Biodiversity Defined Biodiversity is the total variety of life on earth. It includes all genes, species and ecosystems and the ecological processes of which they are a part (Convention on Biodiversity, 1992)

Central Case: Saving the Siberian tigerThe largest cat in the worldThe Russian Far East mountains house the last remaining tigersNearly became extinct due to hunting, poaching and habitat destructionInternational conservation groups saved the species from extinction Research, education, zoos, and captive breeding programs

Where is the biodiversity?

Endemic species restricted to a small regionisolated areas (islands, mountain ranges)product of unique habitat, climate features

Biodiversity hotspots - areas with a high concentration of endemic species, experiencing rapid habitat loss

Species diversitySpecies Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a particular regionRichness = the number of speciesEvenness or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of individuals of different species are equal or skewedSpeciation generates new species and adds to species richnessExtinction reduces species richness

The taxonomy of speciesTaxonomists = scientists who classify speciesPhysical appearance and genetics determines a speciesGenera = related species are grouped togetherFamilies = groups of generaEvery species has a two-part scientific name: genus and species

Subspecies: the level below a speciesSubspecies = populations of species that occur in different areas and differ slightly from each otherDivergence stops short of separating the speciesSubspecies are denoted with a third part of the scientific nameSiberian tiger = Panthera tigris altaicaBengal tiger = Panthera tigris tigris

Genetic diversityEncompasses the differences in DNA among individuals within species and populationsThe raw material for adaptation to local conditions

Genetic diversityPopulations with higher genetic diversity can surviveThey can cope with environmental changePopulations with low genetic diversity are vulnerableTo environmental changeDiseaseInbreeding depression = genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring

Ecosystem diversityEcosystem diversity = the number and variety of ecosystemsAlso encompasses differing communities and habitatsRapid vegetation change and varying landscapes within an ecosystem promote higher levels of biodiversity

Some groups contain more species than othersSpecies are not evenly distributed among taxonomic groupsInsects predominate over all other life-forms40% of all insects are beetlesGroups accumulate species byAdaptive radiationAllopatric speciationLow rates of extinction

Insects outnumber all other species

Measuring biodiversity is not easyOut of the estimated 3 - 100 million species on Earth, only 1.7 - 2 million species have been successfully cataloguedVery difficult to identify speciesMany remote spots on Earth remain unexploredSmall organisms are easily overlookedMany species look identical until thoroughly examinedEntomologist Terry Erwin found 163 beetle species specialized on one tree species

Biodiversity losses and species extinctionExtinction = occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to existExtirpation = the disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globallyCan lead to extinction

Extinction is a natural processPaleontologists estimate 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinctBackground rate of extinction = natural extinctions for a variety of reasons1 extinction per 1 to 10 million species for mammals and marine species1 species out of 1,000 mammal and marine species would go extinct every 1,000 to 10,000 years

Earth has experienced five mass extinctionsIn the past 440 million years, mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all speciesAfter every mass extinction the biodiversity returned to or exceeded its original state

Current Status of Biodiversity1.4 million described species, possibly 10 million in total

Background extinction rate rate of species loss in the absence of human activitiesfossil record: species survive 1-10 million yearsone year: one species has a 1 in 1-10 million chance of going extincttotal: 1 extinction per year

The current mass extinction is human causedDuring this Quaternary period, we may lose more than half of all speciesHundreds of human-induced species extinctions, and multitudes of others, teeter on the brink of extinctionThe current global extinction rate is 100 to 1,000 times greater than the background rateThis rate will increase tenfold in future decades due to human population growth and resource consumption

People have hunted species to extinction for millenniaExtinctions followed human arrival on islands and continents

Current extinction rates are higher than normalThe Red List = an updated list of species facing high risks of extinctions23% of mammal species 12% of bird species31 - 86% of all other speciesSince 1970, 58 fish species, 9 bird species, and 1 mammal species has gone extinctIn the U.S., in the last 500 years, 236 animal and 17 plant species are confirmed extinctActual numbers are undoubtedly higher

Biodiversity loss has many causesReasons for biodiversity losses are multifaceted, complex, and hard to determineFactors may interact synergisticallyFour primary causes of population decline are:Habitat alterationInvasive speciesPollutionOverharvestingGlobal climate change now is the fifth cause

Ecological interactionsBiodiversity is more than the sum of the partsInteractions structure communities, maintain diversity, and make ecosystems worke.g. Competition Predation Mutualisms (e.g. pollination, seed dispersal)

Some estimates for current rate:1 species per hour1 million species total, so far10% of all species so far8.8% of all species27,000 species per year20% of neotropical plant species100 to 10,000 times the background rate

Numbers of threatened/endangered species:5,188 vertebrates (9%)1,992 invertebrates (0.17%)8,321 plants (2.89%)2 lichens (0.02%)

Since 1600, ~1000 species have gone extinct (probably many more)

Why do species go extinct?

2 separate processes:Something causes a large population to decline.

Small populations go extinct.

Causes of species declinesHabitat destruction and fragmentationIntroduced speciesExploitation and overharvestingPollutionClimate change

Conservation biologyConcerned with loss of biodiversity, not just loss of speciesFundamental loss of resources in genetics, species, community attributes and ecosystem propertiesFlip side: maintenance of biodiversity, ecological and evolutionary processes

Why care about biodiversity?Intrinsic value (Muir, 1838-1914)All species have value independently of their utility to humansUtilitarian value (Pinchot, 1865-1946)Species that provide the greatest good to the greatest number (over the longest time) have valueCons Bio : (Leopold, 1886-1948)can include both value systemsTo keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering" (Leopold 1943).

Aldo Leopold (1886-1948)Evolutionary-Ecological Land EthicBiological communities: assemblages of interdependent speciesMaintaining the health of natural ecosystems and ecological / evolutionary processesHumans exist within the ecological community; depend on ecosystem servicesSynthetic approach:Both intrinsic value and utilitarian value

Why be concerned about biodiversity loss if extinction is a fact of life?Moderate certainty: current extinction rates > by 100 1000 times10 30 % of mammals, birds and amphibians threatened Is extinction outpacing speciation potential?

Major drivers of endangermentWhats missing?

Threats to terrestrial species Terrestrial habitat loss39-50% of land surface transformation

Habitat alteration causes biodiversity lossThe greatest cause of biodiversity lossFarming simplifies communitiesGrazing modifies the grassland structure and species composition Clearing forests removes resources organisms need Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into reservoirs upstreamUrbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural communitiesA few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats

Result of habitat loss Reduction in total area decrease in size, # of populations local extinctionsfewer speciesReduction in habitat diversityReduced species diversityCascading effects, co-extinctions

Habitat alteration has occurred in every biomeParticularly in tropical rainforests, savannas, and tropical dry forests

Habitat fragmentationAbove and beyond habitat lossIsolation: reduced immigration, re-colonizationEdge effects

InvasionThe distribution of species on Earth is becoming more homogenous The rate of invasion is increasing over time

Growth in Number of Marine Species Introductions in North America and EuropeHOMOGENIZATION

Introduced cheatgrass, Bromus tectorum, has transformed the Great Basin shrub-steppe ecosystem Has increased fire frequency from once/80 years to once/4 years!Occupies over 5 million hectares of Great Basin

Pollution causes biodiversity lossHarms organisms in many waysAir pollution degrades forest ecosystemsWater pollution adversely affects fish and amphibiansAgricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic speciesThe effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are dramatic and well knownThe damage to wildlife and ecosystems caused by pollution can be severeBut it tends to be less than the damage caused by habitat alteration or invasive species

Climate change effects on biodiversity

Range shiftsLatitudinal rangeAltitudinal rangeMis-matched interactionsReassembled (scrambled) communitiesFeedbacks (e.g. vegetation and climate)Species Endangerment

Climate change causes biodiversity lossEmissions of greenhouse gases warms temperaturesModifies global weather patterns and increases the frequency of extreme weather eventsIncreases stress on populations and forces organisms to shift their geographic rangesMost animals and plants will not be able to cope

Warming has been the greatest in the ArcticThe polar bear is being considered for the endangered species list

Climate change endangers polar bearsSea ice is the keyBottom up: habitat for micro-algaeTop down: seal hunting ground; corridors to densLoss of sea ice endangers polar bearLoss of top predator: cascading effects on Arctic food web

Climate change can induce coral reef bleaching http://www.ogp.noaa.gov/misc/coral/98bleaching/Bleached and normally pigmented Pocillopora colonies

Oceans and Freshwater Aquatic habitatsIf anything are more vulnerable to same threats, with enhanced vulnerability to over-exploitation and pollutionFreshwaterUSA: Very high endangerment levels in fish & amphibians (25-40%) and crayfish & molluscs (> 60%) compared to terrestrial vertebrates (15-18%

Over-exploitation of global ocean fisheries> 60% of the worlds fisheries are fully to over exploited, or depletedBy-catch increases fish-catch by 30%

Conserving biodiversityGenetic level: seed, egg, sperm banksPopulation and species level science of managing small populationsCaptive breeding (zoos/botanical gardens)ReintroductionsPopulation management in the wildProtection (hunting, disease, habitat)Genetic management (translocations)Habitat restoration

Conserving biodiversity: habitat, species, ecosystem levelProtected areasManaging the matrixRestorationWildlife-friendly agriculture

Protected areas for Biodiversity ConservationSelect the areas that represent and maintain biodiversity over time(Margules and Pressey 2000)

REPRESENTATIONIncluding as many different ecosystems and species in the reserve network

Representing the full range of variation (genetic, ecological) present within target species

A network of reserves that represents species efficientlyBut it may not be so good at maintaining biodiversity why not?Site selection in the Sierra Nevada foothills for conservation prioritizationGrey = already protected

Maintaining biodiversity over timePopulation persistence (viability)Maintaining ecological processesE.g. migrationsMaintaining evolutionary processesPotential for adaptation within populations (genetic diversity)Selecting areas where rapid speciation is occurringResponse to climate change

SIZECONNECTIVITYShapeEdge to area ratioCorridorsEnvironmental gradientsDisturbance regimeFunctional unitsMatrix habitatReserve design features for persistence

SIZE Larger size More species (interactions, functions), S-A relationshipMore habitats (interactions, functions)Larger populations Protects vulnerable speciesArea demanding: large-bodied, high-trophic level, rareHabitat specialists (if habitat included)Species requiring multiple habitat types

Shape Reduced edge/area ratio, edge effectsDisturbance regime: maintenance of disturbance-generated patch heterogeneityIncludes whole functional unitsIncludes whole environmental gradients

SIZE & EDGE EFFECTS

Edges create core versus edge habitat

Example: many songbirds experience high nest predation near edges in woodlots within sub-urban areas

Shape and edge effects

DISTURBANCE REGIMEDisturbance promotes habitat heterogeneityBy resetting successional sequence in parts of the landscapeCreating patchiness in the landscape which is determined by the temporal and spatial scale of the disturbance(s)

Spatial and temporal scale of disturbance varies by type

SIZE & DISTURBANCE REGIMEDisturbance promotes habitat heterogeneitymosaic of patches at different successional stagesHabitat heterogeneity:supports species requiring multiple habitat typesSupports early successional species (e.g. Heath fritillary butterfly = Woodmans follower)Size of reserve ideally as big as or bigger than scale of likely disturbances

Functionally inter-dependent ecosystems:e.g. a complex, dynamic patchwork of mangroves, sea grass bed and reefs (Moberg & Ronnback 2003)SIZE & FUNCTIONAL UNITS

SIZE: Bigger is better!CONNECTIVITYShapeEdge to area ratioCorridorsEnvironmental gradientsDisturbance regimeFunctional unitsMatrix habitatReserve design features for persistence

CONNECTIVITY Isolation is a key factor causing loss of species from reservesPreventing gene flow, maintenance of genetic diversityReducing recolonization following extinction (rescue effect)Preventing access between summer/winter grounds for migratory speciesPreventing access to multiple habitat types needed for different life stagesPreventing response to global warming

Wildlife overpassTransportation Equity Act for the 21st Century provides fundinghttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/wildlifecrossings/overview.htm

Managing the Matrix Making matrix friendly to wildlife -- Reserve zonation: core, buffer, transition-- Wildlife friendly farming/Restoration

Noss and Cooperrider 1994,modified from Harris 1984

CONNECTIVITY: Multi-scale responses PROBLEM of FRAGMENTATION Preventing gene flow, maintenance of genetic diversityReducing recolonization following extinction (rescue effect)

Preventing access between summer/winter grounds for migratory species

Preventing access to multiple habitat types needed for different life stages

Preventing response to global warming

RESPONSE

Create corridors between reservesManage the matrix around reserves

Protect migratory routes/stop-overs

Stop-over sites along songbird migration routesNeotropical birdsUse radar to detect nocturnal bird movementTimed to get departure events from stopover points (20-40 min after sunset)Signal characteristicsBreeding winteringhttp://www.njaudubon.org/Education/Oases/RadImages.html

CONNECTIVITY: Multi-scale responses PROBLEM of FRAGMENTATION Preventing gene flow, maintenance of genetic diversityReducing recolonization following extinction (rescue effect)

Preventing access between summer/winter grounds for migratory species

Preventing access to multiple habitat types needed for different life stages

Preventing response to global warming

RESPONSE

Create corridors between reservesManage the matrix around reserves

Protect migratory routes/stop-overs

Include whole functional units, disturbance regimes, environmental gradients within reserves or reserve networks

Include elevational or latitudinal gradients within reserves

Habitat heterogeneity connectedness between habitats, marine and terrestrialSpecies response to climate change: Include elevational gradients within reserve

Masoala, MadagascarDesigning Masoala National Park, Madagascar

New Reserve Design MethodsRepresent species or habitats efficientlyMinimize edge effects, maximize clusteringMaximize connectivity

Leslie et al. 2003 Ecol App.

Biodiversity provides free ecosystem servicesProvides food, shelter, fuelPurifies air and water, and detoxifies wastesStabilizes climate, moderates floods, droughts, wind, temperatureGenerates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrientsPollinates plants and controls pests and diseaseMaintains genetic resourcesProvides cultural and aesthetic benefitsAllows us to adapt to changeThe annual value of just 17 ecosystem services = $16 - 54 trillion per year

Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem functionBiodiversity increases the stability and resilience of communities and ecosystems Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural systems ability to function and provide services to our societyThe loss of a species affects ecosystems differently If the species can be functionally replaced by others, it may make little differenceExtinction of a keystone species may cause other species to decline or disappearTo keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering (Aldo Leopold)

Biodiversity enhances food securityGenetic diversity within crops is enormously valuableTurkeys wheat crops received $50 billion worth of disease resistance from wild wheatWild strains provide disease resistance and have the ability to grow back year after year without being replantedNew potential food crops are waiting to be usedSerendipity berry produces a sweetener 3,000 times sweeter than sugar

Organisms provide drugs and medicinesEach year pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate up to $150 billion in salesThe rosy periwinkle produces compounds that treat Hodgkin's disease and leukemia

Biodiversity generates economic benefitsPeople like to experience protected natural areas, creating economic opportunities for residents, particularly in developing countriesCosta Rica: rainforestsAustralia: Great Barrier ReefBelize: reefs, caves, and rainforestsA powerful incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on the landscape and on native speciesBut, too many visitors to natural areas can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb wildlife

Do we have ethical obligations to other species?Humans are part of nature and need resources to surviveBut, we also have conscious reasoning ability and can control our actionsOur ethics have developed from our intelligence and our ability to make choicesMany people feel that other organisms have intrinsic value and an inherent right to exist

Conservation scientists work at multiple levelsConservation biologists integrate evolution and extinction with ecology and environmental systemsDesign, test, and implement ways to mitigate human impactsConservation geneticists = study genetic attributes of organisms to infer the status of their populationMinimum viable population = how small a population can become before it runs into problemsMetapopulations = a network of subpopulationsSmall populations are most vulnerable to extinction and need special attention

Island biogeographyEquilibrium theory of island biogeography = explains how species come to be distributed among oceanic islandsAlso applies to habitat islands patches of one habitat type isolated within a sea of othersExplains how the number of species on an island results from an equilibrium between immigration and extirpationPredicts an islands species richness based on the islands size and distance from the mainland

Species richness results from island size and distance Fewer species colonize an island far from the mainland Large islands have higher immigration rates Large islands have lower extinction rates

The species-area curveLarge islands contain more species than small islandsThey are easier to find and have lower extinction ratesThey possess more habitats

Small islands of forest rapidly lose speciesForests are fragmented by roads and loggingSmall forest fragments lose diversity fastestStarting with large speciesFragmentation is one of the prime threats to biodiversity

Should conservation focus on endangered species?Endangered Species Act (1973) (ESA) = forbids the government and private citizens from taking actions that destroy endangered species or their habitatsTo prevent extinctionStabilize declining populationsEnable populations to recoverAs of 2007, the U.S. had 1,312 species listed as endangered or threatened

Despite opposition, the ESA has had successesPeregrine falcons, brown pelicans, bald eagles, and others have recovered and are no longer listed Intensive management has stabilized other speciesThe red-cockaded woodpecker40% of declining populations are now stableThese successes occur despite underfunding of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries ServiceIn recent years, political forces have attempted to weaken the ESA

The ESA is controversialMany Americans support protection of endangered species Opponents feel that the ESA values endangered organisms more than the livelihood of peoplePrivate land use will be restricted if an endangered species is presentShoot, shovel, and shut up = landowners conceal the presence of endangered species on their landBut, the ESA has stopped few development projectsHabitat conservation plans and safe harbor agreements = landowners can harm species if they improve habitat for the species in other places

Other countries have their own version of the ESASpecies at Risk Act (2002) = Canadas endangered species lawStresses cooperation between landowners and provincial governmentsCriticized as being too weakOther nations laws are not enforcedThe Wildlife Conservation Society has to help pay for Russians to enforce their own anti-poaching laws

Protecting biodiversityCaptive breeding individuals are bred and raised with the intent of reintroducing them into the wildZoos and botanical gardens Some reintroductions are controversialRanchers opposed the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National ParkSome habitat is so fragmented, a species cannot survive

Protecting biodiversityCloning a technique to create more individuals and save species from extinctionMost biologists agree that these efforts are not adequate to recreate the lost biodiversityAmple habitat and protection in the wild are needed to save species

Umbrella speciesConservation biologists use particular species as tools to conserve communities and ecosystemsProtecting the habitat of these umbrella species helps protect less-charismatic animals that would not have generated public interestFlagship species large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservationThe World Wildlife Funds panda bearSome organizations are moving beyond the single species approach to focus on whole landscapes

International conservation effortsUN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) (CITES) protects endangered species by banning international transport of their body partsConvention on Biological Diversity (1992) Seeks to conserve biodiversity Use biodiversity in a sustainable manner Ensure the fair distribution of biodiversitys benefitsBy 2007, 188 nations had signed onIraq, Somalia, the Vatican, and the U.S. did not join

Community- based conservationProtecting habitats makes good sense, but this affects people living in and near these areasCommunity-based conservation = conservation biologists actively engage local people in protecting land and wildlifeProtecting land deprives people access to resourcesBut, it can guarantee that these resources will not be used up or sold to foreign corporations and can instead be sustainably managedMany projects have succeededBut, others have not, due mainly to funding problems

Innovative economic strategiesDebt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization pays off a portion of a developing countrys international debt In exchange for a promise by the country to set aside reservesFund environmental education, and Better manage protected areasConservation concession = conservation organizations pay nations to conserve, and not sell, resources

ConclusionsBiodiversity has great value, both intrinsically, and also because human life depends on itBut, it is under threat, from habitat loss and degradation, invasive species, climate change, pollution and over-exploitationConservation biologists have many tools to protect biological diversity, from genetic to ecosystem levels.

ConclusionsProtected areas are an important tool for biodiversity conservation.The design of protected areas and reserve networks should foster representation of biodiversity and its persistence.Reserves need to be sited efficiently to represent biodiversity.Size, shape and connectivity of reserves and relationship with the surrounding landscape matrix are essential considerations for biodiversity persistence.

***Structure communities: determine the species co-existing in a community and their abundances*(p. 80, Van Dyke)

**********More homogenous: in other words, the set of species in any one region of the world are becoming more similar to other region. largely as a result of the massive movement of species associated with increased travel and shipping.

***Sea ice providing habitat for micro-algae and other microscopic forms of life largely attributed to the success of higher trophic levels in the circum polar systems. Feeds the krill, which feeds many other things and are suberabundant; The sea ice provides a critical microhabitat for the phytoplankton. And also viruses, bacteria, a whole community living actually in the interstitial areas between ice crystals.

Shortened sea ice season 15% body weight decline of femalesSmaller littersSmaller babiesHigher infant mortalityDens that collapse mortality of females and cubsDistance from sea ice to den increased cubs cant swim that far

There is a lot here that I dont fully understand. Not sure how much it differs between Arctic and Antarctic. Not clear what key organisms are and to what extent the open oceans also provide productivity. ******Habitat representation often reflects beta diversity, is a coarse-filter approachSpecies representation reflects both alpha and beta diversity, is a fine-filter approachComplementarity is a key tool used to identify and optimal or efficient network of reserves for representing biodiversity

Other approaches that focus on species:Umbrella species: by protecting a selected species, we protect many others that live in the same environment:e.g. grizzly bear: Yukon to Yellowstone corridore.g. Bay Checkerspot butterfly: endemic serpentine plant and animal communityFlagship species: a species that can help garner popular support, eg. Panda bearEndangered , threatened and rare species: species of special concernwe might pay more attention to these species in conservation plansor weight them higher in an all species approach*

Point to make here the spread out and small nature of these areas

Davis, F. W., C. Costello, and D. Stoms. 2006. Efficient conservation in a utility-maximization framework. Ecology and Society 11(1): 33. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art33/ Fig. 11. A portfolio of 50 sites selected by the greedy algorithm and a budget of $144 million. The color indicates the order of site selection with sites 41-50 being the last 10 selected. County boundaries are drawn, and existing public and private reserved lands are shown as a gray mask. *Could leave out of handout.*******Add in example of early successional species. Could be red-cockaded woodpecker, or a butterfly species.*Coral reefs: create the physical conditions allowing sea grass beds and mangroves to form.Mangroves: physical boundary between land and waterBy binding sediments and absorbing nutrients, create the clear, relatively nutrient poor conditions necessary for coral reef growth

Both are indispensable for each other.Mangroves and sea grass: nurseries for young fish. Export young fish that feed larger carnivores.****Need a good example of this*Manage the matrix FOR DISPERSAL*(1) The image above shows that the radar is in Clear Air mode, so the echoes are probably not rain. Note however, that birds and other biota can be detected when the radar is in either mode, and that rain is sometimes present even when the radar is still in Clear Air mode. (2) The image above shows a fine stippling pattern typical of birds and insects, in contrast to the blocky appearance of precipitation. (3) The transitions between high reflectivity areas at the center, and low reflectivity areas of towards the outer boundary, are smooth and somewhat circular. This pattern is indicative of bird migration. (4) Maximum values observed during bird or insect migration are usually no higher than 30-35 dBZ. (5) We also use speed and direction of target movement to discriminate between birds and other entities in the atmosphere. Remember that NEXRAD is a Doppler radar system. For every base reflectivity image NEXRAD produces, a corresponding "base velocity" image is generated that represents target speed and direction. *Manage the matrix FOR DISPERSAL*********