario in his Introduction to Tacitus, Germania, p. 2. An-nals, 2.61, says that the Roman Empire “now extends tothe Red Sea". If by mare rubrum he means the PersianGulf, the passage must have been written after Trajan’seastern conquests in 116, but before Hadrian abandonedthe new territories in 117. But this may only indicate thedate of publication for the first books of the Annals; Taci-tus could have lived well into Hadrian’s reign, and there isno reason to suppose that he did not. See Dudley, 1968,p. 17; Mellor, 1993, p. 9; Mendell, 1957, p. 7; Syme,1958, p. 473; against this traditional interpretation, e.g.,Goodyear, 1981, pp. 387-393.

[28] Augustan History, Tacitus X. Scholarly opinion on thisstory is that it is either “a confused and worthless rumor”(Mendell, 1957, p. 4) or “pure fiction” (Syme, 1958, p.796). Sidonius Apollinaris reports (Letters, 4.14; citedin Syme, 1958, p. 796) that Polemius, a 5th-centuryGallo-Roman aristocrat is descended from Tacitus—butthis claim, says Syme (ibid.) is of little value.

[29] Jerome's commentary on the Book of Zechariah (14.1, 2;quoted in Mendell, 1957, p. 228) says that Tacitus’s his-tory was extant triginta voluminibus, 'in thirty volumes’.

[30] Donald R. Dudley. Introduction to: The Annals of Taci-tus. NY: Mentor Book, 1966. p. xiv: “No other writer ofLatin prose — not even Cicero — deploys so effectivelythe full resources of the language.”

[31] The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#1 Translation based on Al-fred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (1876).Wikisource, 15 April 2012.

[32] Ostler 2007, pp. 98–9 where the quoted example is used;Further quotes from the book: "... some writers — no-tably the perverse genius Tacitus — delighted in disap-pointing the expectations raised by periodic theory.” –“this monkeying with hard-won stylistic norms ... onlymakes sense if readers knew the rules that Tacitus wasbreaking.”

[33] John Taylor. Tacitus and the Boudican Revolt. Dublin:Camvlos, 1998. p. 1 ff

[34] Grant, Michael, Latin Literature: an anthology, PenguinClassics, London, 1978 p.378f

[35] Mellor 2010, p. 3

[36] Mellor, 1995, p. xvii

[37] Burke, 1969, pp. 162–163

[38] Suetonius makes an occasional slip as well.

[39]

8 References

• Benario, Herbert W. An Introduction to Tacitus.(Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1975)ISBN 0-8203-0361-5

• Burke, P. “Tacitism” in Dorey, T.A., 1969, pp.149–171

• Dudley, Donald R. The World of Tacitus (London:Secker and Warburg, 1968) ISBN 0-436-13900-6

• Goodyear, F.R.D. The Annals of Tacitus, vol. 2(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).Commentary on Annals 1.55-81 and Annals 2.

• Gordon, Mary L. “The Patria of Tacitus”. The Jour-nal of Roman Studies, Vol. 26, Part 2 (1936), pp.145–151.

• Martin, Ronald. Tacitus (London: Batsford, 1981)

• Mellor, Ronald. Tacitus (New York / Lon-don: Routledge, 1993) ISBN 0-415-90665-2 ISBN0415910021 ISBN 9780415910026

• Mellor, Ronald. Tacitus’ Annals (Oxford/NewYork: Oxford University Press, 2010) (Oxford Ap-proaches to Classical Literature) ISBN 0198034679ISBN 9780198034674

• Mellor, Ronald (ed.). Tacitus: The Classical Her-itage (New York: Garland Publishing, 1995) ISBN0-8153-0933-3 ISBN 9780815309338

• Mendell, Clarence. Tacitus: TheMan andHisWork.(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957) ISBN 0-208-00818-7

8 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Oliver, Revilo P. “The First Medicean MS of Taci-tus and the Titulature of Ancient Books”. Transac-tions and Proceedings of the American PhilologicalAssociation, Vol. 82 (1951), pp. 232–261.

• Oliver, Revilo P. “The Praenomen of Tacitus”. TheAmerican Journal of Philology, Vol. 98, No. 1(Spring, 1977), pp. 64–70.

• Ostler, Nicholas. Ad Infinitum: A Biography ofLatin. HarperCollins in the UK, and Walker &Co. in the USA: London and New York, 2007.ISBN 978-0-00-734306-5; 2009 edition: ISBN080271840X ISBN 9780802718402 – 2010 e-book: ISBN 0007364881 ISBN 9780007364886

• Syme, Ronald. Tacitus, Volumes 1 and 2. (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1958) (reprinted in 1985by the same publisher, with the ISBN 0-19-814327-3) is the definitive study of his life and works.

• Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome. Translatedby Michael Grant and first published in this form in1956. (London: The Folio Society, 2006)

• Tacitus, Germany. Translated by Herbert W. Be-nario. (Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1999.ISBN 0-85668-716-2)

• Taylor, John W. Tacitus and the Boudican Revolt.(Dublin, Ireland: Camuvlos, 1998)

9 External links• Quotations related to Tacitus at Wikiquote

• Works written by or about Tacitus at Wikisource

• Media related to Gaius Cornelius Tacitus at Wiki-media Commons

Works by Tacitus

• Works by Tacitus at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Tacitus at Internet Archive

• Works by Tacitus at LibriVox (public domain au-diobooks)

• Comprehensive links to Latin text and translationsin various languages at ForumRomanum

• Complete works, Latin and English translation at“The Internet Sacred Text Archive” (not listedabove)

9

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text• Tacitus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus?oldid=670915115 Contributors: MagnusManske, Kpjas, MichaelTinkler, JHK, Elo-

quence, Zundark, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Clasqm, BenBaker, Christopher Mahan, Ktsquare, Panairjdde~enwiki, Booyabazooka,Llywrch, Lquilter, Cyde, Delirium, Lindsay G H Hall, Paul A, Looxix~enwiki, Urbanus~enwiki, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, ILVI, TUF-KAT, Jniemenmaa, Djmutex, Djnjwd, Andres, John K, Kweto, Alex S, Charles Matthews, EALacey, Wilmer T, Thue, Wetman, Di-madick, Robbot, PBS, Chris 73, Jmabel, Romanm, Mirv, Ojigiri~enwiki, GreatWhiteNortherner, Marnanel, Wiglaf, Everyking, Deus Ex,Drottin, Andycjp, Gdr, Slowking Man, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, Vina, Mozzerati, Klemen Kocjancic, Johannes.Richter, DarkerNorm, Lacrimosus, Discospinster, Zaheen, Guanabot, Cnyborg, Francis Schonken, SpookyMulder, Kaisershatner, Steerpike, Turpissimus,Kwamikagami, Phoenix Hacker, Bill Thayer, AnyFile, .:Ajvol:., Arcadian, PWilkinson, Arjunmodi2000~enwiki, Jumbuck, Storm Rider,Chino, ChristopherWillis, Hydriotaphia, Snowolf, Nicknack009, Duplode, Fdewaele, Angr, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, PoccilScript,Macronyx~enwiki, Twthmoses, Melissadolbeer, Graham87, Kbdank71, Saperaud~enwiki, Tawker, GregAsche, Almog~enwiki, FlaBot,Ground Zero, Nihiltres, Who, Ewlyahoocom, Piniricc65, Chobot, Jaraalbe, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength, Kafziel, Cooke, Russ-Bot, Fabartus, RJC, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, SEWilcoBot, Chick Bowen, ZacBowling, BirgitteSB, Aldux, Mlouns, Molobo, Bozoid,Theodolite, Mrbowtie, Whobot, Anclation~enwiki, SoberEmu, GrinBot~enwiki, Kf4bdy, Oldhamlet, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Piccadilly,BPK2, Kintetsubuffalo, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, Robth, Darth Panda, Modest Genius, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Iblardi, DMacks,Kukini, SashatoBot, Rory096, SMasters, RandomCritic, Neddyseagoon, Tawkerbot2, Heqs, Danberbro, Suto, Fordmadoxfraud, Cydebot,Fable of flame, Andergriff, Gogo Dodo, Plerdsus, Quibik, Doug Weller, Omicronpersei8, UberScienceNerd, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, RogerPearse, James086, Strausszek, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Gioto, Wikitoddia, Frippo, Deflective, Frankie816, Rothorpe, Cynwolfe, .anacond-abot, Talltanbarbie, Acanthus, Kikadue~enwiki, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Waacstats, 0x0n, Alekjds, Enterhase, J10s1000, Bryson109,MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Hoshidoshi, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Nev1, MissHeather, Trusilver, Numbo3, DD2K, Robertson-Glasgow, NewEng-landYankee, Jmcw37, Kansas Bear, Kraftlos, Rumpelstiltskin223, Cmichael, Idioma-bot, OLEF641, Farrons, Philip Trueman, TXiKi-BoT, Obafgkm, Charlesdrakew, Andreas Kaganov, Mark Miller, Sintaku, Claidheamohmor, Billinghurst, Enigmaman, Krivic, Vanishe-dUserABC, Pjoef, D. Recorder, Starfunker, SieBot, YonaBot, Xymmax, Minetje, Fidelia, BenoniBot~enwiki, Joscha~enwiki, Denisarona,Elliott34, Velvetron, Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, Snigbrook, Ungeheuer~enwiki, Saddhiyama, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Jea-nenawhitney, Bchaosf, Niteshift36, Catalographer, Meridian100, Direct action, Chronicler~enwiki, Jerryofaiken, SilvonenBot, Al tally,Cjsim3, Kbdankbot, Gregory dj, Addbot, American Eagle, Ryan12321, Exodrummer, Aaronjhill, Yolgnu, CarsracBot, LinkFA-Bot, Blay-lockjam10, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Cflm001, Amirobot, Ningauble, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Henckel, JackieBot,Kingpin13, Lightningpace, Rtyq2, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Timon1902, J04n, Francine Rogers, Omnipaedista, Flaviusvulso, Green Cardamom,FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Muslim-Researcher, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Ryabovich, RedBot, Jandal-handler, Merlion444, TobeBot, Train2104, Vrenator, Chelle4083, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Re-namedUser01302013, 10WayneRooney, ZéroBot, Gavbadger, Suslindisambiguator, NimrodNorth, Philafrenzy, Chewings72, Chuispas-tonBot, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Katarind, CocuBot, Satellizer, Widr, ERIDU-DREAMING, Ryan Vesey, Helpful Pixie Bot,Throkk~enwiki, BG19bot, Lawandeconomics1, JohnChrysostom, Davidiad, Snow Rise, Travelour, JohnThorne, Khazar2, Thewarison101,Mcsnail11, Dexbot, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Krakkos, CorinneSD, SteepLearningCurve, Fuckaroo123, Davidajensen, Ethanlang121, Tropi-cAces, Iamterryfc1, MarcusPriscusCato, Whalestate, KasparBot and Anonymous: 259

10.2 Images• File:CiceroBust.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/CiceroBust.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Lipsius_manuscript.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Lipsius_manuscript.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:MII.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/MII.png License: Public domain Contributors: HaraldFuchs, Tacitus über die Christen, Vigiliae Christianae, 1950, p. 65. A reprint from a photographic facsimile: Tacitus. Codex Lauren-tianus Mediceus 68 I. (II.) [comprising Bks. 1-5, and 11-16 of the Annals; and Bks. 1-5 of the Histories]; phototypice editus. Praefatus estHenricus Rostagno (Enrico Rostagno); in Du Rieu (W. N.) Codices Graeci et Latini phototypice editi, etc. tom. 7. Leiden, 1902. Originalartist: Tacitus (text copied by a monk in the 11th century). Photographic facsimile by Henricus Rostagno, 1902.

• File:REmpire-04_Gallia_Narbonensis.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/REmpire-04_Gallia_Narbonensis.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:SPQRomani.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Own work Original artist: Piotr Michał Jaworski (<a href='//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedysta:Piom' class='extiw' title='pl:Wikipedysta:Piom'>PioM</a> EN DE PL)

• File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wien-_Parlament-Tacitus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Wien-_Parlament-Tacitus.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pe-Jo

10.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0