Bio-diesel biodegradable alternative

fuel for diesel engines

Dr. Gadepalli Ravi Kiran Sastry

Readworthy

About the Author

Dr. G. Ravi Kiran Sastry is a Professor in the department of Mechanical Engineering in Chaitanya Engineering College, Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh. Dr. .Sastry did his M. Tech (Thermal Engineering) in Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad and was awarded his PhD from Andhra University, Visakhapatnam with a specialization in alternative fuels for I.e. Engines.

Dr. Sastry has huge teaching as well as Research experience. Dr. Sastry is an ardent researcher in the area of finding alternative fuels as a replacement to commercial fuels especially biodiesels of non-edible oils such as Jatropha, Mahua and Palm Kernel oils.

Dr. Sastry has a good number of research paper contributions in national as well as international journals/conferences in the thrust area of the performance of 0.1. Diesel engine using Biodiesels.

Bio-diesel biodegradable alternative fuel for diesel . engInes

Dr. Gadepalli Ravi Kiran Sastry

Rea~wortlm New Delhi

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First published 2008

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Sastry, Gadepalli Ravi Kiran, 1972-Investigations on bio diesels : a permanent replacement to petro diesels /

Gadepalli Ravi Kiran Sastry.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references (p. Includes index.

ISBN 13: 978-81-89973-50-6 ISBN 10: 81-89973-50-9

1. Biodiesel fuels--Research. 2. Diesel motor --Alternative fuels. 3. Diesel motor--Vibration. 4. Diesel motor--Noise. I. Title.

DDC 662.669 072 22 Printed at Salasar Imaging Systems, Delhi - 35

Foreword

Depletion of petroleum products may not be taking place within offing because earth's reserves are immense. But cost of exploration may escalate and finally the petroleum products may be dearer day-by-day. Already, the day has come the cheaper diesel of erstwhile times has become unbearably costlier. In this context, a viable and sustainable alternative fuel is necessary to cater to the needs of mind boggling fleet of automobiles in the world. It calls for the necessity to decrease the pollution levels also complying with the emission norms to keep the environment clean. The advent of biodiesel has come to the rescue in this warranting situation. This fuel is renewable originating from the vast plant population of the globe. Basically, this oil is biodegradable and controls the greenhouse gas which is responsible for the global warming. Department of Marine Engineering, AV College of Engineering, is one of the pioneering departments in the country which can boast of diversifying research in the area of biodiesel applications and alternative fuels. It has pioneered mijn.y studies in this field with the concerted effort of researchers in designing the systems to produce biodiesel in the laboratory at the economically viable rates and implement them in running the diesel engines in lieu of petro-diesel. Much accuracy is called for in the measurement of the engine parameters which can define exactly the engine behaviour with the new trial. Dr. Sastry, worked hard in streamlining the systems to design biodiesel plants to bring succour to the community of the diesel users. Dr. Sastry strove to exploit non-edible oil plants to replace diesel oil usage in the conventional diesel engines. The day is not far away to see that all diesel engines run by petro-diesel will be replaced by biodiesel, partially or fully.

Dr. B. V.Appa Rao Department of Marine Engineering

A.U College of Engineering Andhra University

Visakhapatnam-530 003

Acknowledgements

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. B.V. Appa Rao, Professor, Department of Marine Engineering, A U. College of Engineering, for his expert guidance and support during the course of this study.

I express my gratitude to Dr. T. V. K. Bhanu Prakash, Professor and Head of the Department of Marine Engineering, for his continuous encouragement.

I also extend my heartiest thanks to the entire faculty of Marine Engineering, of A U. College of Engineering for their continuous encouragement; Prof. K.V.L. Raju, Principal, M.V.G.R. College of Engineering, for this cooperation and support; and Prof. R.N. Someswara Rao, formerly at AU.C.B. for this valuable suggestions.

Finally, I take this opportunity to say big thank you to my mother, wife and children for their sincere cooperation.

Foreword

Acknowledgement

List of Figures

List of Tables

Nomenclature

Contents

Names of the Oils Used in this Study

1. Introduction

Biodiesel As An Option For Energy Security In India I Studies On Rapeseed Oil Methyl Ester (RME) I Studies On Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester (SME) I Studies On Palm Oil Methyl Ester (POME) I Studies On Jatropha Oil Methyl Ester OME) I Studies On Methyl Tallowate Biodiesel I Studies On Linseed Oil Methyl Ester (WME) I Studies On Mahua Oil Methyl Ester (MME) I Summary

v

vi

viii

xiii

xiv

xvi

1

2. Transesterification Procedure 51

3. Heat Release Rate Calculations 56

4. Experimental Set Up 61

5. Results, Discussion and Conclusions 71

Performance Studies I Comparison of The Sound Pressure Levels At All Loads And For All The Oils I Engine Vibration Comparison I Time Waveforms of Vibration I Phase Analysis I Assessment of Engine Trend With The Use Of PKME, JME, MME And Diesel Oils I Conclusions I Future Scope of Work

Bibliography 100

Appendix-A The vibration signatures at other loads not mentioned in the chapters have been appended below for verification 106

Appendix-B The time waveforms measured at various points on the engine at various loads have been appended below 138

Appendix-C The pressure- crank angle diagrams for other loads not mentioned in the chapters are appended below for verification 154

Index 162

List of Figures

Fig. Title Of The Figure Page No. No

1.1 Power output for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel

1.2 Torque for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel

1.3 Ignition lag for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel

1.4 BSHC for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel

1.5 Rate of pressure-rise for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel

1.6a Torque Vs Cl.

1.6b Torque Vs <p

1.7a Power Vs Cl.

1.7b Power Vs <p

1.8a Specific fuel consumption Vs Cl.

1.8b Specific fuel consumption Vs <p

1.9 Heat release rate Vs crank angle in degrees

1.10 Heat release rate Vs crank angle degrees

1.11 Heat release rate Vs crank angle degree

1.12 Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle degrees

1.13 Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle degrees.

1.14 Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle degrees.

1.15 Engine torque variation with engine speed

1.16 Engine power variation with engine speed

1.17 Specific fuel consumption with engine speed

1.18 Brake power Vs engine speed

1.19 Torque Vs engine speed

1.20 Specific fuel consumption Vs engine speed

1.21 Brake thermal efficiency Vs engine speed

1.22 Variation of peak pressure with brake power \

1.23 Variation of maximum rate of pressure rise with brake power

1.24 Variation of combustion duration with brake power

1.25 Variation of heat release rate at maximum power output

1.26 Variation of sfc with brake power

1.27 Variation of brake thermal effeciency

List of Figures I ix

1.28 Variation of peak pressure with brake power

1.29 Variation of maximum. rate of pressure rise with brake power

1.30 Pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at peak torque

1.31 Pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at rated engine speed

1.32 Derivative of pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at peak torque

1.33 Derivative of pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at rated engine speed

1.34 Rate of heat release curve Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at peak torque

1.35 Rate of heat release curve Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at rated engine speed

1.36 Exhaust temperature Vs bmep

1.37 Thermal efficiency Vs bmep

1.38 bsfc Vs bmep

1.39 Exhaust temperature Vs bmep

1.40 Improvement in peak thermal efficiency with respect to biodiesel in fuel

1.41 bsfc Vs brake power

1.42 Break thermal efficiency Vs brake power

1.43 Specific energy consumption Vs brake power

2.1 Mechanism of the base-catalyzed transesterification process

2.2 Flow Sheet for production of biodiesel from non- edible vegetable oils

3.1 P-9 & PV diagram for the engine running on pure diesel at full load

3.2 P-9 and derived net heat release curves for pure diesel full load

3.3 P-9 and derived cumulative heat release curves for pure diesel at full load

4.1 P-9 and derived cumulative heat release curves for pure diesel at full load

4.2 Schematic diagram of data integration circuit taking data from the encoder and the pressure transducer

4.3 Diesel engine test rig

4.4 Engine loading device Eddy current dynamometer with Spring balance

x I Bio-diesel

4.5 Vibration readings on the engine. Eddy current dynamometer's operating panel can be seen in this figure

4.6 Noise measurements on the engine with Larson-Davis labs model 710 Dosimeter

4.7 Connection from crank angle encoder fixed to the engine

4.8 The engine data logger in interface with the computer and the data being logged by the developed software C7112

4.9 Piezo Electric Transducer

4.10 DC-11 Vibration data logger

4.11 Optical Stroboscope

4.12 Piezo Electric Accelerometer

5.1 Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at no- load

5.2 Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at 1,4 load

5.3 Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at half-load

5.4 th

Comparison of combustion pressures at 3/4 -load

5.5 Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at full- load

5.5a Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Full- Load

5.6 Comparison of differential pressures for all oils at all loads

5.7 Comparison of peak pressure for all oils at all loads

5.8 Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads with pure diesel run

5.9 Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for JME run

5.10 Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for MME run

5.11 Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for PKME run

5.12 Comparison of Brake power in KW Vs fuel consumption in grams per second

5.13 Comparison of load percent Vs brake specific fuel consumption in Kg/Kw-Hr

5.14 Comparison of mechanical efficiency Vs load per cent

5.15 Comparison of Indicated thermal efficiency Vs load per cent

5.16 Comparison of Brake thermal efficiency Vs load per cent

5.17 Comparison of Net heat release rate Vs load percentage

5.18 Comparison of Cumulative heat release rate Vs load percentage

5.19 Diesel heat release rate plot at full load

5.20 JME heat release rate plot at full load

List of Figures I xi

5.21 MME Heat release rate plot at full load

5.22 PKME heat release rate plot at full load

5.23 Comparison of Sound pressure levels recorded at various loads and for various oils

5.24 Overall values of vibration in acceleration amplitude Vs the load percentage

5.25 Foundation vibration with the diesel oil run at full load

5.26 Foundation vibration with the JME run at full load

5.27 Foundation vibration with the MME run at full load

5.28 Foundation vibration with the PKME run at full load

5.29 Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the diesel oil run at full load

5.30 Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the JME run at full load

5.31 Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the MME run at full load

5.32 Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the PKME run at full load

5.33 Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft with the diesel oil run at full load

5.34 Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft with the JME run at full load

5.35 Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft with the MME run at full load

5.36 Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft with the PKME run at full load

5.37 Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the diesel oil run at full load

5.38 Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the JME run at full load

5.39 Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the MME run at full load

5.40 Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the PKME run at full load

5.41 Time wave form collected on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with the diesel oil

5.42 Time wave form collected on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with the JME

xii I Bio-diesel

5.43 Time wave form collected on the cylin~er head when engine running at full load with MME

5.44 Time wave form collected on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with PKME

5.45 Time wave form collected radial on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with the diesel oil

5.46 Time wave form collected radial on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with JME

5.47 Time wave form collected radial on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with MME

5.48 Time wave form collected radial on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with PKME

:'.49 Comparison of first order Phase of vibration measured radial to the cylinder

5.50 Comparison of first order Phase of vibration measured vertical on the cylinder

5.51 Engine vibration trend when run with oils under consideration at {ullload.

5.52 Limited spectrum average of vibration acceleration when run with oils under consideration at full load

List of Tables

Table Title of the Table Page No. No.

11 Biodiesel req-uirement for blending

1.2 Properties of O.D. and palm oil methyl ester (POME)

1.3 Viscosities of POME and temperature (ASTMD445)

2.1 Properties of diesel, non-edible vegetable oils and their methyl esters

0:

v

e p

A

"[

llb.th

llIth

llm

~P

~T

ABOC

ASME

ASTM

ATOC

B.T.E., b.th.ll

B100 B2

B20

BBOC

BOC

bmep

bp

bsfc

BTOC

CA

CAD

CHRR

CO

DJ.

Nomenclature

Equivalence ratio

Relative Equivalence Ratio

Ratio of Specific Heats

Efficiency

Dynamic Viscosity

Kinematic Viscosity

Crank Angle

Density

Wavelength

Shear Stress

Brake Thermal Efficiency

Indicated Thermal Efficiency

Mechanical Efficiency

Pressure Difference

Temperature Difference

After Bottom Dead Center

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

American Society for Testing and Materials

After Top Dead center

Brake Thermal Efficiency

Pure Biodiesel

Blend of 2% Biodiesel and 92% Petroleum Diesel

Blend of 20% Biodiesel and 80% Petroleum Diesel.

Before Bottom Dead center

Bottom Dead center

Brake Mean Effective Pressure

Brake Power

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

Before Top Dead center

Crank Angle

Crank Angle in Degree

Cumulative Heat Release Rate

Carbon Monoxide

Direct Injection

deg

ECA

F.e.

F.I.A.

FME

HC

HHV

HSDI

I.T.E., i.th.ll

I.DJ.

imep

ip

isfc

JME LHV

LOME

Degree(s)

Engine Cycle Analysis

Fuel Consumption

Fuel Injection Analysis

Frying Oil Methyl Ester

Hydro Carbon

Higher Heating Value

High-Speed Direct Injection

Indicated Thermal Efficiency

Indirect Injection

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure

Indicated Power

Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption

Jatropha Oil Methyl Ester

Lower Heating Value

Linseed Oil Methyl Ester

MME, MOME: Mahua Oil Methyl Ester

NHRR Net Heat Release Rate

OEMs

PKME

POME

PORIM

RME

rpm

SAE

SEC

sfc

SME

TCSBO

TOC

Original Engine Manufacturers

Palm Kernel Oil Methyl Ester

Palm Oil Methyl Ester

Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia

Rapeseed Oil Methyl Ester

Revolutions Per Minute

Society of Automotive Engineers

Specific Energy Consumption

Specific Fuel Consumption

Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester

Thermally Cracked Soyabean Oil

Top Dead Centre

Nomenclature I xv

Names of the Oils Used in this Study

S.NO Common Name Botanical Names (Local language names are given in the (Family Name is given in

parenthesis) the parenthesis)

1. JATROPHA (Ratanjyot,Nepalam, Adavi Jatropha Curcas Linn.

Amudam,Undigapu,Physic Nut,Purging ( Euphorhiaceae) Nut,etc. )

2. MAHUA (Madhuca,Mowra,Ippa, illupal, etc.) Madhuca Indica,Bassia

LatifolaRoxburghi.

(Sapotaceae)

3. PALM (Oil Palm, Khajuri) Elaeis guineenis,

(P.s.:Palm Kernel is Obtained from Oil Palm) Elaeis oleifera.

(Palmae)

1

Introduction

Biodiesel is one of the widely tested alternative fuels in the market. A number of studies have been done and the results show the performance of biodiesel similar to that of petroleum diesel. It is also beneficial to human health and environment when compared to diesel. The research includes studies performed by the U.S. Department of Energy, the u.s. Department of Agriculture, Stanadyne Automotive Corp. (the largest diesel fuel injection equipment manufacturer in the U.S.), Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, and Southwest Research Institute. Biodiesel is the first and only alternative fuel to have fulfilled the rigorous health effects testing requirements of the Clean Air Act. Biodiesel has been proven to perform similar to diesel in more than 40 million successful road miles and in virtually all types of diesel engines, countless off-road miles and countless marine hours. Currently more than 100 major fleets use biodiesel

One of the major advantages of biodiesel is that it can be used in existing engines and fuel injection equipment with little impact on the operating performance. Biodiesel has a higher cetane number than U.S. diesel fuel. In more than 30 million miles of in-field demonstrations, B20 showed similar fuel consumption, horsepower, torque, and haulage rates as conventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel also has superior lubricity and has the highest BTU content in the comparison to any other any alternative fuel (falling in the range between #1 and #2 diesel fuel).

Biodiesel becomes gel in very cold temperatures, just as the common #2 diesel does. Although' pure biodiesel has a higher cloud point than #2 diesel fuel, typical blends of 20 per cent biodiesels are managed with the same fuel management techniques as #2 diesel. Blends of 5 per cent biodiesel and less have virtually no impact on cold flow.

Biodiesel can be operated in any diesel engine with little or no modification to the engine or the fuel system. Pure biodiesel (B100) has a solvent effect, which may release deposits accumulated on tank walls and

2 I Bio-diesel

pipes from previous diesel fuel use. With high blends of biodiesel, the release of deposits may clog filters initially, therefore, precautions should be taken to replace fuel filters until the petroleum build-up is eliminated. This issue is less prevalent with B20 blends, and there is no evidence that lower-blend levels such as B2 have caused filters to plug. The use of a 2 per cent blend of biodiesel, it is estimated, increases the cost of diesel by 2 or 3 cents per gallon, including the fuel, transportation, storage and blending costs. Any increase in cost will be accompanied by an increase in diesel quality since low-blend levels of biodiesel greatly enhance the lubricity of diesel fuel.

The recent switch to low-sulphur diesel fuel has caused most Original Engine Manufacturers (OEMs) to switch to components that are also compatible with biodiesel. In general, biodiesel used in pure form can soften and degrade certain types of elastomers and natural rubber compounds over a period of time. Using high per cent blends can impact fuel system components (primarily fuel hoses and fuel pump seals) that contain elastomer compounds incompatible with biodiesel, although the effect is lessened as the biodiesel blend level is decreased. Experiments during the last seven years with B20 has show that no changes to gaskets or hoses are necessary.

The biodiesel industry has been active in setting standards for biodiesel since 1994 when the first biodiesel taskforce was formed by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). ASTM approved a provisional standard for biodiesel (ASTM PS 121) in July 1999.

Most fuel today is used much before six months, and many petroleum companies do not recommend storing petroleum diesel for more than six months. The current industry recommendation is that biodiesel be used within six months, or reanalyzed after six months to ensure the fuel meets ASTM specifications (PS 121-99). A longer shelf life is possible depending on the fuel composition and the use of storage enhancing additives. The use of biodiesel in existing diesel engines does not void parts and materials workmanship warranties of any engine manufacturer.

There are thirteen companies that have invested millions of dollars into the development of the biodiesel manufacturing plants actively marketing biodiesel. Based on existing dedicated biodiesel processing capacity and long-term production agreements, more than 200 million gallons of biodiesel capacity currently exists. Many facilities are capable of doubling their production capacity within 18 months.

Introduction I 3

The U.S. Department of Agriculture announced in January 2001 the implementation of the first programme providing cost incentives for the production of 36 million gallons of biodiesel. Bills supporting the use of biodiesel and ethanol were also introduced in the U.S. Congress in 2001, including one that would set a renewable standard for fuel in the U.S. and one that would give biodiesel a partial fuel excise tax exemption. More than a dozen states have passed favourable biodiesellegislation.

Biodiesel is a non-polluting recycled fuel made from organic oils. It is chemically called Free Fatty Acid Methyl Ester. It is made from processed organic oils and fats, and can be burned in normal diesel engines just like normal mineral diesel, but its use neither pollutes the atmosphere nor adds to the causes of global warming. It is also possible to make good bio-diesel from waste vegetable oils like used chip fat. In this way, burning bio-diesel turns a waste disposal problem into a non-polluting fuel source.

Organic fuels are derived from plant and animal fats. Mineral fuels are derived from the fossil remains of decomposed organic matter extracted from below the surface of the earth. It is a common knowledge that the resources of mineral oils are nearly depleted, and the cost of extracting the remaining reserves will become increasingly high. There is an urgent need to find other sources of energy before mineral fuel supplies run dry.

It is also well known that burning of fossil fuels increases the level of carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere as the carbon locked within the earth's crust, when burned, is released into the atmosphere as exhaust gasses. This is the main cause of the 'Green House' effect in which the overall temperature of the globe increases as it becomes enveloped within a pool of carbon dioxide. This process is believed to be the main cause of global warming, which is now a well-accepted fact even amongst those who were most skeptical. All the time we burn normal petrol or mineral diesel, we are therefore actively contributing to global warming.

However, the burning of organically derived fuels does not contribute any additional CO2 into the atmosphere, as the carbon released is the same as the carbon absorbed by the plants as they grow. Using organic fuels is therefore beneficial to both the environment and the atmosphere.

Many potential organic fuels presently pose a waste disposal problem. For example, waste vegetable fats used for cooking require costly disposal. But most of these materials can easily be re-processed to make useful fuels by the process of transesterification.

41 Bio-diesel

Biologically derived oils and fats comprise of three fatty acid chains attached to glycerol. Processing detaches the three hydrocarbon chains to make biodiesel, and glycerin. The glycerin can be used to make soaps or fermented to make ethanol, which is re-used to make biodiesel, or it can be burned as a heating fuel.

Biodiesel as an Option for Energy Security in India [1]

India ranks sixth in the world in terms of energy demand accounting for 3.5 per cent of world commercial energy demand in 2001. The energy

, demand is expected to grow at the rate of 4.8 Per cent per annum. ?? A large part of India's population, mostly in the rural areas, does not have access to it. Hence a programme for the development of energy from raw material, which grows in the rural areas, will go a long way in providing energy security to the rural people. The rise in energy demand in all forms is expected to continue unabated owing to increasing urbanization, standard of living and expanding population stabilization of which not been possible before mid of the current century. The demand of diesel (HSD) is projected to grow from 39.81 million metric tons in 2001-02 to 52.32 million metric tons in 2006-07, at the rate of 5.6 per annum. Our crude oil production as per the Tenth Plan Working Group is estimated to hover around 33-34 million metric tons per annum even though there will be an increase in gas production from 86 million standard cubic metres per day (2002-03) to 103 million standard cubic meters per day in (2006-07). Only with joint venture abroad there is a hope of oil production to increase to 41 million metric tons by (2016-17). The gas production would decline by this period to 73 million standard cubic meters per day. The increasing gap between demand and domestically produced petroleum is a matter of serious concern. Our dependence on imported oil will increase in the foreseeable future. The Working Group has estimated import of crude oil to go up from 85 million metric tons per annum to 147 million metric tons per annum by the end of 2006-07, correspondingly increasing the import bill from $ 13.3 billion to $ 15.7 billion at today's prices. Transport remains the most problematic sector, as no alternative to petroleum-based fuel, has been successful so far. Hence petroleum based fuels especially petroleum diesel (HSD), will continue to dominate the transport sector in the foreseeable future but its consumption can be minimized by implementation of biodiesel programme expeditiously. Targets need to be set up for biodiesel production to achieve blending ratios of 5, 10 and 20 per cent in phased manner.

Introduction I 5

BIODIESEL REQUIREMENT FOR BLENDING

The estimated biodiesel requirements for blending with petroleum diesel over the period of next five years are given in Table 1:

Table 1. Biodiesel requirement for blending

Year Diesel demand Biodiesel requirement for million tons blending million tons

@5% @10% @20%

2001-02 39.81 1.99 3.98 7.6 2002-03 42.15 2.16 4.32 8.9 2003-04 44.51 2.28 4.56 8.6 2004-05 46.97 2.35 4.70 8.4 2005-06 49.56 2.48 4.96 8.9 2007-08 52.33 2.62 5.24 10.48

FEASIBILITY OF PRODUCING BIODIESEL AS A DIESEL SUBSTITUTE

While India is short of petroleum reserve, it has large arable land as well as good climatic conditions (tropical) with adequate rainfall in large parts of the country to account for large biomass production each year. Since the demand of edible oils is higher than their domestic production, there is no possibility of diverting these oils for production of biodiesel. Fortunately, there is. a large junk of degraded forest land, unutilized public land, field boundaries and fallow land of farmers where non­edible oil-seeds can be grown. There are many tree species, which bear seeds rich in oil. Of these some promising tree species have be;:!n evaluated and it has been found that there are a number of them such as Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot) and Pongamia Pinnata ('Honge' or 'Karanja'), which would be very suitable in Indian conditions. However, Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot) has been found most suitable for the purpose. It will use lands which are largely unproductive for the time being and are located in poverty stricken areas and in degraded forests. It can also be planted on farmers' field boundaries and fallow lands. These can also be planted in public lands such as along the railway lines, road sides and beside the irrigation canals.

PROPOSED JATROPHA PLANTATION

Jatropha curcas has been found the most suitable tree species for the reasons summarized below:

• It can be grown as a quick yielding plant even in adverse land situations viz. degraded and barren lands under forest and non-

6 I Bio-diesel

forest use, dry and drought prone areas, marginal lands and as agro forestry crop. It can be planted on fallow lands and along farmer's field boundaries as hedge because it does not grow too tall as well as on vacant lands alongside railways, highways, irrigation canals and unused lands in townships under public / private sector undertakings.

• The seeds of Jatropha are available during the non-rainy season, which facilitates better collection and processing. The cost of plantation is largely incurred in the first year and improved planting material can make a huge difference in yield.

• Raising Jatropha plant and its maintenance creates jobs for the rural poor, particularly the landless, in plantation and primary processing through expellers.

• It has multiple uses and after the extraction of oil from the seeds, the oil cake left behind can be used for bio gas production and is excellent organic manure, the biomass of Jatropha curcas enriches the soil and it can also be put to other uses.

• Retains soil moisture and improves land capability and environment.

• Jatropha adds to the capital stock of the farmers and the community, for sustainable generation of income and employment.

ECONOMICS OF JATROPHA BIODIESEL

In India, it is estimated that the cost of biodiesel produced by transesterification of oil obtained from Jatropha curcas oil seeds shall be approximately same as that of petro-diesel. The seed contains 30 per cent oil, and oil extraction can be 91-92 per cent. 1.05 kg of oil will be required to produce 1 kg of biodiesel, recovery from sale of crude glycerol will be at the rate of Rs. 10 per kg. The price of glycerol is likely to be reduced with processing of large quantities of oil and consequent production of glycerol raising the cost of bio-diesel. However, new applications are likely to be found creating additional demand and stabilizing its price. With volatility in the price of crude, the use of bio-diesel is economically feasible and a strategic option.

ECONOMICS OF BIODIESEL IN THE US

US produces biodiesel from edible oil (mainly Soya oil), the 100 per cent biodiesel costs around $ 1.25 to $2.25 per gallon depending upon purchase volume and the delivery costs and competes with low sulphur

Introduction I 7

diesel oil. However, it is costlier than normal diesel and the B20 blend costs 13 to 22 cents more per gallon than normal diesel. It takes about 7.3 pounds of soya bean oil, which costs about 20 cents/pound, to produce a gallon of biodiesel. Feedstock costs are therefore at least $ 1.5 per gallon of Soya diesel. Under the mustard seed programme, oil can be produced today for approximately 10 cents/pound and the total cost of producing mustard biodiesel is around $ 1 per gallon. The mustard oil, a low value product, contains as much as 90 per cent mono-saturated fatty acids which make it perfect for biodiesel, balancing cold flow issues with Nox emission issues. US is planning to add 5-10 billion gallons of biodiesel through mustard seeds. The mustard oil contains a high value pesticide that helps keep the price of mustard oil low. In India, it is estimated that cost of biodiesel produced by transesterification of oil obtained from Jatropha curcas oil-seeds shall be approximately same as that of petroleum diesel. The byproducts of biodiesel from Jatropha seed are the seed oil cake and glycerol which have good commercial value. The seed oil cake is a very good compost being rich in plant nutrients. It can also yield biogas, which can be used for cooking and its residue as compost. Hence oil cake will fetch good price. Glycerol is produced as a byproduct in the transesterification of oil. These byproducts shall reduce the cost of biodiesel to make it at par with petroleum diesel. The cost components of biodiesel are the price of seed, seed collection and oil extraction, transesterification of oil, transport of seed and oil. As mentioned earlier, cost recovery will be through sale of oil cake and glycerol. The use biodiesel is economically feasible.

Studies on Rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME)

If straight unprocessed vegetable oil is burned, the fatty acids in the oil would start to congeal and harden (coke up) on the inside of the engine as well as in the fuel injectors, eventually leading to big, expensive engine problems. Therefore, it is necessary to process vegetable oil to remove the fatty acids making the oil more similar to diesel compositionally. Biodiesel is an alternative, renewable, clean diesel fuel made from triglycerides (vegetable oils, fats, waste cooking oils), which can be used in neat form, or blended with petroleum diesel for use in compression ignition engines. Biodiesel reduces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide (one of the main causes of acid rain), hydrocarbons, benzene, and particulate matter. Blending in this way tends to reduce the emissions and smoke levels, though power output will still tend to be lower and separation of the blended constituents could occur in cold weather [3]. No engine problems

81 Bio-diesel

were reported in large-scale tests with, for example, urban bus fleets running on B20. Fuel economy promised, but it increases nitrogen oxide levels. The biodiesel industry is looking for additives that would reduce nitrogen oxide levels. Kevin et al. [6] compared alternative fuel transit buses price and reported that there were no expected increase for biodiesel blend use because the engine and fuel system were the same as that used for the conventional diesel version. Many scientists reported problems of diesel engine operation with biodiesel. Bag et al. [5] reportessd that extended tests of esters in diesel engines had been encouraging. Like other fuels, combustion of esters is incomplete. The gradual accumulation of esters in the crankcase eventually leads to greatly altered viscosity of the lubricating oil. Bechtold [7] and Perkins et al. [8] reported that biodiesel had higher viscosity and higher pour points compared to typical diesel fuel, which could affect operation in very cold temperatures. Like diesel fuels, pour point additives are effective at decreasing pour point. The above-mentioned problems can be overcome by blending conventional diesel fuel with esters (usually methyl esters) of vegetable oils. The most common ratio is 80 per cent conventional diesel fuel and 20 per cent vegetable oil ester (also termed "B20, indicating the 20 per cent level of biodiesel) like petroleum diesel. No engine modifications are required, and biodiesel maintains the payload capacity and range of diesel. Since modifications are not required, there is no need to change vehicles, spare parts inventories, refuelling stations or skilled mechanics.

Straight biodiesel has a cetane rating Significantly higher than typical #2 diesel fuel, slightly lower heating value, slightly higher viscosity, and contains approximately 10 per cent oxygen mass .The lower heating value will cause a small loss in maximum power if the engine fuel system is not recalibrated. Perkins et al. [8] observed performance trends of the diesel and rapeseed methyl ester fuelled engines at 1000 hour of the 1000-hour endurance test and are shown in Figs 1.1 & 1.2. The power and torque curves for the diesel and rapeseed methyl ester fuelled engines are almost similar but slight offset was observed for the rapeseed methyl ester. This offset results in the rapeseed methyl ester fuelled engine reaching their peak power output at a lower engine rpm. Another notable difference is that the rapeseed methyl ester fuelled engine produced a flatter power curve than the diesel-fuelled engine. Babu et al. [9] has worked both on the neat vegetable oils and their esters. He has studied the power and torque curves of the engine with the usage of above said oils, which are depicted below:

Introduction I 9

25 'E20 6 15

J 1: o

ar+: I~,-~~nd¥-.-+-Dj.al

2200 2«)0

~?--------------------------------i500 i:400 ':'300 I:

o+-~~--~----.. --~--~--~ 2200

Fig. 1.2.Torque for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel.

~M~~----~==~==~~===='-I e. 13

.! 12

l::+-____ ----~--~~--~----~--~ o 0.1 02 0.3 O.~ 0.5 0.8

...:JI(Mpa)

Fig. 1.3. Ignition lag for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel

10 I Bio-diesel

-? 80 .,...---,.------....-...., ~ I _Rspeseed at

Co 80 ~""""Rapeseed meth)i ester 1 40 -~ 20 • ..... • 0 +--....,.--,....--,...-.,.---,-.,.--....,.--f

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

BMEP,IIpa)

Fig. 1.4. BSHC for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

EIIEP (llpa)

0.6

Fig. 1.5. Rate of pressure-rise for rapeseed methyl ester and diesel fuel

Murayama et al. [2] compared the engine performance with the rapeseed methyl ester with pure rapeseed oil. The difference in the engine performance between the two fuels is very small, except for the ignition lag, which is smaller for the methyl ester (Figs. 1.3 & 1.4). However, the major difference between the two fuels is the much smaller carbon deposits with methyl ester when compared with pure rapeseed oil. It can be seen from Fig. 1.5 that the engine noise increases linearly with an increase in the amount of premixed combustion and the maximum rate of pressure rise, regardless of the kind of fuel. Therefore, the maximum rate of pressure rise and the amount of premixed combustion appear to be critical factors for controlling the engine noise.

Introduction I 11

Senatore et al. in their paper [15] works on the RME inspired by the results obtained [10-14] on bio fuel which has good overall behaviour, with performance and emission levels comparable to diesel fuel.

These figures present the torque and specific consumption respectively under the above test conditions. For the various fuel properties, whenever the comparison is made for the same equivalence ratio value, there is observed a marked difference in the curves (Figs. 1.6a, 1.7a and 1.8a.), which stresses how the performance of biodiesel is clearly lower (about 20-25%) than that obtained from diesel fuel, when the same quantity of air and fuel is introduced into the cylinder. As expected, this difference tends to cancel itself out if one refers to the relative equivalence ratio '<p' (Figs.l.6b, 1.7b and 1.8b).

200 ~---.--~--~----.-----------~ 180

160

140

=120 !lOO §so

60

40

• • . -- 100,. J)!iKtl PUel - - - - 100,. R.ME

20

O~-P~--~~~~~~-.--~ 10 IS 20 lS 40 4S .so SS 60

« Fig. 1.6a. Torque Vs ex

12 I Bio-diesel

60

40

~

• .. •

--- IOn. DiKtl!bel - - - - - - 100ft RJ.IE

O~~~~ __ ~ .. ____ .. __ .... __ ~~

1.0 15 ::l.O 5.0 55 6.0

Fig. 1.6b. Torque Vs cp.

60~----------------------~ 5S-

50-4S.

40-J5·

~30-

f20~ o 15. c:to. 10-

oS OI-1~~.-~~~~~~~~-t

10 IS 2h 25~ 3S J 4.5 S~ .5.5 60 ex

Fig. 1.7a. Power Vs ex

Introduction I 13

,. __ ~--------------------------w J5

, lOO'r. DiKel ftael

- - - - lO~ RMIi: , •

\.~ -. .....

B

.~--~--~~--~--~--~~.~~ U 1JU~

Fig. 1.7b. Power Vs <p

450~-----------------------.

410

i 37.

~35'

--- 1..". DM$el Pad - - - - lo(w' RUE r

III

.'l

Fig. 1.8a. Specific fuel consumption Vs ex

..

141 Bio-diesel

-- 1001. Dit~.l F\1el - - - - 1001. RME

B

LO 0.'

, It - ... ..

Fig. 1.8b. Specific fuel consumption Vs cp

Figures 1.9-1.11 shows the net heat release rate diagrams for three different operating conditions (<p = 3.75, <p = 3.15 and <p = 1.61) for pure diesel fuel and pure methyl ester, respectively. These figures point out that the heat release rate initially follows a downward trend, corresponding to the end of compression stroke, which suddenly changes slope at combustion starting. By analyzing these diagrams, one can observe that when the engine is fuelled with biodiesel, the process starts in advance in all operating conditions, a feature, which becomes more evident as the load increases. This determines a similar trend in the mean temperature variation rate of gases in the cylinder, as shown in Figs.1.12-1.14. Therefore, depending on the fuel used, the maximum temperature increase rate is found at somewhat different engine crank angle positions. In particular, compared with the operating conditions tested using diesel fuel, when biodiesel is used the temperature variation rate peaks at a position closer to piston top dead centre.

Introduction I 15

30------------------------------------ lOO!llt I>iesti ~ --- -lOCl'loRJa

-lO'~----~----~----r_--~r_--~----~

·20 0 20 Crank. Angle In Degrees

Fig. 1.9. Heat release rate Vs crank angle in degrees.

3.-------------------------- 10~ DWellllel %I • - - - l00f0 RKE

128 ~ =3.15 I JJ ~ 11

f. 1 I!

-1.-+--....... - .... - ..... - ........... _-1 -31 -28 -11 • ID 20 3D

CnRk ADP in Depee.

Fig. 1.10. Heat release rate Vs crank angle in degrees.

161 Bio-diesel

40~----~----~----~----~----~--~ M30 ·20 -10 t) 110 lO 30

Crank. Anale In Degrees

Fig. 1.11. Heat release rate Vs crank angle degree

-- 100% Diesel ~l ----100%RWE

$ =3.15

-15

-20--~--~----.----.----.---~--~ -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

Cnmk Angle in Degrees

Fig. 1.12. Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle in degrees.

Introduction I 17

30 100% Diesel Fuel ~

%5 - -100% RME

~ 4-=3.15

~ le Q) 5

i! "'Cf

-5

-10

-11

-%0 -3e -%0 0 %0 30

Crank Angle in Degrees

Fig. 1.13. Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle in degrees.

40~--------------------------~ 100% Diesel FUel - -100% RUE

~ =1.61

...

·20 ...... -...,..-..... - ..... --....-..... - .... -30 ·20 ·10 o 10 20 30

Crank. Angle in Degrees

Fig. 1.14. Gases mean temperature variation rate Vs crank angle in degrees.

181 Bio-diesel

Desantes et al. [16] evaluate the potential of rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) to improve the combustion process in a high-speed direct injection (H5DI) diesel engine equipped with high-pressure common-rail injection system. The study, based on the comparison of three different fuels (standard gas-oil, RME and 30% RME/gas-oil mixture), takes into account the main aspects that control diesel combustion, from the injection rate characteristics to the spray behaviour characterized using an optical pressurized chamber.

This global study of the whole injection-combustion process identifies some causes of the decrease in pollutant emissions observed when the engine operates with RME.

The use of fuels derived from agricultural products like rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) is currently receiving considerable attention due to its economic and ecological interest [18] [19]. 5everal authors have evaluated RME behaviour in D .1. and I.D.I. diesel engines [20] [23] [24] [25], and previous results are variable, particularly regarding pollutant emissions. Experiments have involved the study of mechanical stress problems of the injection system and oil contamination [20] [21] [22]. In the cases where detailed studies of the combustion process with RME have been carried out, the analysis was purely chemical [17]. Very few studies have incorporated an analysis of the influence of the RME characteristics on the physical mechanisms that control the injection-combustion process in a diesel engine.

Studies on Sunflower oil methyl ester (SME)

These are the observations made by Dulger et al.[26] by his experimentation on sunflower methyl ester. The variation of full load torque with engine speed for biodiesel and diesel fuel is given in Fig. 1.15 For diesel fuel, the maximum torque is 152 Nm at 2250 rpm while for 5ME, the maximum torque is 150 Nm at 2250 rpm. Maximum torque is obtained at same rpm for both fuels. At 4500 rpm, diesel gives a torque of 117 Nm, biodiesel 106 Nm. Overall, diesel fuel yields 0-10 per cent higher torque values than 5ME. Figure 1.16 shows full load engine power variation with engine speed. A maximum power of 55 kW is obtained at 4500 rpm for diesel, maximum power for 5ME is 50 kW at 4500 rpm. Below 2500 rpm, power outputs for both fuels are almost same. Above 2500 rpm, diesel produces 0-10 per cent higher power than 5ME. The reason why 5ME produces lower torque and power output than diesel fuel is attributed to fuel pumping problems of 5ME due to its higher density and viscosity compared to diesel, lower heating value of 5ME

Introduction I 19

and inappropriate injection timing for 5ME. Figure 1.17 shows specific fuel consumption. Minimum specific fuel consumption for diesel is 280 g/kW-h at 2000 rpm, while for 5ME 283 g/kW-h at 2000 rpm. At 4500 rpm, diesel consumes 326 g/kW-h and 5ME 340 g/kW.h. Over the whole rpm range, fuel consumption for 5ME is 2-5 per cent higher. The reason for this is believed to be lower heating value of 5ME than diesel fuel which leads to higher fuel consumption per unit power produced. No performance penalties [27], [28], [29], [30], contamination of fuel line elements and lube oil and carbon deposits are found in the combustion chamber due to high viscosity [31].

This study shows that 5ME is an alternative to diesel fuel. According to the tests, the torque, power and specific fuel consumption for 5ME operation are within the same levels as when operating with pure diesel fuel. Although the results of the tests carried out on the test bench seem to be very encouraging, more tests with 5ME should be carried, out to cover all operating conditions, not only full load conditions. Moreover, modifications on engine design and operation parameters such as injection timing, injection pressure and fuel heating should be tested and optimized for 5ME operation.

~ ~ ~

i .. c '51 c ...

I-+-DIESEL -BIODIESEL

200

f t t I I I 1 SO ••• 100 2 ,

so 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 1.15. Engine torque variation with engine speed

~ 60

I 40 20

!! 0. 0 '" w 1000 2000 3000

• • l_OIESEL

_BIOOIESEL

4000 5000 Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 1.16. Engine power variation with engine speed

20 I Bio-diesel

I-DIESEL -BIODIESEl

400

t f I *t I

Qi g _ 350 • .2 ... ~ ~ 300 I • • 4 • • <= ::I ... 250 '\)

~ .§ 200 ., a. 8 150 In

100

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

E ngine ~peed (rpm)

Fig. 1.17. Specific fuel consumption with engine speed

Studies on Palm oil methyl ester (PO ME) [70]

Tests were carried out by Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM) with ordinary diesel and POME. A brief description of the conditions and properties is given below:

a) Baseline Ordinary diesel fuel b) POME 2535 POME at 25° C and intake air at 35° C c) POME 9535 POME at 95° C and intake air at 35° C d) POME 5035 POME at 50° C and intake air at 35° C e) POME 5050 POME at 50° C and intake air at 50° C f) POME 8585 POME at 85° C and intake air at 85° C g) POME 2550 POME at 25° C and intake air at 50° C h) POME 2575 POME at 25° C and intake air at 75° C

ENGINE TRIALS

Brake Power

Referring to Fig.Ll8, the maximum brake power is achieved at around 2000 r/min, conforming very well with the manufacture's specifications. It can be observed that the engine produced almost identical performance on OD and POME fuel under different preheated conditions. It can be seen that as the fuel temperature is increased there is a tendency to power improvement, especially while the engine is operating below 3500 r/min, which was best observed in the case of POME9535 and POME5035. This is most probably due to the reduction of fuel viscosity as temperature rises; once a POME is heated up to 55°C its viscosity approaches the OD level (refer to Table 2). The reduction in viscosity leads to fuel droplet refinement, which in turn improves the fuel spray, atomization, fuel evaporation and injection characteristics of POME fuel. In addition, the ignition delay time was reduced and the cetane rating was also increased, thus approaching the minimum specification for diesel fuel (13). This leads

lI'ltroduction I 21

to 'diesel-like' brake power output. However, as the fuel is heated above lOO°C the fuel viscosity becomes too low to effectively perform its lubricating function on the fuel pump; which deteriorates fuel pump delivery efficiency and results in lower power output (at 95°C POME viscosity is about 2.2 cSt). Combustion was more nearly 'hypergolic' with preheating since the time for each fuel element to be oxidized was significantly reduced. Pursuant to the phenomenon of hypergolic combustion, thermal dissociation can be achieved by preheating the fuel. Upon injection of preheated fuel into the combustion chamber, owing to the presence of a few chemically active fuel radicals, the fuel is ignited and consumed more rapidly than fuel injected at conventional temperatures. The actual phenomenon of hypergolic combustion can be realized only if the preheated fuel is subject to a high supply pressure with the aid of a high-temperature fuel injection system. This condition is still under investigation. For the case of POME 2550, the hot intake air activated the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber, therefore improving combustion efficiency, which in turn leads to better power output.

Torque

The plot of torque Vs engine speed is shown in Fig.1.19 indicating a similar trend as in Fig. 1.18. Thus the above arguments are used to explain­the observation.

SpecificfUelconsuntption

A plot of specific fuel consumption against engine speed is shown in Fig.1.20. It is shown that POME at normal and preheated forms exhibits slightly higher specific fuel consumption than OD fuel. The differences in fuel consumption reflect the differences in relative fuel density, calorific value of fuel, fuel quality and quality of fuel in terms of the cetane index. Referring to Table 2, the POME has a higher specific density (around 5 per cent higher than OD), lower specific combustion enthalpy and lower heat release rate than OD fuel. The higher specific gravity of POME compared with OD fuel indicates that a 15 per cent lower calorific value by mass leads only to a 10 per cent reduction in volume. Since diesel injection equipment metres by volume, the maximum fuel energy delivery without modification is effectively reduced by 10 per cent. In other words, an extra 10 per cent of POME fuel is required to produce the same level of energy output as OD fuel. In addition, once POME fuel is preheated to above 55°C, its viscosity is reduced significantly; this will

22 I Bio-diesel

increase the fuel flow rate, which in turn will increase the specific fuel consumption. The preheated fuel shows similar fuel characteristics, but with a proportional reduction in viscosity with the increase in temperature, which is clearly shown in Table 3. POME 5035 shows a similar level of fuel consumption with baseline OD fuel, as their viscosity levels are equivalent. The trends demonstrated in Fig1.20 also indicate that an increment in fuel temperature has more adverse effect on specific fuel consumption for POME than the intake air temperature.

Brake Thermal Efficiency

Figure 1.21 shows the brake thermal efficiency against engine speed. It is obvious that the baseline OD fuel performs the best in terms of brake thermal efficient throughout the engine operation range. This is mainly due to the relatively higher power output and lower fuel consumption when using baseline OD fuel. However, for the preheated POME cases, even though they generated slightly higher power output than the baseline OD system, the adverse increment in fuel consumption is a serious penalty to downgrade their brake thermal efficiencies.

Table: 2. I Properties of 0.0. and Palm Oil Methyl Ester (POME)

Properties POME OD

Specific density (g/cm3) 0.875 0.832

Kinematic viscosity at 40° C 4.17 3.60

Cetane number 50-52 53

Calorific value (KJ I Kg) 41300 46800

Viscosities of POME at various temperatures are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Viscosities of POME al!d Temperature (ASTMD445)

S.No. Temperature in °C Viscosity

(1) 29.5 8.05

(2) 70 4.40

(3) 55 2.93

(4) 100 2.06

(5) 120 1.65

Introduction I 23

~~----------------~------------------------,

-Baseline ""'*" POME50S0

51---"'~f..-------------+- PONE"35 -t- POME8S85

3~ r{mill

......-PONE9535 -A- POME2$50 -e- PONE$035 -H- POME2S7S

Fig. 1.18. Brake power Vs engine speed

.r-----------------------------------~

61---~~~~r_------~~~----------------~

~i 41-~~--+_---------------------1P~~~~~~

- IIIIIeIine ""'*" 1'OMI!5050

~.-+-----------------------_+_I'OMI!U35----~ -+- POM8I5IS ..... 1'OMI!!1S3S -6- POMI!2S5O -i3-1'OMI!S035 ~POME1S7S

Fig. 1.19. Torque Vs engine speed

24 I Bio-diesel

.~ lE .. "I fit

i

-a-une -*" POM85050

0.91-------------i- POM82535 ___ ~jIl ..... POMEI5I5 ___ POME9S35

-6-P0M8~ O ..... ~~--------- -s-POMUl3$---H-.q

.... fOME2S75

0 ... ~-....... ~:---...:::::¥--::::t::::..---__:::~:.--___f

35

30

25

20

.,

Fig. 1.20. Specific fuel consumption Vs engine speed

-- BueliJIe -M-POMB~

J--I-oH9'-__J'--------- -t- POMB2S3!1 ---~"...;:"'«

~ POMB8S8S -*"" POME9!13!1

H-U-__J'-----=---- ---.- -e..- POh.f£2!1SO ------=r -e- POME!103!1 -B- POME2S7!1

o ~oo 1/xX) I~ 211110 2~) :!O()() 4000

.!:!!~iIlC ~rced r'",11I

Fig. 1.21. Brake thermal efficiency Vs engine speed

Introduction I 25

Studies on Jatropha oil Methyl Ester (JME)

Uncertainties concerning adequate and stable supplies of petroleum fuels have renewed interest in vegetable oils as diesel engine fuels [32]. Non­edible oils are quite promising fuels for agricultural applications. Vegetable oils have similar properties to diesel and can be used to run compression ignition engines with few or no modifications [33]. Investigations have been carried out on a variety of vegetable oils, e.g., Jatropha oil, Karanja oil, rice bran oil, rapeseed oil, for use in diesel engines [34]. Diesel engines with vegetable oils as fuels produce the same power output but with reduced thermal efficiency and increased emissions [35]. Besides this, vegetable oils lead to problems of gum formation and smoke emission. Most of the problems of vegetable oils can be overcome by esterifying them.

Kumar et al. [36], in their experimental work, have evaluated and compared the performance, emissions and combustion characteristics of a single-cylinder, water-cooled, direct-injection diesel engine running on Jatropha oil and its methyl ester with diesel operation. With Jatropha oil, the maximum brake thermal efficiency was 25.6 per cent compared to 29.4 per cent with diesel. The thermal efficiency was 27.8 per cent with the methyl ester of Jatropha oil. Smoke and particulate levels were higher with Jatropha oil than diesel. The methyl ester of Jatropha oil was better than the pure oil but it was still inferior to diesel. Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions were slightly higher with both Jatropha oil and its methyl ester than with diesel whereas NO levels were lower than with diesel. Ignition delay and combustion duration were longer and peak heat release rates were lower with Jatropha oil and its methyl ester than with diesel. Again the methyl ester of Jatropha oil was better. On the whole, it is concluded that the methyl ester of Jatropha oil could be used unmodified in diesel engines with no major detonation in performance. The long-term effects of this fuel have to be evaluated.

26 I Bio-diesel

70

es ~S:~1 -J -

I ID

55

I I SO

0- Std.:..-4S • .w.op_at

+ NE al,fajboP. 01 40

0 , ..

-

<> • + 1-L~~~ __ ~ __ ~~~~~~~~~~

o 3

Fig. 1.23 .Variation of maximum rate of pressure rise with brake power

-<5

Introduction I 27

o '23 &aka PoINer ( kW)

Fig .1.24 .Variation of combustion duration with brake power

4

r 30 -J I I

20

10

-2D-h~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

34(1, 310 MO 310 380 310 400 "'0 420 430 Qank Andte ( dag CA)

Fig. 1.25. Variation of heat release rate at Maximum power output

28 I Bio-diesel

A single-cylinder diesel engine was operated on Jatropha oil, methyl ester of Jatropha oil and diesel. The following are the conclusions based on experimental results:

~ The operation of the engine is smooth on Jatropha oil and methyl ester of Jatropha oil with acceptable performance. The use of Jatropha oil results in a slightly lower thermal efficiency than with diesel. With the methyl ester of Jatropha oil the brake thermal efficiency is similar to diesel values. Maximum brake thermal efficiencies are 25.6, 27.8 and 29.4 per cent for Jatropha oil, its methyl ester and diesel, respectively.

~ Exhaust gas temperature is higher with the Jatropha oil and methyl ester of Jatropha oil than with diesel due to slow combustion.

~ Hydrocarbon emission is greater for the Jatrophci oH than the diesel, 150 pp m for Jatropha oil and 120 pp m for diesel at maximum output. However, it is only 130 ppm with the methyl ester of Jatropha oil. Similar trends are seen in the case of CO emission.

~ The maximum smoke level with Jatropha oil is 4.4 BSU, whereas it is only 3.8 BSU with its ester and 3.6 BSU for diesel.

~ Particulate emissions are lower with methyl ester of Jatropha oil than pure Jatropha oil. Trends are similar to smoke emissions.

~ Ignition delay and combustion duration are longer with both Jatropha oil and methyl ester of Jatropha oil than with diesel.

~ Lower rates of heat release are found with Jatropha oil and methyl ester of Jatropha oil than with diesel during the premixed combustion phase.

On the whole, it is concluded that the methyl ester of Jatropha oil can be good alternative fuel for diesel engine, however, the problem of sluggish combustion and high smoke levels needs attention. The long­term effects of these fuels have to be evaluated.

The performance of the engine and combustion parameters of the engine with diesel and methyl ester of Jatropha oil are presented and discussed below.

The variation of specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency with power output for the methyl ester of Jatropha oil and diesel are shown in Figures 1.26 and 1.2Z The specific fuel consumption is higher i.e., the thermal efficiency is lower with the ester of Jatropha oil. This is probably due to the low volatility, slightly higher viscosity and high density of the methyl ester of Jatropha oil, which affects mixture formation of the fuel and leads to slow combustion. The maximum thermal efficiency of the Jatropha ester is

Introduction I 29

about 26.5 per cent, whereas it is 29.3 per cent with diesel. However, there is no drop in maximum power with the Jatropha ester.

Exhaust gas temperature increases when the load rises and it is higher for Jatropha ester than diesel, particularly at higher loads. Due to incomplete combustion of the injected fuel and part of the combustion extending into the exhaust stroke, there is a slight increase in exhaust gas temperature with Jatropha ester compared to diesel oil operation. The maximum temperature of exhaust gas at peak load is 492"C for the ester and 474°C for diesel. With 100 per cent methyl ester of Jatropha oil' operation smoke emission is increased at higher loads. This may be due to the higher viscosity and density of the ester that leads poor vaporization and slow combustion of the injected fuel. When the highly viscous Jatropha ester is injected, the atomization of fuel is poor leading to larger droplets and less air entrainment resulting in inefficient combustion. This leads to higher smoke emission with Jatropha ester. However, smoke is less at lower loads.

The variation of peak pressure and the rate of pressure rise for various loads are shown in Figures 1.28 and 1.29. The peak pressure depends on the amount of fuel taking part in the uncontrolled combustion phase, which is governed by the delay period and the spray envelope of the injected fuel. There is a little difference between the peak pressures of the methyl ester of Jatropha oil and diesel. At high loads the peak pressure is slightly higher than diesel with the Jatropha ester. As seen in Figure 1.29, there is a big difference in the maximum rate of pressure rise between the two fuels. The maximum rate of pressure rise of the ester of Jatropha oil is generally higher at high power outputs probably due to the dominating effects of the premixed phase of combustion.

INFERENCE

A single cylinder compression ignition engine was operated successfully using methyl ester of Jatropha oil as the sole fuel. The following conclusions are made based on the experimental results:

• Engine works smoothly on methyl ester of Jatropha oil with performance comparable to diesel operation.

• Methyl ester of Jatropha oil results in a slightly reduced thermal efficiency as compared to that of diesel.

• The exhaust gas temperature is Increased with the methyl ester of Jatropha oil as compared to diesel operation at peak output.

• Hydrocarbon emission is low with the methyl ester of Jatropha oil.

30 I Bio-diesel

• There is no significant difference in smoke emissions when the methyl ester of Jatropha oil is used.

• CO emission is increased at higher loads with the methyl ester of Jatropha oil. On the whole, it is concluded that the methyl ester of Jatropha oil will be a good alternative fuel for the diesel engine for agricultural applications.

~ ~

"'" =0, -:! ~.

700

600

500

400

300

200 0

-0- Std Dtesel ___ Jatropha Ester

Brake Power (kW)

Fig. 1.26. Variation of sfc with brake power

40~--------------------------~

o

Speed 1500 !pm

Inj. Tmring 29 BIDe

........ Std Diesel ____ Jatropha Ester

2 3 Brake Power (kW)

Fig ,1.27. Variation of brake thermal efficiency.

4

4

Introduction I 31

V' Std Diesel .... .... Jatropha Ester

Speed 1500 rpm Inj. Timing 29 BIDe

Fig 1.28 .Variation of peak pressure with brake power

6~-------------------------------'

-+- Std Diesel -.- Jatropha Ester

Speed 1500 rpm Inj. Timing 29 BIDe

o 2 3 4 Brake Power (kW)

Fig. 1.29. Variation of maximum rate of pressure rise with brake power

32 I Bio-diesel

Studies on methyl tallowate biodiesel

All et al. [37] have conducted experiments on four fuels produced by blending biodiesel (methyl tallowate) and #2 diesel fuel. Engine in­cylinder pressure data were collected at various engine speeds and used to evaluate the peak pressure, indicated mean effective pressure (imep), rate of change of pressure, rate of heat release, mass fraction of fuel burned, and charge temperature with respect to crank angle. Peak cylinder pressures for each fuel blend at all engine speeds were lower than peak pressure for #2 diesel fuel, the imep values for all fuel blends were less than that of #2 diesel fuel. The differences in imep values correlate with the differences on power output of the engine. The maximum rates of pressure rise for all fuel blends are less than that of #2 diesel fuel. The rate of heat release decreased with increase in engine speed as well as with the amount of methyl tallowate in the fuel blend. Peak rate of heat release for all fuel blends is less than that of #2 diesel fuel. When methyl tallowate was blended with #2 diesel fuel, the shift in the location of peak heat release was slightly away from top dead centre (TDC). Ignition delay slightly increased when methyl tallowate was blended with #2 diesel fuel at peak torque conditions but at peak power the type of fuel blends did not affect ignition delay. On the other hand, burn duration slightly decreased with increase in methyl tallowate in the fuel blend at peak torque condition and there was no significant effect on burn duration at peak power condition. The charge temperature decreased with increase in methyl tallowate content of the fuel blends. A reduction in charge temperature can help reduce NOx emissions. It was concluded that the fuel blends used in this study would have no detrimental long-term effects on engine performance, wear, and knock.

Interest in cleaner burning fuel is growing worldwide and reduction in exhaust emissions from the internal combustion engine is gaining importance from the past few years. It is widely recognized that alternative diesel fuels produced from vegetable oils and animal fats can reduce the exhaust emissions from compression ignition engines without significantly affecting engine performance. Ali et al. [38] reported no significant difference in power output with different blends of diesel fuel, methyl tallowate, methyl soyate, and ethanol. Further, CO and NOx

emissions were not affected by the blends used, but HC emissions were significantly lower with a 80:13:7 per cent (v Iv) blend of diesel: methyl tallowate and ethanol, the recommended blend for minimum emissions as compared with #2 diesel fuel.

Introduction I 33

Pollutant emissions reduction from diesel engines requires detailed knowledge of the combustion process. However, the complex nature of the combustion process in a diesel engine makes it difficult to understand the events occurring in the combustion chamber which determine the emissions of exhaust gases including CO, HC, NOx and smoke. Most Cl engines are designed to operate on diesel fuel and, therefore, perform best while operated on that fuel. During the engine design and optimization process, an engine manufacturer performs in-cylinder pressure measurement to determine cylinder pressure, rate of change in pressure, estimated rate of heat release, mass-burned fraction, and charge temperature. High-speed data acquisition systems are used by performance development engineers and are found to be of practical value. Algorithms and techniques that provide an accurate representation of heat transfer and a means of very accurately determining top dead centre (TIX) have been developed. Engine cycle analysis (ECA) and fuel injection analysis (PIA) software can be used to obtain steady state engine performance characteristics (Gill.A.P. [41]). The combustion process in a diesel engine is usually considered to occur in four phases according to heat release rate (Barbella et al. [39]). Those phases are the ignition delay period, premixed burning phase, diffusion burning, after diffusion burning phase and oxidation phase. These phases are used to follow the transformation of fuel in the combustion cycle.

Several studies have been reported on the effects of fuel and engine parameters on diesel exhaust emissions. Kittelson et al. [42] conducted in­cylinder and exhaust soot mass measurement on a single-cylinder conversion of a four-cylinder, direct injection (DI) diesel engine using a sampling system, which allowed dumping, diluting, quenching, and collection of the entire contents of the cylinder on a time scale of about 1 ms. They observed that soot concentration, heat release, and fuel injection data were related to one another. Maximum soot mass was observed shortly after top dead centre (ATDC), which reached a peak between 15 and 30° crank angle (CA) ATDC. After reaching its peak value, soot concentration decreased with increasing CA and approached exhaust levels by 40 to 60° CA ATDC. There was a longer delay between the start of combustion and the start of soot formation for high equivalence ratio, which was due to a slightly longer premixed burning phase at high load. The increase in length of the premixed burning period was much smaller than the increase in the formation lag time. They concluded that oxygen availability late in the cycle was a critical factor in determining exhaust soot concentrations.

34 I Bio-diesel

5hundoh et al. [44] observed that low (1,000 rpm) and high (2,000 rpm) engine speeds had no effect on heat release rate because the injection rates were the same, and heat release closely followed the injection rate ID type C combustion. The gas temperature in the case of the low speed condition was higher than that at high speed and was the reason for higher NOx and lower smoke levels at low speeds.

Barbella et al. [39] studied the formation and oxidation of soot, light and heavy hydrocarbons, CO, CO2, and NOx during the combustion cycle of a DI diesel engine. They observed that the concentrations of heavy hydrocarbons decreased during the early stages of the combustion cycle. Maximum soot formation occurred ATDC after that the soot formation decreased slowly at 40° CA ATDC.

Niehaus et al. [43] observed that diesel fuel produced more premixed burning than thermally cracked soyabean (TC5BO) at brake mean effective pressures (bmep) of 100 and 300 KPa.

Czerwinski et al. [40] used a rapeseed oil, ethanol, and diesel fuel blend and compared the heat release curves with diesel fuel. He observed that the addition of ethanol caused longer ignition lag at all operation conditions. At higher and full loads, the combustion speeds were high with strong premixed phases. The addition of rapeseed oil gave a little lower combustion speed and lower combustion temperature as compared to diesel fuel. The inflammation lag with rapeseed oil was slightly shorter and the combustion duration was approximately equal to diesel fuel. The blend of diesel, rapeseed oil, and ethanol had lower heat values, which diminished the power output at full load as well as the available power during the transient operating conditions.

The overall objective of this project is to perform in-cylinder pressure measurements on an engine to determine cylinder pressure, rate of pressure change, rate of heat release, mass-burned fraction of fuel, and charge temperature curves on fuels produced by blending #2 diesel fuel and biodiesel (methyl tallowate) in a Cummins N14-410 diesel engine. It is expected that this study would help establish the fuel burning characteristics needed to control exhaust emissions and engine coking.

COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

Pressure vs Crank Angle

This relationship gives a gross indication of engine knock, the location of peak pressure, and the value of the peak pressure. Peak cylinder pressures for each fuel blend at all engine speeds were lower than the

Introduction I 35

peak pressure with #2 diesel fuel. Representative graphs showing pressure with respect to crank angle for peak torque and rated engine speed are shown in Figures 1.30 and 1.31, respectively.

~

1~~------------------------------,r---~ 1200 rpm 100 : 0

12000 ~

10 15 20

80 :20

10 :30

60 :40

f 8000 • • ~

4000

O~==~=T==~~--~~~~~~ -360 -210 -180 -90 0 90 180 210 360

Cruak A:acJe ~mc, deC

Fig. 1.30. Pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at peak torque (graph in box shows the peak pressure values)

1600 16000 lSOOrpm 100 :0 15000

80:20 14000 /" 12000 13000 10:30 12000

~ 11000 60 :40 ·5 , 800

J 4000

0 ~~ ---360 -210 -180 -90 0 90 180 210 ::IoU

Cruk Aac1e Refere~mC,deC

Fig. 1.31. Pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at rated engine speed (graph in box shows peak pressure values)

36 I Bio-diesel

Similar trends are observed at all other engine speeds and loads. Looking at the magnitude of the peak pressures for the blends as compared to #2 diesel fuel, it was concluded that since the peak pressures were less than that for #2 diesel fuel, there should have been no effect on engine durability and there should not be any problem related to knock, combustion, or partial burn with engine performance.

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure

Indicated mean effective pressures is defined as the indicated average constant pressure exerted on the piston during the expansion stroke, which will produce the same amount of work as the actual pressure during the compression and expansion strokes. Since the imep is related to the power output of the engine, differences in the imep can be compared with differences in power output at a given engine speed.

At 1200 rpm engine speed, the imep values for the 80:20, 70:30, and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate were within 2.5 per cent of that for #2 diesel fuel. These results were consistent with the peak pressure results with the same blends. At rated speed of 1800 rpm, the imep values for the above blends were all within 1 per cent of that for #2 diesel fuel. Also the indicated mean effective pressures for all fuel blends and engine speeds were less than the imep for #2 diesel fuel. The differences in imep values corresponded with differences in power output of the engine.

Derivative of Pressure with Respect to Crank Angle

This analysis, which is simply the derivative of the pressure shown in Figure 1.30, indicates how rapidly pressure changes and helps identify potentially damaging combustion conditions. After correlating the observed value of the maximum rate of pressure rise with the engine hardware, an engine manufacturer can establish a limiting maximum value, which will ensure acceptable engine life.

The representative graphs showing the development of change in pressure with CA for engine speed at peak torque and rated engine speed are shown in Figures 1.32 and 1.33, respectively. The points in the combustion strokes at which the derivatives are equal to zero in Figures 1.32 and 1.33 correspond to the points of maximum pressure indicated in Figures 1.30 and 1.31, respectively.

Introduction I 37

.. r---------------------------------~ ,-.,. -.. 3 ~

.,.

I 'I .

t: ... ~~--~~ ..... ~~~----~~------~~ ·.·lI •• ·41 •• ·11 • ,. • • • II • CI-* ............ TOe. .....

Fig. 1.3 .

3

I .:. ! :a I .I~----------+---........ ----~ '; .,.

t: ... ~~--__ ..... --__ --..... ----__ ----~~--__ .J ... .,. ·.·.·.·U . u » ••••

Cnnk AngIe ........... TDC .......

Fig. 1.33. Derivative of pressure Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at rated engine speed

The results showed that in-cylinder pressure change was maximum at an engine speed of 1100 rpm and decreased as engine speed was

38 I Bio-diesel

increased to 1200 rpm and then increased as engine speed was further increased to 1600 rpm, the speed at which maximum power was produced. Further increase in engine speed again decreased the peak value of pressure change. The location of maximum pressure change with CA also shifted from 0.0 to 0.20 CA, AIDe IO 13 to 13.80 CA BIDe (before top dead centre). The shapes of all pressure change curves were the same as that for #2 diesel fuel. #2 diesel fuel has a peak change of pressure of 361,385 and 374 KPa at engine speed of 1200, 1600, and 1800 rpm, respectively. The locations shift from 0.20 CA AIDe to 13.60 CA BIDC and 13.80 CA BTDC at the above engine speeds, respectively.

At 1200 rpm engine speed, peak values of change in pressure with crank angle for the 80:20, 70:30, and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate are within 2 per cent of that for #2 diesel fuel. The location of these points were 0.20 CA ATDC, 11.20 CA BTDC and 2.40 CA BIDe for the respective fuel blends. At an engine speed of 1600 rpm, where peak power is produced, the peak value of change in pressure was maximum within the operating range of 1200 to 1800 rpm. The peak values of change in pressure for these fuel blends were within 1.5 per cent of that for #2 diesel fuel and their locations were more or less the same as that for #2 diesel fuel. At rated engine speed of 1800 rpm, the peak values of change in pressure with CA for all fuel blends were within 1.5 per cent of that of #2 diesel fuel with their locations shifted to 14.6, 14.4, and 14.00

CA BIDe respectively, as compared to 13.80 CA BTDC, for #2 diesel fuel.

Looking at the performance of the engine in terms of peak value of change in pressure with CA, it can be concluded that there were minor differences in the peak values. In most cases, the peak value of change in pressure was less than that for #2 diesel fuel. These small differences in the rate of change in pressure should have no long-term effect on engine performance, wear, and knock.

Rate of Heat Release Vs Crank Angle

This analysis shows the estimated rate of heat release during the combustion process. The results provided a quantified assessment of combustion rate and the means to diagnose combustion problems. The analysis was based on pressure and volume measurements. Therefore, some assumptions were made to calculate the rate of heat release. The first assumption was that the trapped charge remained in a uniform single zone of constant composition from intake valve closing to exhaust valve opening. Actually, large temperature gradients existed in the charge during

Introduction I 39

combustion and the chemical composition of the unburned gases was different from the burned gases. The second assumption was that leakage and heat transfer to the wall was negligible. The third assumption was that the charge mixture behaved as an ideal gas. Based on these assumptions, the rate of heat release with respect to CA and location of peak heat release for blends of diesel and methyl tallowate at different engine speeds were calculated and it was observed that peak rate of heat release decreased as engine speed increased from 1100 to 1900 rpm. The location of peak rate of heat release was delayed as the engine speed increased. Furthermore, as the diesel fuel content of the blended fuel was reduced, the peak rate of heat release was also reduced. The shapes of peak rate of heat release curves for all fuel blends at all engine speeds were similar to that of #2 diesel fueL #2 diesel fuel had a peak rate of heat release of 0.287 KJ 10 CA at the engine's peak torque producing speed of 1200 rpm and 0.250 KJ/o CA at the engine's rated speed of 1800 rpm. The trends of peak rates of heat release with CA for all fuel blends at engine speeds of 1200 and 1800 rpm are shown in figures 1.34 and 1.35, respectively.

tj 0.3

o

~ 0.2 oS

j Cl) 0.1

ac: i = O~~~-.--------------------------~ 'S a &I -0.1_ ..

30---.......

0,.....---3.,..0----6 ... 0----4

90

Crank. Angle Referened@TDC,degrees

100:0

80:20

7Q)O 69.::10

Fig. 1.34. Rate of heat release curve Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at peak torque (graph in the box shows the peak rate of heat release)

40 I Bio-diesel

-< 0.3 U 100:0 lie., :IJIIIl 0

80:20 ~ 0.2 7Q)0 t:JS 6.9.:~ ~ «I Go) 15 20 23 - 0.1 Go)

Jl::: ~ Go)

0 = .... = Go)

~ -0.1 -30 0 30

Crank Angle Referenced @ TDC, dearees Fig. 1.35. Rate of heat release curve Vs crank angle for different fuel blends at

rated engine speed (graph in the box shows the peak rate of heat re~ease)

At 1200 rpm engine speed, peak rates of heat release for 80:20, 70:30 and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate are within 2 per cent of that for #2 diesel fuel. The locations of peak rates of heat release are within 10.6 and 11.2° CA after top dead centre (ATDC) for the respective fuel blends as compared to 10.6° CA ATDC for #2 diesel fuel. At rated engine speed of 1800 rpm, the peak rate of heat release for the 80:20, 70:30, and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate were within 1.2 per cent of that of #2 diesel fuel. Locations of peak rates of heat release were within 0.4° CA ATDe of that of #2 diesel fuel. A similar trend was observed at all other engine speeds. In general, as the amount of methyl tallowate was increased, there were reductions in the peak rates of heat release as compared to #2 diesel fuel with the exception of the 70:30 and 60:40 per cent (v Iv) blends of diesel: methyl tallowate, in which cases there are slight increases at 1200 rpm. Reductions in the peak rate of heat release are less than that of #2 diesel fuel (Ali et al. [55]). To understand the process of heat release in detail, one must know the mass­burned fraction of the fuel with respect to CA to determine the ignition delay and burn duration.

Vegetable oils have comparable energy density, cetane number, heat of vaporization, and stoichiometric air I fuel ratio with mineral diesel fuel. The large molecular sizes of the component triglycerides result in the oils having higher viscosity compared with that of mineral diesel fuel. The viscosity of liquid fuels affects the flow properties of the fuel, such as

Introduction I 41

spray atomization, consequent vaporization, and air/fuel mixing. The problem of viscosity has an adverse effect on the combustion of vegetable oils in the existing diesel engines. Besides, some problems crop up in the associated fuel pump and injector system. An acceptable alternC;ltive fuel for engines has to fulfill the environmental and energy security needs without sacrificing operating performance [55], [56].

Methanol and ethanol are two abundantly available alternative fuels, which possess the potential to be produced from biomass sources. These fuels can be successfully used as diesel engine fuels by preparing biodieseL Transesterification process utilizes methanol or ethanol and vegetable oils as the process inputs. This indirect route of utilizing alcohol as a diesel engine fuel is definitely a superior route as the toxic emissions containing aldehydes are drastically reduced. The problem of corrosion of various engine parts utilizing alcohol as fuel is also solved by the way of transesterification [57].

Biodiesel is a chemically modified alternative fuel for diesel engines, derived from vegetable oil, fatty acids, and animal fat. In its simplest form, the carbon cycle of vegetable oils consists of the fixation of carbon and the release of oxygen by plants through the process of photosynthesis and then combining of oxygen and carbon to form CO2 through the processes of combustion or respiration. It is appropriate to mention here that the CO2 released by petroleum diesel was fixed in the atmosphere during the formative years of the earth, whereas the CO2 released by biodiesel gets continuously fixed by plants and may be recycled by the next generation of crops. The carbon cycle time for fixation of CO2 and its release after combustion of biodiesel is quite small as compared (few years) to the cycle time of petroleum oils (few million years). It is well known that petroleum refiners are now facing new sulphur and aromatic compound specifications. Since biodiesel is a fuel made up of esters derived from oils and fats from renewable biological sources, it has been reported to emit far less regulated pollutants than petroleum diesel fuel [58],[60].

The process of utilizing biodiesel in the IC engines for transport as well as other applications is gaining momentum recently. lEA (International Energy Agency) has recognized biodiesel as an alternative fuel for the transportation sector. The European Commission proposed a 12 per cent market share for biofuels by the year 2020. Kaltschmitt et aL [57] conducted a study, which shows that beanery carriers offer some

42 I Bio-diesel

clear ecological advantages over fossil fuels such as conserving fossil energy resources or reducing the greenhouse effect [63].

Knothe et al [4] investigated the influence of fatty acid structure on the performance as a diesel fuel. Pischinger et al [59] found monoesters to be technically suitable in terms of good miscibility with diesel oil, almost similar volumetric heat content, adequate viscosity and cetane number [65]. The high carbon residue indicated by the Conrad son value and high viscosity is due to the large molecular mass and chemical structure. The high carbon residue is likely to lead to heavy smoke emission from an engine [66].

In Austria, biodiesel from rapeseed oil is commercialized. The first industrial plant for biodiesel production with a capacity of 10,000 tons per annum in the world went into operation in Austria in 1991. RME is produced in co-operative and industrial-scale plants. An interesting fact is that biodiesel is produced from a mix of RME, 5MB, and FME (used frying oil methyl ester) in Austria. Tax benefits in Austria and Germany encourage the use of 100 per cent biodiesel fuel in ecologically sensitive areas and agricultural and mountainous region [64], [65]. In Ireland, two pilot projects on the use of biodiesel (RME) in commercial vehicles are reported. In the first project, pure biodiesel was used in buses, trucks, and in pleasure cruisers. The RME used was obtained through oil extraction, followed by esterification on a small-scale tractor-mounted esterification unit. The second project involved a comparative analysis of the behaviour of a number of vehicles operated on RME and SME, imported from UK and Italy, respectively. Vehicle testing started in mid-1996. A principal disadvantage of rapeseed oil as a source of biodiesel in Ireland was its economic feasibility, as it is up to 0.25 ECU/litre (about 6.6 ECU/GJ) more expensive than its fossil-based equivalent. In Denmark, two companies produced non-food rapeseed oil, on a commercial basis, for export. At present, there is no commercial production of biodiesel in Denmark During a test, four city buses were made to run on biodiesel for 3 months. The results were promising but not satisfactory from environmental point of view. The Danish National Transport Plan "Trafik 2000" mentions the use of biofuels as one of the five major instruments to reduce COz emissions from the transport sector. However, there is no commitment for large-scale use within the government [61],[62],[66]. In the United States, fuel tax rebate or other governmental aid or regulations could propel biodiesel into a high volume, lower cost production track that enables it to compete head­on-head with diesel fuelfor a variety of applications [59].

Introduction I 43

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has prescribed certain tests and their limits for diesel fuel to be used in Cl engines. For any alternative fuel suitable for long-term engine operation without engine modifications, it should be in conformity or within close range to these ASTM limits [67].

Studies on Linseed oil methyl ester (LOME)

A host of plant and forest resources are available in the world from which different vegetable oils can be produced and formulated for use in diesel engines. The present work has been carried with such an objective, where non-edible oil has been appropriately modified by way of esterification and subsequently used for running the diesel engine. Linseed oil was selected for the present investigation, as it is available in large quantities and non-edible in nature. Linseed oil is obtained from the dried ripe seed of the flex plant, Linum usitaissimum, grown in the temperate areas across the world. Its viscosity is lower than most of other vegetable oils. It has high linoleic acid content. Linoleic acid is a straight chain molecule of 18 carbon atoms [C17 H29 COOH] with three double bonds at 9-10, 12-13, and 15-16 carbons. Its high degree of unsaturation is responsible for the drying properties of the oil. Linseed oil has lower heating value (LHV) of 39.75 MJ/kg(dry).

This reduction in frictional losses is also reflected by the decreasing trend followed by unaccounted losses, which can be noticed from the heat balance sheets for various concentrations. The energy saved by decrease in frictional horsepower makes additional contributions towards useful energy, cooling losses, and exhaust losses. This reflects in increased thermal efficiency, cooling losses and exhaust losses. It is evident from the graphs of exhaust temperature vs. bmep (Fig. 1.36 and Fig. 1.39 ) that the exhaust gas temperature also increases along with thermal efficiency as a function of blend concentration initially. Smoke opacity for biodiesel blends (Fig.l.37 and Fig.l.38) is also noticed to be generally lower than that of diesel oil. It also repeats the trend followed by thermal efficiency curves. There are two main reasons: the higher thermal efficiency means better and complete combustion and lesser amount of unburned hydrocarbons in the engine exhaust thus improving smoke opacity values.

The molecule of biodiesel, i.e., linseed oil methyl ester (LOME), contains some amount of oxygen that takes part in combustion and this may be a possible reason for more complete combustion. The oxygen molecule present in biodiesel molecular structure may be readily

441 Bio-diesel

available for oxygen. However, it was noticed that after a certain limit of biodiesel concentration, the thermal efficiency trend is reversed and it starts decreasing. This behaviour of biodiesel fuel needs advanced investigations.

An important observation is that all the blends have a higher thermal efficiency than the baseline data of diesel fuel. A graph between the concentration of ester blend and improvement in peak thermal efficiency for various concentrations of biodiesel blend is plotted in Figure 1.40.

Esterification is a process, which brings about a change in the molecular structure of the vegetable oil molecules, thus bringing down the levels of viscosity and unsaturation of vegetable oils. The viscosity of vegetable oil reduces substantially after esterification. The density and viscosity of the linseed oil methyl ester formed after esterification were found to be very close to petroleum diesel oil. The flash point of LOME was higher than that of diesel oil. The 20 per cent biodiesel blend also demonstrated comparatively higher flash point than petroleum diesel oil and was in range of 'safe fuel'. The cetane number for the neat diesel oil obtained by this method is 50 and cetane number of LOME was 52. A 20 per cent blending of LOME with diesel oil improved the cetane number of diesel oil. Lower concentrations of LOME in biodiesel blends can be used as a cetane improver. The calorific value of LOME was found to be slightly lower than petroleum diesel oil. All these tests for characterization of biodiesel oil demonstrate that almost all the important properties of biodiesel are in very close agreement with the diesel oil making it a feasible alternative for the application in compression ignition engines for partial replacement of diesel fuel.

Esterification has been found to be an effective technique to prevent some long-term problems associated with utilization of vegetable oils such as fuel filter plugging, injector coking, formation of carbon deposits in combustion chamber, ring sticking, and contamination of lubricating oils. The carbon deposits on piston top and injector coking substantially reduced in biodiesel-fuelled system. The performance of biodiesel-fuelled engine was marginally better than the diesel-fuelled engine in terms of thermal efficiency, brake specific energy consumption, smoke opacity, wear of vital components, and exhaust emissions for entire range of operations. It was conclusively proved that self-lubricity of LOME in biodiesel played a key role in engine performance. Biodiesel is proved to be a potential candidate for partial substitute of mineral diesel oil.

Introduction I 45

· ·.··DIIIO -+-,.... -6-1118 .... ____ 1JIJIIt8 ....

1ID ---~ -.-211 ..... 0 1 2 3 5 6 7

•.••.. DiIIIIQ

• m tIxIl 11' .. "'.,"' .. mlldIld

• MIidln'

• _1Id .. I' o 1 2 3 4 5 8

IMP Fig. 1.37. Thermal Efficiency Vs bmep

46 I Bio-diesel

0.4 ··.··0lIl0

0.3 ......-...... . ......... G.2 -111-..... ---_ ...... 0.1 -+-........

o~----------.-----.-----~----,-----~--~ o 1 2 • 7

Fig. 1.38. bsfc Vs bmep

ID

ID

....... DllltO

O~--------r----r--~r---'----.--~

o 1 2 3 s • .. 'MI ....

Fig. 1.39. Exhaust temperature Vs bmep

Introduction I 47

O __ ----~----~------r_----~----~ o fD

Fig. 1.40. Improvement in peak thermal efficiency with respect to biodiesel in fuel

Studies on Mahua oil methyl ester (MM E)

The brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) of each fuel is shown in figure 1.41. The term ''brake specific" is used to designate quantities that have been normalized by way of division by the engine's power, thus the bsfc is equal to the fuel flow rate divided by the engine's power. Figure 1.41 shows that bsfc for MME is higher than diesel. This is due to the fact that ester has lower heating value compared to diesel; so more ester-based fuel is needed to maintain constant power output.

Li 1.4 ~ 1.2 - 1 ~0.8 .11 .. , ~ 0.4 tl 0.2

I ~ B ..... lI _ ...... DIa •• l J

• • -= O+-~---.--~--~~---.--~~ 8 8.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 J 3.5 4

Braise Power in KW

Fig. 1.41. bsfc Vs brake power

481 Bio-diesel

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Figure 1.42 shows the brake thermal efficiency for ester is lower than diesel fuel. Brake thermal efficiency of an engine depends on a number of factors but when we are discussing about fuel the most meaningful properties are heating value and specific gravity. The combination of heating value and mass flow rate indicates energy input to the engine. This energy input or consumption to the engine in case of MME is more compared to diesel. And it is very clear that the reduction in efficiency is very low compared to diesel fuel, which is due to the oxygen content in the ester, which results in better combustion [66] and [69].

l .S 35 i 30 ...a..er~ .~ 25 ..-!lII---

~:: ~

~~-110 / I • Die .... ll ~ : ---:0.;...1

1.5 1.5 . 25 3 3.5 i I

1 2 4 BraJm Po-wer la KW

CD

Fig. 1.42. Break thermal efficiency Vs brake power

SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Figure 1.43 shows. that specific energy consumption (SEC) is higher for MME than diesel. The high SEC is due to the lower energy content of the ester. Already there are reports that biodiesel prepared from vegetable oils has high SEC [65], [66], [67] and [68]. The esters that convert the chemical energy to mechanical work are comparable with diesel fuel. This specific energy consumption measures the amount of input energy required to develop one-kilowatt power. This is an important parameter to compare brake thermal efficiency of an engine because it is taking care of both mass flow rate and heating value of the fuel. Here, for MME, both mass flow rate and heating value are different and hence it is simple if comparison is made in terms of specific energy consumption rather than specific fuel consumption.

Introduction I 49

14~----------------------------~ 12 10

8

6

4 2

I • Biodiasell _ -..- Diesel _

O~O------------------------------~ 1 2 J 4 Brah Power in KW

INFERENCE

In this study Mahua oil was transesterified using 6:1 mole ratio of methanol to oil to obtain methyl ester of low viscosity (5.2 CSt) and good conversion percentage (92%). The ester was washed with phosphoric acid to remove traces of alkali and substantially with distilled water. MME possesses lower calorific value around 12 per cent compared to diesel. The specific gravity does not vary much compared to diesel. The kinetic viscosity is slightly higher than that of diesel however within the biodiesel standard limits (5.2 CSt). Cetane number is slightly higher by 10 per cent which are favourable for combustion. Flash and fire points are high which is advantages for fuel transportation. The cloud point is higher than diesel, which creates problem in low temperature regions.

The performance of diesel engine with biodiesel does not vary much. The specific fuel consumption is higher (20%) than that of diesel and thermal efficiency is lower (13%) than that of diesel. Exhaust pollutant emission are reduced compared to diesel. Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbbn, smoke number and oxides of nitrogen were reduced 30 per cent, 35 per cent, 11 per cent, 4 per cent, respectively, compared to diesel.

Summary

Characterization of biodiesel depends on the relative merits and demerits and the investigation reports submitted by various authors worldwide in the contemporary time.

Interest depends on how biodiesel is suitable for replacement for petro diesel. It is reasonable to take global parameters into consideration before a sensible recommendation is made. There are no impossible

50 I Bio-diesel

solutions that can impede the replacement without the design changes of the diesel engine to suit the biodiesel. The advantages are overriding as compared to the setbacks biodiesel is suffering from. The setbacks are surmountable with suitable additives or minor affordable design changes. For example, separation of blended constituents in cold weather, increase in NOx levels by virtue of the constituent oxygen, lube oil dilution in the crankcase, increase in pour point at cold temperatures can be tackled by appropriate remedial measures.

There are inbuilt setbacks that marginally debilitate the biodiesels. For example, lower heating value, higher viscosity, and higher density result in marginal decrease in the performance in some aspects. This can be compensated with the growing trend in the rise of petro diesel price and environmental pollution.

All the methyl esters of the oils tested, especially the non-edible type, can be recommended for replacement because of the reason that the diesel engines can be run without knock and detonation and primarily lesser emissions in the exhaust gases.

In this study, over and above the comprehensive investigations taken up to characterize various biodiesels in the literature, additional parameters like noise and vibration of the engine in different engine running conditions have been taken up. The idea of studying engine vibration and noise in comparison to biodiesel is mooted since the combustion in the cylinder creates the main excitation force and vibration recorded on the cylinder in FFT form is the true reflection of the mode of combustion of particular ester. Time waveforms and phase of vibration on the cylinder are also obtained while the engine is running with the oils to be tested and compared with the diesel baseline signatures.

The idea of studying engine vibration and noise in comparison to biodiesels is mooted to explore the feasibility in an unconventional way to evaluate their suitability in the context of soaring petro-diesel price keeping in view the trend in its rise.

2

Transesterification Procedure

The use of vegetable oils in lieu of diesel fuel in conventional diesel engines requires modification in their properties. Considerable efforts have been made to develop vegetable oil derivatives that would approximate the properties and performance of the hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels. The problem of substituting pure vegetable oils (non-edible) for diesel fuels are mostly associated with their high viscosities. Reduction of viscosity can be effected by any of the processes like transesterification, mineralization, and pyrolysis. Mineralization consumes more time and pyrolysis brings about irregular molecular break down. Hence transesterification of some of the edible and non­edible oils has been taken up in this work to experiment on a laboratory­based engine with the esterified versions and their blends with diesel oil.

Transesterification of Vegetable Oils

Transesterification is the general term used to describe the important class of organic reactions, where an ester is transformed into another through interchange of alkyl groups and is also called as alcoholysis. The transesterification is an equilibrium reaction and the transformation occurs by mixing the reactants. However, the presence of a catalyst accelerates considerably the adjustment of the equilibrium. General Equation for Transesterification Reaction is given below

RCOOR' + R" OH ~ RCOOR" + R' OH The basic constituent of vegetable oils is triglyceride. Vegetable oils

comprise of 90-98 per cent triglycerides and small amounts of mono, diglycerides and free fatty acids. In the transesterification of vegetable oils, a triglyceride reacts with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or base, producing a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters and glycerol. The overall process is a sequence of three consecutive and reversible reactions in which di- and monoglycerides are formed as intermediates. The stoichiometric reaction requires one mol of triglyceride and three moles of alcohol. However, an excess of the alcohol is used to increase the yields

52 I Bio-diesel

of alkyl esters and to allow phase separation from the glycerol formed. Several aspects, including the type of catalyst (base or acid), alcohol! vegetable oil molar ratio, temperature, purity of the reactants (mainly water content in alcohol) and free fatty acid content have an influence on the course of the transesterification [45]. So in this work the reactants of high purity has been used (methyl alcohol with 99.95% purity) in the process. The process employed is the base-catalyzed process, where the transesterification of vegetable oils proceeds faster than the acid­catalyzed reaction [46,47] together with the fact that the alkaline catalysts are less corrosive than acidic compounds.

The mechanism of the base-catalyzed transesterification reaction of vegetable oil, as explained by the VIf Schuchardt{45}, is shown in the Figure 2.1. The first step (Eq.1) is the reaction of the base with the alcohol, producing an alkoxide and the protonated catalyst. The nucleophilic attack of the alkoxide at the carbonyl group of the triglyceride generates a tetrahedral intermediate (Eq. 2), from which an alkyl ester and the corresponding anion of the diglycerides are formed (Eq.3). The latter deprotonates the catalyst, thus regenerating the active species (Eq.4), which is now able to react with a second molecule of the alcohol, starting another catalytic cycle. Diglycerides and monoglycerides are converted by the same mechanism to a mixture of alkyl esters and glycerol.

ROH + B

R'Coo-riIz

R"COO-~H ?R

HzC~R" o·

R'COO-rHz R"COO-~H +

HaC-O'

--- R'CO<Hj=H2

R"Coo-9H ?R

H2C-o-~-R" o·

+ ROOCR"

R'COO-~Hz

R"COO-crH

HzC-oH

+ B

(I)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Fig. 2.1. Mechanism of the base-catalyzed transesterification process

Alkaline metal alkoxides (as ClfJONa for the methanolysis) are the most active catalysts, since they give very high yields in short reaction times even if they are applied at lower molar concentrations. However, they require the absence of water, which makes them inappropriate for

Transesterification Procedure I 53

typical industrial process. Alkali metal hydroxides (KOH and NaOH) are cheaper than metal alkoxides, but less active. Nevertheless, they are good alternatives, since they can give the same high conversions of vegetable oils just by increasing the catalyst concentration to 1 or 2 folds.

MAKING VEGETABLE OIL METHYL ESTERS

Here one stage base-catalyzed process has been selected for the methyl esterification of non-edible vegetable oils like palm kernel, Jatropha, and Mahua which are forest products available in the region and methanol (99.95% purity) as reactants and NaOH as catalyst. Initially, the process is carried out with 200ml of vegetable oil sample to find out the appropriate quantity of catalyst required for a specific type of oil to get high yields of methyl esters [45]. After successful attempt with 200ml sample, the same proportions of the constituents were used in processing methyl esters of required quantities, for establishing the properties and experimentation on le engine with a batch size of 1 litre.

PROCESS EMPLOYED FOR MAKING THE METHYL ESTERS

1) Desired amount of fresh vegetable oil is filtered and taken in a reaction vessel.

2) Reaction vessel with the fresh vegetable oil is kept in constant less temperature water bath and allowed to reach 5()<> C.

3) Twenty per cent methanol per litre of fresh vegetable oil is taken and desired amount of NaOH is weighed and dissolved in it.

4) The above mixture is introduced into the reaction vessel. 5) Now the contents in the reaction vessel are mixed vigorously for

30 minutes. 6) The reaction vessel is removed from heat,source and is allowed to

settle overnight. 7) The products are checked for the glycerol separation clearly, if

not, it is to be treated as failed batch and again a fresh batch with varied NaOH is taken and processed.

8) Upon overnight settlement, separation of dense glycerol layer at the bottom and mixture of methyl ester, catalyst and alcohol as the top layer is observed.

9) Top layer is separated and water washed to remove the excess catalyst and the alcohol, as they are more soluble in water than methyl esters.

10) Washing method employed involves mixing of 50 per cent water and 50 per cent biodiesel taken in a beaker, stirred for few minutes and then allowed to settle for 12 hours.

54 I Bio-diesel

11) Since biodiese1 has a lower specific gravity than water, the water will eventually separate and settle to the bottom along with soluble matters, mainly the remaining alcohol and catalyst, and biodiese1 will remain on top of the water.

12) In the first wash the water turns white. The wash water is drained off and the process is repeated until the drained water is totally clear.

13) If the biodiese1 is observed slightly cloudy, it is heated to 50"C and is held for 15-20 minutes to clear up the cloudiness.

14) Finally, the biodiese1 is allowed to cool and filtered with 10-micron filter paper.

The following flow sheet clearly explains the production of biodiese1 from non-edible vegetable oils chosen in our laboratory.

Fig. 2.2. Flow Sheet For Production Of Bio-Diesel From Non-Edible Vegitable Oil

Transesterification Procedure I 55

After making the required quantities of methyl esters of each oil' necessary properties of these esters are established as per the IS test methods (IS: 1448). The author has employed the above said process and prepared methyl esters of each oil and the properties of these esters have been established as per the standards recommended by HPCL, Visakhapatnam and Chemical engineering department of A.D. College of Engineering. The results are tabulated in Table 2.1. Later, the esters samples were tested on the laboratory based 0.1. Compression Ignition Engine for performance analysis. The Chapter- IV deals with the experimental setup and the experimental procedure employed.

S. Name of the No oil sample

1. Density at 300C Kg/m3

2. Gross Calorific Value, I<J /Kg

1

4. Icetane Number

5. Rams bottom Carbon Residue, Wt%

7. Pour Point, OC

8. Add Number, mg KOH/gm

Diesel Jatropha

830 918.6

43000 39770

140

-45

0.1 0.64

Winter 3 20 Max, Summer 15 Max

0.2Max 10

Jatropha Palm Palm Mahua Mahua Methyl kernel Kernel Methyl Ester Methyl Ester

Ester

880 916 875 875 860

38450 39250 41500 30248 38650

15.65

140-45 148 I 0.5 0.45 0.38 0.46 0.15

1200 1172 1100 1171

<-3 27 <-3 27 <-3

<0.2 1.2 <0.2 20 <0.2

Table 2.1. Properties of diesel, non-edible vegetable oils and their methylesters

The following Chapter (Chapter Ill) deals with the mathematical modelling for the calculation of the heat release rate calculations based on the first law of thermodynamics.

3

Heat Release Rate Calculations

This chapter deals with the mathematical modeling for the calculation of the heat release rate calculation based on the first law of thermodyamics

Heat release analysis of the engine reflects the combustion process occurring in the engine. It is carried out within the framework of first law of thermodynamics. The combustion, heat transfers and mass laws affect the pressure crank angle data of an engine. Thermal efficiency and peak cylinder pressure are influenced v.ery much by the combustion process. Heat added before TDC increases heat losses, frictional losses and loss of peak cylinder pressure. Advancing the combustion not only leads to increase in effective expansion ratio but also increases the previously mentioned losses. Th~ crank angle at which 50 per cent of total heat is released has been identified as an effective parameter for online engine tuning [48]. Heat release equations can be checked and modified suitably by comparing them with the heat release rate curves obtained from engine pressure vs. crank angle data. This enables the heat release equations to be used in cycle simulations, which can result in considerable savings in cost and time during engine development.

The different methods for computation of heat release rate from cylinder pressure data vary in the degree of accuracy with which the contents of the cylinder are considered. Some methods are simple and easy to use and some others are complicated and involve extensive computation to achieve accuracy. Krieger et al. [49] strives for extreme accuracy in representing the thermodynamic properties of the working medium. This leads to complicated computations. The model needs wall temperature and heat transfer coefficient estimates and has to be used along with a detailed cycle simulation. Gatowski et al. [50] developed a one zone model in which the specific ratio of the working medium is represented by a linear function of temperature. They have included crevice effects. Wall temperatures and heat transfer coefficients are estimated. Hayes et al. [51] estimated the heat release rates of a diesel

Heat Release Rate Calculations I 57

engine by assuming air as working medium. The model needs initial estimate of mass of the cylinder contents through a cycle simulatiorwmd heat transfer estimates. Karim et al. [54] estimated the heat release rates in duel fuel engines using a model that considers dissociation of the products of combustion and needs heat transfer estimates and discussed a method, which assumes that the cylinder charge has a ratio of constant pressure to constant volume. Specific heat ratio is equal to the average measured polytropic index during compression and expansion as the case may be. Hence the heat transfer is not considered separately. Varaprasad Rao [52] implemented a scheme, which uses the average polytropic index of compression and expansion to calculate the cumulative heat release to exhaust valve opening, excluding the period between occurrence of the spark and the end of combustion. Heat release analysis, which can be easily computed with a simple programme, is presented. In his study, instantaneous compression and expansion indices are used to calculate heat release rate based on the equations developed by Ramesh et al. [53]. This method of calculating the exponents of compression and expansion directly eliminates the work of plotting log (p) vs. log (v) and estimating the mean exponents graphically. During the combustion period, the polytropic exponent is varied linearly from the average value during compression to that during expansion.

Heat Release Equation

Considering the cylinder charge to be homogeneous, from the first law of thermodynamics,

(1)

where Q = Chemical Energy Released in KJ /Kg, c

W = Work Output in KJ /Kg,

~ = Heat Transfer from the cylinder in KJ /Kg,

U = Internal Energy of the conten,ts of the cylinder KJ /Kg,

Assuming the cylinder contents to be an ideal gas,

I1Qc= P.I1V +mCv·I1T + I1Qh (2)

where

P = Cylinder Pressure in bar,

58 I Bio-diesel

3 V = Cylinder Volume in m/kg,

m = mass of the cylinder charge in kg,

Cv = Specific heat at constant volume of the cylinder contents in KJ/KgO K,

T = Charge Temperature in K

Eq. (2) can also be rewritten as

!1Qc = P !1V(-"LJ + (_I_JV!1P + !1Q h y-l y-l

Where y = ratio of specific heats.

(3)

The rate of change of chemical energy released with respect to crank angle may be expressed as

!1Qc (_n )p!1V (_1 )v!1P !1() = n -1 !18 + n -1 !1() (4)

Where n is the polytrophic exponent and () is the crank angle. This equation takes care of heat transfer effects also. During polytropic compression expansion,

n n

We can write (5) ~ V; =P zVz

In[t] In[Vz]

This leads to the expression n= V 1 (6)

Equations (4) & (5) are used to calculate the heat release rate. Applying equation (6) between successive data points, the instantaneous polytrophic exponent is obtained. The heat release rate is then integrated to give the cumulative heat release pattern.

Pressure readings are obtained from a pressure pick-up flush mounted on the cylinder head wall and crank angle encoder recorde<;l crank angle readings. These two outputs were integrated by an engine recorder as shown in Fig.4.2, and presented as p-e diagram with suitable software. The practical data acquired for one particular cycle of operation is presented in Appendix 'C'. On substitution of the experimental data in the governing equations presented above, the heat release rate has been

Heat Release Rate Calculations I 59

computed. A derived heat release rate curve from the above method for the engine running at full load, and at rated rpm of 1500 is presented in Fig.3.2. Pressure and crank angle values at this load and speed are used as inputs for the heat release compilation through Finite difference method. The experimental data recorded is comprehensively presented in the graphical plots, (Figures 3.1-3.3) in which information is used for evaluating the heat release rate under different operating conditions. The similar kinds graphical plots for various percentages methyl esters at various load conditions are presented in Appendix C.

Engine Indicating System 100

j : :::::::::::r:::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::r:::::::::::r:::::::::: . :: ::

! : ':::::::::::1::::::::::::[::::::::::':1::.":::::::1::::::::::::1:::::::::::: ~ ~ 1 ~ ~

o . . ······r··· .. ···· . o 120 210 3010 i80

erank MqI.

IMEP (BAR) PEAK PR. (BAR) PEAK PR. IJRT TOC (0",..) OP MAX (BAR/OeQ) OP MAX IJQT TOC (0",..)

".1 62.7 ... 8 3.0 ... .,

100r---~--~----.---~--~----~

INDICATED POIJEQ (KIJ): 2.80 SPEED (QPM) : 1500

8r_ph No.: 5 rtl" : BUO.pO

'" 80 ···········1···········-1············l--_·········t···········t············ ~ .6n : : : ; :

vu ••• ·····1·········· .. r···········r···········T···········T ........ -.. . S 40 .0 ••••• --i.-...... ·-··i .......... -·~-... ··.·-··).u .. n ... _.+-...... 0 ••••

I : 1 i i ; ~ 20 ••••• • •••• r- ·········r···········t···········t···········t········ ....

o ...

196 392 Cylinder UoI... <cc)

Fig. 3.1. p-e & PV diagram for the engine running on pure diesel at full load

60 I Bio-diesel

100

80

~ 60

i "" . Is;

20

0

o

Englne In ~cating System

···········-r--_·········l············1-··········-t··· ........ -r ............ . ··· __ ·······'1············1············: ··········(·········i············

FF!~rT 120 720

IMEP (BAR) PEAK PR. (BAR) PEAK PR. IJRT TOC (0"0) DP MAX (BAR/O .. o) OP MAX IJRT TOC (Oeo)

't.1 62.7 + B 3.0 + 't

"" r-----~--~~--~----~----~----_, INDICATED POIJER SPEED MA)( NET H£AT RELEASE.

(KIJ) 2.BD (RPM) , 1500

RATE (.1...0.9> 130.11 MfitlX NET HEAT R£L.£ASE

f : ·::::::::::::r:··::::::·:r::::::::::r:::::::::::f:::::::::::t:::::::::::: 16 •.•.•..... ;r ............• ::.'.. . .... .t--•••.••.• -.~ •••••.•••• -.+ ...... -.--..

RATE WAT TOC co.q) : + i CUM\A.ATIV£ HEAT RELEASE (J/~): 139..3t5 6 __ U.alu. 11 .... 0

~ : 1 1 1 8 ....... ··+···········+···········1····· ···t···· .. ······ i 0 1 '1 1 . .

Br "ph No. 5 r,l.. BUD. pO

·········T·····-_·····C···········r·····--····T-·········-1-····-_····· 3!!2 3<18 376 38.

Fig. 3.2. P-9 and Derived Net Heat Release curves for pure diesel full load

Englne Indicating System lOO , 80 ···········r···········( .. ···· .... j"'· .. ·······t·· .. ···· .. ·i·· ........ ..

j ::::: v 60 ····· __ · __ ·-r'···········i···· .. ···_-- --·· .. · .. ·r-····-··-··1·······_-_·· ; :: :: ! 40 '··"'·"··T·--···--··'·r"··'·'·-_ u

• ·········1'·····---·--1--·········· .t 20 ......•...• + ........... + ........ + ......... + ........... + ........... .

: : : : :

o : : ·······1····_···: : o 120 210 3dO 't8O 720

Cr_ ,...

III£P (BliP) P£AK PP. (BI'Ip) PEAK PP. UpT Toe (Deq) DP IIAX (BAP/Deq) DP IIAX upT Toe (Deq)

1.1 62.7 ... 8 3.0 ... 1

~r---~----~--~----~----~---, INDICATED POUEp (KU) 2.80 SPEED (RPm : 1500 III'IJ( NET HEIIT RELEASE

RllTE (J.-o.q> 130.11 III'IJ( NET HEIIT RELEASE

RllTE IlAT T1JC (Iloq) 1+ 1 ClJIU.I\TIVE HEIIT RElEIISE (J.-o.q>.139.3I! _ v.lUlt .1.10

BrOlph No. 5 fil.. BUD. pO

I :-t--;-1-:~~:=t::: i 80 i 1 i ; J ···········1········_· r···········r··········y···········r···········

10 .••••• ~ ••• .: ..••.•••.• i ............ j ............ .j. ••••••••••• .} •••••••••••• J :::: 'i 0 ·········t .... ···· .. ·+··········+···········j .. ··········t ........... . ] 270 3:' ~ ~ ~ ~

Fig. 3.3. P-9 and Derived Cumulative Heat Release curves for pure diesel at full load

.4

Experimental Set Up

The experimental setup of DI diesel engine is arranged in the engines laboratory. Experimentation is carried out at various engine loads to study the cylinder pressure and heat release rate with respect to the crank-angle. Engine performance data is acquired for the esters as well as pure diesel oil independently to study the above-mentioned parameters. Engine cylinder vibration is monitored at each load and for each ester simultaneously to compare the cylinder excitation frequencies with the base line frequencies using diesel oil. Since the very combustion in the cylinder is the basic exciter, the vibration study of the engine cylinder through the derived FFT and overall levels is the representative of combustion propensity.

Experimental set up

The schematic diagram (Fig. 4.1) represents the instrumentation set up for the experiment. The Piezo electric transducer is fixed (flush in type) to the cylinder body to record the pressure variations in the combustion chamber. Crank angle is measured through the crank angle encoder and a plot is drawn between the pressure and crank angle, which is the basic signature to compare the performance of the engine run with various oils. Accelerometer is mounted on the cylinder head to record the engine vibrations using DC-ll dats lOgger, which directly gives the spectral data in the form of FFT, the overall vibration levels and the phase of vibration. Eddy current dynamometer is coupled to the engine for loading purposes. The engine data logger is commissioned to collect the data from the pressure transducer and crank angle encoder and to transmit the same to the computer to display the data in graphic form. These two signals collected are integrated and a pressure-crank-angle plot is compiled with suitable software C7112. The total arrangement of the instrumentation with respect to engine position is shown in the diagram 4.1 and the engine data logger circuit is depicted in the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 4.2.

62 I Bio-diesel

Eddy current Dynllmometer

Data Logger cccc ccce ccec cece

FFT Analyzer

Fig. 4.1. P-9 and Derived Cumulative Heat Release curves for,pure diesel at full load

Fig.4.2. depicts the schematic diagram of the connections from the piezo electric transducer and the cranl< ~gle encoder to the data logger. The data from the above said transducers is translated into graphic form to construct p-e diagram.

1-2t~::t"''''''''--I Black Encoder (M) 9pinD-tvPe

Shielded 3 rot cable

Piezo sensor

Fig. 4.2 Schematic diagram of Data Integration Circuit taking data from the encoder and the pressure transducer

Experimental Set Up I 63

DIRECT INJECTION (DJ.) DIESEL ENGINE

The or diesel engine (make Kirloskar Company, Pune) was used for conducting the experimentation. The details of the engine are as mentioned below:

Rated Horsepower: 5 hp

Rated Speed: 1500rpm

No of Strokes: 4

Mode of Injection: or No of Cylinders: 1

ENGINE LOADING SYSTEM

In order to load the engine, Eddy current dynamometer is used and is essentially an electric brake, which resists rotation. This rotational resistance is what forces the engine to work during the test. The engine and dynamometer are connected by a belt drive arrangement as shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2.

Fig. 4.3 Diesel engine test rig

64 I Bio-diesel

Fig. 4.4. Engine loading device Eddy current dynamometer with Spring balance

Fig. 4.5. Vibration readings on the engine Eddy current dynamometer's operating panel can be seen in this Figure

Experimental Set Up I 65

Fig. 4.6. Noise measurements on the engine with Larson-Davis labs model 710 Dosimeter

Fig. 4.7. Connection from crank angle encoder fixed to the engine

66 I Bio-diesel

Fig. 4.8. The engine data logger in interface with the computer and the data being logged by the developed software C7112

Eddy Current Dynamometer Details

Speed: 1000-2000 rpm

Peak torque at: 1000 - 2000 rpm

Accuracy ratings + / - 0.3 % to 0.5 %full scale

Type of Loading: Eddy Current Dynamometer with compatible 24 KG representing the Max Load on the engine with a suitably designed spring balance.

PIEZO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER (Sl11A22, SN9982)

A Piezo-electric transducer [Fig. 4.9] is fixed on the engine cylinder head for obtaining the combustion chamber pressure data at regular intervals and transmits the same to the computer on-line. Due to the Piezo-electric effect, these mechanical properties manifest themselves as electrical equivalent properties.

Experimental Set Up I 67

Fig. 4.9. Piezo Electric Transducer

VIBRATION ANALYZER EQUIPMENT

The DC-11 FFT (Fig.4.10) analyzer is a fully digital spectrum analyzer and data collector specifically designed for machine condition monitoring, advanced bearing fault detection, and measurement diagnostics. This instrument measures and displays the following along with rotary machine component balancing as an additional facility. The vibration accelerometer and the optical stroboscope are depicted in the Figures 4.11 and 4.12 respectively.

a) Time wave form (oscilloscope)

b) FFT auto spectra

c) Envelop spectra selected by multiple band pass filters

d) Rotation speed

e) Amplitude and phase on rotation speed and its harmonics

FFT Analyzer Details :(Fig.4.l0)

Frequency Range: 1-2000 Hz

Input Signal Range: 100mv

Gain: Auto, 0 -54 dB in 6 dB steps

68 I Bio-diesel

Input parameters: Frequency Span: 1-2000 Hz in 1Hz resolution Frequency Resolution: 1600 lines Signal to Noise Ratio: Greater than 70 dB Linear Averages: 1 - 256

Weighting Function: Hanning Pass filters: None Amplitude Measurement Units: Acceleration, velocity and displacement Scale: Peak values

Data Storage Capacity: 400 line spectra 700, 800 line spectra 400, 1600 line spectra200.

Fig. 4.10. DC-11 Vibration data logger

Fig. 4.11. Optical Stroboscope

Experimental Set Up I 69

Fig. 4.12. Piezo Electric Accelerometer

DATA LOGGING EQUIPMENT FROM THE ENGINE CYLINDER AND

SOFTWARE:

C7112 is a laboratory engine data acquisition system software and is the enterprise-wide software environment designed to support all aspects of telemetry data acquisition, processing, archiving, and display. It gathers the information about a system or process from the data recorder. It is a core tool to the understanding and control of such systems or processes. A fully shielded wiring loom, complete with sensors and probes to accept data and the parameters information such as crank angle and pressure, gathered by sensors, converted to digital format and forwarded onto a computer online for analyzing purposes as shown in Fig 4.2. Combining real and non-real time system services with secure network architecture, captured pressure-crank angle data as input is displayed in real time into the LeD display of laptop in this experimentation. (Fig. 4.8)

EXPERIMENTATION PROCEDURE

The experimentation is conducted on the engine operated at normal room temperatures of 28 to 33°C and using various neat esters of non­edible oils and diesel oil at five discrete part load conditions. The data collection is done independently for the above said oils. The engine is allowed to run at lS00rpm continuously for one hour in order to achieve the thermal equilibrium under operating conditions. After this period, cylinder pressure and crank angle are monitored for every load on the

70 I Bio-diesel

engine. The engine vibration is measured at strategic points on the cylinder and on the mounting of the engine to evaluate the relative performance in the context of vibration emanated by the engine. P-8 and heat release rate graphs have been derived for the above said esters with the software based on the first law of thermodynamics.

SUMMARY

The fuel consumption for all the esters as well as the diesel is measured at all defined loads. This is an attempt to evaluate engine performance for comparison, which is taken up in chapter V.

The indicated power is obtained from the measurements and compilation of the combustion pressures with respect to the crank angle in the cylinder at the defined loads. An algorithm is developed to calculate the mean effective pressures at every load.

The quantities like net heat release rate and cumulative heat release rate are derived from the pressure-crank angle signatures by the software developed.

The engine vibration is monitored by assessing the vibration on the cylinder in three different directions as well as on the engine mounting. The time waveforms and phase of vibration are also measured on the cylinder while the engine is running. The results are elaborately discussed in the chapter five.

5

Results Discussion and Conclusions

Data pertaining to the engine performance, noise and vibration is collected from the engine by using diesel oil as base line oil and then using the methyl esters of various non-edible oils viz. Jatropha, Mahua and Palm Kernel. These three oils are the non-edible oils freely available in the region either in the local forests or in the semiarid lands. The author feels it necessary to validate the performance data with the vibration and noise data emanating from the engine by the implementation of the esters in neat form without changing the engine design. Any change in the vibration in excess which the engine develops with the conventional diesel needs an attempt to verify the suitability of the biodiesel or modify the design of the engine to reduce the vibration. Since the combustion and mass effects are changing with the change of oil, which obviously alters the structural excitation, it is thought to investigate the excesses in the vibration and noise emitted by the engine. Combustion in the cylinder and the flame propagation takes place with certain finite number of frequencies (albeit larger frequency range) in the heterogeneous combustion. Since these burning frequencies form the excitation frequencies of the cylinder, vibration measured on the cylinder in FFT mode reflects the combustion propensity of the type of oil used. In that way, the performance of biodiesel oils is correlated with that of the petro-diesel to understand the replacement aspect conclusively. This method is mooted especially in the event of the conventional performance quantities differ by dismissible margin and commonality in many aspects is being established.

The data collected makes three parts. • Combustion pressure data and the fuel consumed by the engine

at various loads for all the oils under consideration. • Vibration of the engine on the cylinder and on the foundation,

especially by measuring the acceleration amplitude. • Sound pressure levels at one-meter distance from the engine at

various loads.

72 I Bio-diesel

The pressure-crank angle data is collected for all the oils under consideration (non-edible oil methyl esters and diesel oil as baseline oil). The data is collected at various loads (five load points viz. no load, quarter load, half load, three quarters load and full load). Pressure-crank angle data is the data collected by the engine recorder, which converts the pressure data into the graphic form by using C7112 engine software. This data forms a baseline acquisition to derive other parameters like pressure-volume, log p -log v, net heat release rate and cumulative heat release rate based on the First Law of thermodynamics, which is discussed in the chapter - ill.

As mentioned above, the vibration data is collected and reported in the form of spectrum averages and overall levels and is presented in the graphic forms (FFf and time wave forms by using Vast-an and On-Time software) for comparison and evaluation. Even though the vibration study cannot be directly connected to the engine performance, it can be a suitable tool to assess the occurrence of knock and detonation, if any, during combustion. The amplitude and frequency change in the burning rate brings enough variation in the vibration propensity recorded on the cylinder.

The combustion pressure data is collected at all the loads for the oils under consideration and compared graphically with the diesel oil (Figs. 5.1-5.5). The individual P-9 plots are also drawn for the oils (Figs. 5.8-5.11) and it can be assessed that the diesel, }ME and PKME exhibited steep rise in combustion pressure with marginal variation in peak pressures. It can be observed from the individual pressure plots that the pressure rise trends for the diesel and }ME are similar with higher peak pressure in the case of diesel oil. Similarly, the pressure plot trends for the MME and PKME are almost same as can be observed in Figure 5.5a.

60

50

40

;

2 -10

PRESSURE PLOTS FOR ALL OILS AT NO LOAD

1\ / \

/ \ / "-

~ "'-~260270260290300310320330340350360370380390400410420430440450460470480490 500

Crank Angle in Degrees

Fig. 5.1. Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at No-Load

Results Discussion and Conclusions 1 73

PRE'iSURE PLOTS FOR ALL OILS AT 1/4 LOAD

- - - - - - - DIESEL

----- MME

--PKME

Crank Angle In Oegr ...

Fig. 5.2. Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at ~ Load

PRESSURE PLOTS FOR ALL OILS AT HALF LOAD

M,---------------------------------------------------!\

~~------~lr~\-------

~~r-------------------/~/~\-----------.:3Ot------------------------1------'+--------------------

i 2D -------- 1 '\ t l' '\" ~ 1.t------------------~~---------~~--------------

~ ",>,"--.

~ = ~ ~ ~ ~ = ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ ·1. ",I __________________ _

Crank Angle In Degrees

Fig. 5.3.Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Half-Load

741 Bio-diesel

PRESSURE l'LOTS FOR ALL OILS AT 3/4 LOAD

"'---~-----

... '" = Cl .5

--~--~------

eraDk Angle in Degrees th

E[J .... DIESR

_. _.JWE

- • • -hOlE --.....

Fig. 5.4. Comparison of combustion pressures at 3/4 - Load

PRESSURE PLOTS FOR ALL OILS AT FULL LOAD

70 ------------- ---

10

220 :HO 2110 210 _'O.L-_______________________________________ _

Craak Aaele la Decrees

E[] .... DIESI!L

-._.MN£ _··-INE --PKME

Fig. 5.5. Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Full- Load

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 75

PRF.SSUREPLOTS FOR ALL OilS <\T FULL LOAD

70 ----------------------------

Mr-----------------~~~c._--------------~

~~--------------~~------~~--.--------~

~ ~~------------~~------------~r_------~ cl! Cl 't 30 r-------::r------------------------~~-----t

; ~ ~~~------------------------------~~

Crank Angle In Degrees

I I I

,------' :' --_. -.DESF.Lj' ,- ·_· ... MME

I-----JME I PKME I

Fig. 5.5a, Comparison of combustion pressures for all oils at Full- Load

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE BAR CHART

~5~--------------------------~ li! S3 Cl -

NO LOAD 1/4 LOAD 112 LOAD 3/4 LOAD - FULL LOAD

.DIESEL

.JME =MME UDPKME

Fig_ 5.6. Comparison of differential pressures for all oils at all Loads

76 I Bio-diesel

PEAK PRESSURE BAR CHART

70~--------------------------------~

60

10

I 0 i

NO LOAD J/4LOAD JI2LOAD 3/4 LOAD FULL LOAD L __

Fig. 5.7. Comparison of peak pressure for all oils at all Loads

PRESSURE PLOYS FOR PURE DIESEL AT ALL LOADS

n~----------------____ --__________ ~ e~--------------------~---------------4

.~------------------~~

--LOADO%

---LOAD2S%

- - - - - LOAIHO%

- - - -LOAD_

--- -LOAD 100%

... . ,,1-__________________________ --.l

Fig. 5.8. Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads with pure diesel run

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 77

Cp= 10 - - - - --- -~-

~ .. -- --- - - --- ----

cc «» -- - -- --

oS t '" '" il " !t ..

Pressure Plots for JME at all Loads

--1

i I

------------------' Cnnk Angle in Degrees

I~ LOADO% 1 - - - -LOAD 25%

•••••• LOADSO% I _. _. -LOAD7S%

1- .. - . LOAD 1)0%

Fig. 5.9. Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for JME run

Press.re plo" for MME at AB Loads

Nr-------------------------------------~

eo ----------------------.-... ----

--LOAOO%

.!! --- --.--+----\l.....--------~ t .. - --LOA02'% - •••• LOAOSO%

1 .. ~-----4--~~-----~ -. - ·LOA07S% - •• -LOAD 100%

S50 _

.,. '-------------------------------------..... CRANK ANGLE IN DEGREES

Fig. 5.10. Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for MME run

78 I Bio-diesel

PRfSURE PLOTS FOP PKIE AT LOAOS

"

,~----------~--~~--------~~ I • m m ~ ~ ~ - ~ lC J

F"""""I

§---,I<lOOO ........ tl2l.OAO

-.-.~ _ •• _FlII..OH)

Fig. 5.11. Comparison of combustion pressures at all loads for PKME run

Performance Studies

The performance curves of the engine are drawn as shown in Figs. below (Figures 5.12--5.22). MME stands first in fuel consumption at all loads as per the experimental investigation. The consumption is more by 15-30 per cent, followed by PKME and then JME, and last the diesel oil, which is consumed minimum at all loads. The consumption of methyl esters of the three non-edible oils converges to the same consumption at the full load (Fig. 5.12). Brake specific fuel consumption follows suit of the absolute fuel consumption. Mechanical efficiency of the engine run with the methyl esters of non-edible oils is greater than the diesel by 10-15 per cent with an exception of PKME developing almost the same efficiency at higher loads comparable with the diesel. Indicated thermal efficiency and brake thermal efficiency at all loads are more for the diesel whereas with the methyl esters the engine is generating lesser thermal efficiency by 5-10 per cent, (Figs. 5.15 &5.16). The cumulative heat release rate is coinciding at higher loads for all the oils' and at full load PKME leads marginally in this value. The heat release rate curves are almost same for the diesel oil, PKME and JME with the trends in premixed combustion and the diffused combustion zones are similar, whereas MME's premixed zone is split into two rates and with the diffused combustion zone similar to the pure diesel (Fig. 5.21). The specific gravities and the calorific values of the esters are varying by some degree when compared to the diesel oil and this aspect stands as the main reason for the above said variation in performance. Figures 5.6 and 5.7 represent the maximum differential pressures and peak pressures generated at various loads for the three different esters and the petro-diesel. Petro-diesel is developing highest

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 79

peak pressures and the differential pressures indicating its lesser ignition delay when compared to the esters tested. The esters tested are sluggish in generating the above aspect with more ignition delay. The sound emanated (Figs. 5.23, 5.5a) is the standing evidence for the above discussion on maximum differential and peak pressures. The Figures from 5.19 to 5.22 represent the net heat release rate curves pertaining to the three esters and the petrodiesel. All the esters behaved similar to diesel except the MME, since the premixed combustion is dull for the MME, which has taken place in two rates, and the diffused combustion is almost flatter comparatively. This is the reason MME is generating consistent overall vibration levels (Fig. 5.24) at all the loads and smooth pressure distribution curve in Figure 5.5a. Ester of Mahua maintained sustained combustion without violent trend in premixed combustion stage despite the reason it generates lower pressures and power comparatively. In addition to this finding, MME's performance has suffered at higher loads as can be observed from the Figures 5.12 to 5.18. The diffused combustion phase is better than the premixed combustion, which is responsible for the higher frequency generation as can be observed from the Figure 5.35. The diffused combustion phase is synonymous with the high frequency generation in the cylinder vibration which conspicuously appeared in the vibration FFT recording on the cylinder perpendicular to the crank in radial direction.

FUEL CONSUMPI10N Vs BRAKE POWER

O..M ---------- "- -- -------------------~-~----~--------

i U

i ~ ... .!

~ u - _ ... i ··' .. ' .. ' .' . f"F-".-'."'-........ -.-C •• ~.~. ~.~ ---

IJ ., r-='----------------------;:l , .oo

.~

_ •. [[]"" -"" DIESEL --- .)ME

----MM! -- - --PKME

.. Fig. 5.12. Comparison of brake power in KW Vs fuel consumption in grams per

second

80 I Bio-diesel

BSFCVSLOAD

1.4,----------------------------, 12 ... : . .. ,~ ...

1 "~:''''' : 0 8t--~~~~~-=-·~. -•• -"'."".~""'-.'~:..:-.-.:...-,-.::-.-.-.~----------l I~_·._: ~~5:ELI ~ 0.6 ". --....::--___ ---PKME

~ 04~-------------·------------~-~-~-~--~~--~_1

0.2

~~%~--~2~07.%---~40~%~--~6~0%~--~8~0~%---1~0~0%~--~120%

LOAD 10 %

Fig . 5.13. Comparison of load per cent Vs brake specific fuel consumption in kg/kw-hr

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY Vs LOAD

100 ----- .-----------------------------

';I. 90

G 80 t======:::2;::;:;"" -="~" -===J §ro --u E 60 j-~-~~---7~-=- ' ..... DIESEL

~ 50 j-----__ ;c _~~~~~ __ ___j ,_ .. -IME -< i--MME ' I :: j-~----,q'--....=----~-~~---~--~~~--__1 '- -PKME_!

~ 20 t-----6'r---------------------

10

60%

LOAD % 80% 100% 120%

Fig. 5.14. Comparison of mechanical efficiency Vs load per cent

~ . r.l po; =I

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 81

Indicated Thermal Effeciency Vs Load

35 r----------------------------------------------, 30

0% 20% 80% IOtl%

Load %

-DIESEL ····J~E

-·-··~ME

---·PKME

Fig. 5.15. Comparison of indicated thermal efficiency Vs load per cent

Brake Thermal Effeciency vs Load

25 -

20 ~ ~ ........ -- .... . .- , ......

• * " ....

15 .. "" .. " ., --DIESEL b' ,..' • • ·PKME ... " "" -"" ;"".;" . • JME

10 -_. --MME

#~" 5

,;;-~

oV I 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

Load %

Fig. 5.16. Comparison of brake thermal efficiency Vs load per cent

82 I Bio-diesel

Net Heat Release Rate Vs Load

~r---------------------------------------------------.

35~-------------------------------------------------~ ....... .,:-;

~r---------------------------~~~~~~~~------~ ..... ,;:.;. -~ ... ~ 251---- ------- _-• .-"'::-~--- --_~""- -- ~ ----"20 ~ •. - ~--~ I"':'~' _--~ 151'-:: - - - __________ _

10~----------______________________________________ ~

5~--------------__________________________________ ~

20% 40% 60%

Load '1'. 80% 100% 120%

Fig. 5.17. Comparison of net heat release rate Vs load percentage

CUMULATIVE HEAT RELEASE RATE VS LOAD %

180

180

1~ --- ... ~ , ~.-120

~---- ~.,- --PKME ~ -- ............ -:-

100 ~ .- .-•• ·MME

oS ~.~: .... , . --JME ; 80 -- DIESEL

U 60

~

20

0 0% 20% ~ 60% 80% 100% 120%

LOAD %

Fig. 5.18. Comparison of cumulative heat release rate Vs load percentage

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 83

Englne Indlcating System 100 ; 80 ···········+··-··-----·-!----··----··~-··-···--···i··-·····--··i············

j 1 i ; i 1 ; dO ···········T··········T··········· ·········T··········j"···········. i 1'0 ···-···-··-·~··-··--·-··-t···----···· . -....... -~ ... --.---.... ~ .. -- .. ----.-

et 20 -- ------ .. L .... __ -__ .L._._ .... L ......... 1-. .......... 1. . i i ...... -!-- ....... i ' o

o 120

IMEP (BAR) PEflK PIl. (S"'R) PEAK PR. URT TDC (000) DP MAX (BAR/Coo) DP MAX URT TDC (000)

: ".1 : 62.7 : .... e : 3.0 : t- ...

~ r-----~----------------~----~----, INDICATED POUER (KU) 2.BO SPEED (RPM) 1500 I1AX t£T HEAT REL£ASE

RATE (.J .... DeQ> 130.11 MJ( NET HEIIT R£LEMI:

f: ::::.::::::r::::::·:t:.::::.::r::::::::::t:::::::::::r::::::::: i 16 .-.------- r---·········r·· ·····1··--········1··----.. ···-1-·········--RftTE URT TDC (o.Q) 1 + ..

CLlnlJl...ATIVE H£ftT R£LEfIISE. (,J~I 138.315

...... v..l..... .1.-tO I • ._ .... - ·--r-··-·--··-··t·-··········~·-··- : ---.~ ....... -... . e,..aph No. 5 ra1e BUD. pO

i 0 .. ·· ...... t· .... · .... ,·t·· .... ·· .... r .......... ·j-·· .. · .. · .. 'l·· .. · ...... ·

100

~ 00

dO

5 ~ ~

<It 20

0

o

""" .,. .. er ... fW'tQl.

Fig. 5.19. Diesel heat release rate plot at full load

Englne Indicating System ! :!

.::::::::::::t:::::::::::t::::::::::r:::::::::::r :::::::::(:::::::::: ------·-·-··~············t··········· . .-.--.... ~ ... -......... ~ ........... .

........... ~ ............ ~ .......... ~ ........... ~ ............ ~ ........... . 1 ' ....... j ....... ,,,.~i-i __ .... i-__ ;

i 120 2"'0 360 -+eo

er .... flllnQl.

IMEP (BAR) PEAK PR. (BAR) P[:AK PR. UAT Toe (O.Q) OP MAX (BAQ/OeQ) DP MAX URT TDC (000)

: 3." : 5B.5 : .... B \ 2.7 : .... 1

~ r-----~----r-----~----r_----~----, INDICATED POUER (KU) 2.37 SPEED (RPM) 1500 MX HET HEAT RELEME

! 32 ............ , ............ , ............ , ............ 1. ........... , ........... .

I :: :::::::": .. :::: .. ::'''::1::::::::::::1::::::::::::::::::::::::1::.:::::::::

~ a .::.,:::-::1::::::::::::[::::::::::::1::::::::::::: .. ::::::::::::::::::::::

AftTE <.1A)eq) .28..88 f1N( NET HEAT RELEMIE

MTE WRT TOe <o-q> .+ '" ct.I1IJI..fItoTIUE HEAT AELEft&E <J'....o.q>. 128.08 _ u.luo

11.-tO

Srillph No. f"il"

5 JATN.pO i ! j i

Fig. 5.20. JME heat release rate plot at fullloa:d

100 r-----r-----r-----r_~--r_----r----,

eo ........... .:.......: . 1 ,

i .so ........... + ...... ,:::::;::::::::::::r:::::::::::r::::::::::I:::::::::: i .0 .... · .. ·· .. ~ .... · ...... ·I· .... · .. ···,- .... ·· .. -t-.......... t .... " .... .. Do. 20 ••••••..•••• L ........... L........ .L .......... 1 ........... 1 ........... .

i i ....... j ....... i i

120

ystem

II1EP (BAP) PEAK PA. (BAA) PEAK PP. IJAT TDC (D_g) DP tlAX (IIAP,D-o) op tlAX IoIAT Toe (Dog)

381

: 3.7 : 59.7 : ... e = 2." : + ..

~r---~----~----r_---.----~---, INDICIITED POUEP (KIJ) 2.5B SPEED (APtl) • 1500 fW( lET teAT AELDISE

AIIIIT£ (J~ t22.26 ItI'tX NET I£,..T R£J....DWE

AI'rl'!: Yn' TUC <~ .+ .. o..H..I..ATlW: HEM' AFJ...EMIE (J....otq). 133.81

--.. V.l... 11.40

!32 ! 24

i " i

er.ph No. 5 j 0

F"al. MAHN.pO

•......•... .:. .. _ ..••..... ~ .••.•....• u: ••......••.. .:.. ......... · .. .:. ••••..... u.

:· .. ····· .. f· .. · .. · .. ···l,·· .. ,··,···l::::::::::·:~,!,:::::::::::~":.:::::::::::: .......... ···· .. ······r··· ····J············f······ ..... i ••....•.••.. y._-""'=c:..

.... ·.i.. ...... ·)·· ...... ···j ...... · .... ·r .. ··· .. + .......... · 3&'

er .,.. 301 ... -

Fig. 5.21. MME heat release rate plot at full load

...

84 I Bio-diesel

er .. l"IrIgl.

Fig. 5.22. PKME heat release rate plot at full load

COMPARISON OF THE SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS AT ALL LOADS AND

FOR ALL THE OILS

Diesel oil produces more sound pressure levels th~ any other oil at all loads by a maximum rise of 1.5 decibels. The MME generates least noise (Fig. 5.23). It can be observed that the noise emanation from the cylinder depends on the indicated power developed with particular usage of the oil. Since the power developed by the MME is comparatively lesser, the sound pressure levels will also be lesser. Some investigations [35,36] in the literature revealed that the noise emanation depends on the maximum differential pressure rise and rate of pressure rise during combustion. The Figure 5.6 envisages the differential pressures that follow suit of noise of the engine run with the oils under investigation.

Comparison SOUDd Jftssure lewls at all oils

102~-----------------------------------,

~ 100 +-----.-----.----~-------------------= ~ 98 +------.----, !;l

~ 96

= 94 ~ 92 Si

90 LQo\Do% LQo\025% LQo\050% LQo\075% LQo\0100%

WAD%

Fig. 5.23. Comparison of sound pressure levels recorded at various loads and for various oils

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 85

5.3 Engine Vibration Comparison

The overall values of vibration on the cylinder in two directions are measured. One in the radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft and the second on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

With JME, the engine generated the minimum overall vibration when compared to other oils including diesel but with an exception that it generates slightly higher value on the cylinder head in vertical direction as shown in Figure 5.24

The vibration transmitted to the foundation in the case of diesel oil run is comparatively more than other oils as obtained in the vibration spectrums (Figs. 5.26-5.29). The vibration signatures obtained on the cylinder in vertical direction indicate lesser high frequency amplitudes in the case of JME (Fig. 5.31) indicating supporting lesser overall levels as indicated above. The observation is same for JME in the signatures obtained in the other two radial directions on the cylinder (Figs. 5.35 & 5.39).

OvmAlL u:vrL OF VIBRATION ON THECYUNDFJUN VERTICAL DOW::TION FOR AlL THEOns

~r--------------------------------------'

.~-----------------------------------

~ . ~M~-------------­

~fl~-~----

i w

&l • u • u ..: . La.D21%

LOAD %

.DESEL

.JME

I!IMME

IDPKME

Fig. 5.24 .Overall values of vibration in acceleration amplitude Vs the load percentage

86 I Bio-diesel

....

St.t:tCJOn: OFFROUTE~ "_chi .... : OFF ROUTE .. Paint: tt036

EncinO run with dle$el 011

Foundation vibretton at tull load

1111·················+· ...................... , ..................... .

AMp 1 t tuc::t. ".66 ...0 Frat = a4.95 Hz

Fig. 5.25.Foundation vibration with the diesel oil run at full load

Vibr.,ion readlnc on enctne Foundation

Fig. 5.26:Foundation vibration with the JME run at full load

Station: OFFROUTE. "aehJ..--: OFF ROUTE,. POoint: ... 8

1\.11'\ et fulllOed Vlbrlrtion .peel.,.., on the fOWldetton

ofthe .... 1ne

,

······r·

Fig. 5.2Z Foundation vibration with the MME run at full load

-Results Discussion and Conclusions I 87

at.t.lan: OF'FAOUTE,. tt.chi .... : ~ ROUTE. Point:: .asB

3 ................... __ .•.•.. ___ ~_

! PKME run at full toad : Vibration spectrum on the fotMldatlon

of the erclne

-- -_ ... + ........ .

·,t·;···············;·· .................. .

Fig. 5.28. Foundation vibration with the PKME run at full load

-St:at: .on: OFF'FIOUTE. tt.acht..--: OFF ROUTE,. Po 'rtot:: tN)SS

.·--···········--···1········.······---·----·--···.···.

Diesel ~II run at fulr Iced , Vibration reedlnc on the

cylinder heed tn v.nlcel direction

..................... , .................. .

Fig. 5.29. Cylinder vibration in vertic~l direction with the diesel oil run at full load

- St.-= .. on: DFFftDUTE. "-.zha..-z OFF ROUTE. poInt: ~.,

: i ··············--··t-------·--············---,·---

: i Vibration spec1:"," on the cylinder In

the .... rtlc.1 alreoction

Fig. 5.30. Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the JME run at full load

88 I Bio-diesel

st.t t.an: OFFAOUTE~ "--=h:lr-.: OFF ROt.JTE~ Po""1;.: .aa'7

MME run.t full Ioltd Vibration spectt'Ufn on the cyUnder

in verttce' direction

-~ ........................ + ...... -- ................ { ..................... . i ; ! ,

..... -.. ~"" .................. . !

Fig. 5.3l. Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the MME run at full load

St_t:l~: OFFROUTE .. "~J."_: OFF flOUTE#

Vibration spec:tn..n on of the

-L ............. __ ._- -... 1 ................ . , ! cylinder irI _rtice' dlf8Ctlon

.1" •••••••• _-,

+ .... + ..................... , .... ,,1-.+ .................. ~ ................... .

Fig. 5.32. Cylinder vibration in vertical direction with the PKME run at full load

at.tt.on: QFFFIOUTE ... 1'Iach:l .... : DFF ROUT&:. Po.lnt: 1HJ34

-D~sel oil run et fulllo~

Afotp J. I tuct.. 4.7? MO

Fig. 5.33. Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft with the diesel oil run at full load

--~ -,

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 89

Vibration spec::tlUt"1'\' on the !Cylinder In ..adlal dln:JCtlon

perp~iCul .... to U1e er.,k 'Shatt

"._-- ----~ ---

Fig. 5.34 .Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft with the JME run at full load

---i-----········· .. ···

MME run .t full load Vlb, .. tton Spet:1n.rn radl.' to the c.)Illnder perpencUc\,Il.r to the

Fig. 5.35 .Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft with the MME run at full load

St_tlon: DFFAOUTE. ".-.:=ha .... ; OFF ROUTE .. Po'nt:= tI036

"KME tun at full to*" Vlbr.taon spectlU'Tt radial to tNl

cyllnde ... perpendieular to cr.nk .... tt

............... - --t···················-----t·· .. ·· , , ,

I 1 ........... ··1····· ·-·---··············t····-··--···~····· ·······r···---··················~·· i ' , i

! ,

aoc'HI,····,,····· ........... , ......... . i

Fig. 5.36 .Cylinder vibration in radial direction perpendicular to the crankshaft with the PKME run at full load

90 I Bio-diesel

-st._-= loon: DFFAOUTE .. "ac::h.in.: OFF ROUTE ..

----t-----, ··-----f-------·· ,

Otesel 011 t\M'1 .t full lOed

: : RQdlal reedinc on the cylinder In exi.'

direction of the crank shaft

. , -----·····---·----··~--·-----····-----··-·----i···---···-----···-·---·-·~········---·-· .. · ...... ·+ ............................... I

.................... + ......................... 1. ................ .

Fig .5.37. Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the diesel oil run at full load

OFF'FIOUTE .. "ac:th:ln-.l CJlFF ROUT&: ..

.JME IUI'1 et full load

~-·t .. t ........ · .............. · ............... · ........ f .............. .. !

Vibration -speC"tn.wn r$dI.1 to __ ............ . cyl)nder in line the ClXIC of the

crank cha1't

, . • ~ult·.· ...... ·· ___ · ____ · __ l .. ___ .. ____ . ______ . __ . __ ~ ______ _ .... , ........................ ·j .................. · .. · .. ·· .. ·1

Fig. 5.38 .Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the JME run at full load

.. ME: tun at tull load

! Vibnrtion .peetn.rn radlet to _____ , ..... _ ..... ___ . __ ..•.... the c),Under nlln. u-. ex. of __ ....

i the cr.,k sh.ft ,

i

.ODIr ....................... + ........................... f .......................... L ....................... + .......................... . ; i

Fig. 5.39.Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the MME run at full load

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 91

st:.t: tC2n: OFFROUTE. ".-chine; OFF AOUTE~ Point: tta:li5

.. { ....

. -~- .

PKME run et full load Vibration spo~trum radlel to the

cylinder In line 'the aXis 01 the crlilf1k

sheft

Fig. 5.40. Cylinder vibration in radial direction axial to the crankshaft with the PKME run at full load

Time Waveforms of Vibration

The time waveforms collected for comparison do not yield information as to identify the combustion propensities with the usage of oils under consideration. Combustion is identified to take place after every 80 ms. The Time waveforms (Figs. 5.41-5.48) are taken radially and vertically on the cylinder with the engine run with the methyl esters and the diesel oil. The time waveforms in the piston slap direction (Fig. 5.45-5.48) envisage higher vibration acceleration levels in case diesel oil burning approaching 5g and the acceleration levels in case of esters are below 4g. This is because of the lower power development in the case of the esters tested.

St_tian: OFFROUTE. ~l .... : OFF ROUTE.. "oint: tI03?

o Ti .... t~l .O~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ________ ~ ______ -,

I DIESEL RUN iT FULL j • LOAO.VEtrnCALREAOING ON THE

J.O •• -~ .•••••..•••. -.--.---i ......... -.... -- .. -...... L ...... CVUNDER

! ;

-1..0 ........•••••..........•• i: ... _ .................... ~ .... -........ . .... ~..... .- ....... ..:. ..... --- ! ------- - --:-

-.O·.,T .... _-----r:O'l!l ... n---~,r.,rn'--.....,~'ftIr----"nI~r----n'!l':·:',.U Afotplltude -1..79 0 Frot = a •• 9a Nz

......... red: J.?-Dee-2004 J.J.:a4

Fig. 5.41. Time waveform collected on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with the diesel oil

92 I Bio-diesel

Tt._ ......... 1

Vel1lc~' Re.ad1J"l&: on the CylFlder et full load fot' Jatropa 01' run

____ l __ ,_

........... r~: 2a-o.co-2004 ..1.2:30

Fig. 5.42. Time waveform collected on the cylinder head when engine running at fun load with the ]ME

iza.:S4 9.7'7 0

T:l __ t.gro.J

Fig. 5.43 .Time waveform collected on the cylinder head when engine running at fun load with MME

Tj._ ... --.-1

aDr-----------~----------------------------------~----------_,

-.10 .... _ ......... ___ ., ..•...... _ ... __ ..

,

PKMI! RUN AT FULL LAOD TIME WAVE MEASURED VERTICAL ON THE

CVLINDPrR

, •• ~ ... __ ••••••••••.••• __ •• ..L._ •••••••••••••••

= .... 77

"-•• ur_d: a3-~ ~ ~.:07

Fig. 5.44. Time waveform collected on the cylinder head when engine running at fun load with PKME

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 93 .

St •• ion; OFFROUTE. "-chin.: OFF

·-t-

i .. 1 • .I.1 .... a 0

Tiro. _i~l

DIESEL OIL RUN AT FULL LOAD T1ME WAVEFORM RADIAL ON THE

_ CVLINOER PE RP TO CANKSHAFT

Fig. 5.45. Time waveform collected radial O!l the cylinder head when engine running at full load with the diesel oil.

St:at: lor.: OF'F'fIOUTE. "-c:::hi ..... : OFF ROUTE,

---j

0_ -0.6.1. 0

Full !clad Re-achne.on the coyllnde.r heOld,perp cr¥lk

......... r-ad: 23-D..c-2004

Fig. 5.46. Time waveform collected radial on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with JME

0_ -o .• a 0

MME AT FULL LOAD RUN nME WAVEFORM RAOIAL ON THE GYUNOER. PERP TO THE CRANK

Fig .5.47. Time waveform collected radial on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with MME

94 I Bio-diesel

Ti._ .. 1 ___ 1

5 ..

Ti_ 0.-.......,.l.t...... 0.08 0

Fig. 5.48. Time waveform collected radial on the cylinder head when engine running at full load with PKME

Phase Analysis The phase of vibration is an important measure to identify the mode of vibration concerning the order. The first order phase measurements are taken at two strategic positions on the cylinder viz. vertical and radial for the engine run with the esters and diesel oil (Fig. 5.49 & 5.50). The phase of vibration for the MME is different in the ra,dial direction to the cylinder as observed in Figure 5.49. The phases measured vertical on the cylinder as shown in Figure 5.50 are different for the esters when compared to the diesel. This indicates change in mode of vibration for the first order. This may cause undue increase in the amplitude of vibration at other non-synchronous frequencies. This phase difference may affect the lower frequencies to generate higher amplitudes of vibration creating an impression that the combustion with the new oils is different. But the vibration signatures indicate that the esters tested gave reduced vibration levels when compared to the diesel oil. Hence a conclusion can be drawn

. that the effect of phase change is the representative of the reduced delay period, which can be observed from the Figures 5.19:'5.22. The phase diagrams in the case of MME indicate early start of combustion.

Phase Of Vibration In Degrees (First Order) Radial Perp.To Crank On The Cylinder

Diesel ~ MME PKME Load 0% 9.6 4 353.1 7 Load 25% 3 2.9 354.9 9 Load 50% 3 3 355.5 8.1 Load 75% 3.9 6.7 356.3 9.9 Load 100?/0 5.3 7.3 359.7 13

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 95

PHASE OF VIBRATION (FIRST ORDER) MEASURED RADJALL Y ON THE CYLINDER PERPENDICULAR TO THE CRANK SHAFT

-r--------------------------------------, l:i" -- --­

~"'-- f-----~ .. - __ _0-ill'· ----0- ---L.

r---- --____ 0-

_____ _0- 0_

-

- -- -- 0_-to ---- -- 1---­

~· .... ..& .. ---""''' .. ----L-''''' ... --........... • ".--""''''"",. _ --WAD %

Fig. 5.49. Comparison of first order phase of vibration measured radial to the cylinder

Phase Of Vibration In Degrees (First Order)

Vertical On The Cylinder

Diesel JME MME PKME

Load 0% 6.3 335.8 333.1 343.4

Load 25% 31.1 352.5 339.4 344

Load 50% 21.8 2.1 342.5 345.4

Load 75% 5.5 338.4 336.4 1.8

Load 100% 35.9 340.1 338.7 355.4

PHASE OF VIBRATION MEASURED VERTICAL ON THE CYLINDER IN DEGREES

400,------------------------------------------,

350 l----r---c - t= ~300

~ 250

1! z:: 200

'" ~ 150

lE 100 --

50 f---

--

---

0'-- '- J '-LOAD 0% LOAD 25%

----

n ---LOAD 50% LOAD 75%

LOAD %

Fig. 5.50. Comparison of first order phase of vibration measured vertical on the cylinder

I Bio-diesel

ssessment of Engine Trend with the Use of PKME, JME, MME and ieselOils

e data collected indicates that the vibration trend of the engine with e usage of diesel oil is severe as observed in the Figure 5.51 given by the -Time software for vibration analysis. There is a sharp jump in overall

lue of vibration in the piston slap direction as per number '2' line from J tropha to the diesel. Same increase holds good for the foundation

·bration also. The overall level generated by the MME further increases . the direction mentioned above. Except this unexpected behaviour of MME, diesel predominates in vibration in all directions on the cylinder and at the foundation.

Date-wise succession of experimentation with the oils is as mentioned: PKME, JME, DIESEL, MME.

Trend curves are demarcated by colours from upper one to bottom one with the vibration readings and curve designations are as follows:

I.Vertical on the cylinder

2. Radial on the cylinder perpendicular to crank shaft

3. Foundation

4. Radial on the cylinder in line crankshaft

The Figure 5.52 depicts the vibration acceleration levels (spectrum averages) in the limited spectrum range of 3200 Hz with respect to the point of measurement on the engine test rig. Whereas earlier plots indicate the vibration levels based on the total spectrum averages at various loads. It can be observed that the vibration transmitted to the foundation is minimum and almost same for all oils as shown in the Figure. The amplitudes of vibrations in vertical and radial directions are complimentary for individual oils.

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 97

Accelero.bon Measurements ~ • ;Por.t '17-\1etbc.a1 on cytheod"

I IM""-V_M ............. ,Tlen CylndechNd~ '",,",

~~'ttf'~ .-''-------L.

iD4IIe 1\l1.ILe 2._.

l

~ I ---- j

7 '"

3 1 ~ 2 -~ - 1(5"1< l>lMlMttCUilG

4 11".1 0..".--- -- HE!

S ...... __

! , --,--- 1 1 4

0 ;j

I D. I i

l l PKME JMEDlESEL MME

Fig. 5.51. Engine vibration trend when run with oils under consideration at full load

Limited spectrum Average Vs Loeatioa or the EDgiae

3.5...---------------------, 3

: ... 2.5 .!! i 2 I! -! 1.5 t < 1

0.5

o Vertical on the cylinder Foundation

Locatio.

Radial perpendicular to crank

[]

DIESIlL

a. a_ a\'DIE

Fig. 5.52. Limited spectrum average of vibration acceleration when run with oils under consideration at full load

5.7 CONCLUSIONS

1. Fuel consumption in the case of diesel run is comparatively lower than any other ester tested on the same engine. Except in the case of mechanical efficiency, diesel excelled in almost all parameters for

981 Bio-diesel

which graphic evaluation is made. The reason can be assigned to the structure of the esters and oil lubricity because of which the frictional wastage of power might have been reduced.

2. The brake specific fuel consumption is an important parameter that is rated whenever engine performance is evaluated. In our observation, diesel oil's BSFC is comparatively lowest in comparison. The reason can be assigned to the inferior calorific values of the esters under consideration.

3. There is an increased vibrational severity of the engine with the usage of the diesel oil when compared to the esters tested. This is due to relatively higher power development in the case of diesel oil.

4. The noise emanation from the engine with the usage of diesel oil is more at all loads when compared to the esters. JME succeeds followed by PKME in the decreasing order of noise levels. This trend basically depends on the power generation in the cylinder by the usage of the independent oils. However, the aspects of knock and detonation for all oils are conspicuously absent as can be assessed from the P-8 plots.

5. Vibration phase measurements indicate that there is a phase difference for the first order which exceeds even 55°. This will give an additional support to the conclusion that the diesel oil gives higher vibratory trend than other methyl esters and also the phase difference in the first order is indicative of the ignition delay.

6. In the light of the above said conclusions, even though the power development suffers to some extent, the esters can be recommended to be implemented to run the engine without changing the basic design of the engine because of the reason that the esters are affordable and renewable and also in view of on-going trends in the increase of prices of petro-diesel. The vibration point gives strength for the implementation in lieu of the petro-diesel.

7. Cost Audit: Edible oils are costlier than the non-edible oils. The non­edible oils are abundantly available in Indian forests. Some of the ethnic oils like Mahua are available in our forests and their usage are limited. It is a known fact that the palm kernel and Jatropha oils are available throughout the world. The cost of procurement and production of esters of these oils is comparatively less per

Results Discussion and Conclusions I 99

litre. Additionally, the by-product glycerine that is obtained from the esterification process is costlier and has more market value.

Future Scope of Work

• As a part of future scope of work, the pollutants like Nox, CO and unburnt hydrocarbons can be studied.

• The same methyl esters can be tested using variable c.1. engine in order to fix the most useful compression ratio.

• Adiabatic engines can be tested with these methyl esters and the performance can be evaluated.

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Appendix A

The vibration signatures at other loads not mentioned in

the chapters have been appended below for verification.

a tat ian: OFl=ROUTE, IIaeh ine: or:F ROUTE. Point:.OO6

3~._. __ ..... _._._._

Aut~trUM

I :

SPCctlUl1 radliil to t1en~;:)'~r IX 16 01 ihe er .. ksh tft

.. _. __ ........ -+ .... _ ... _._ .... _ ...•.......... ,.- ·········,·,···_········_·_····_··-1

J ; : i : : i

...... -... _ ... - r'- .. - .......... ---;. -,_.-.- ...... -.-.. ~-.-.... -. _._._ ..... , .... __ ... _._. ! ! I i ! I : ! I : ~

! :

IH-········ •.. ,,·_·- j ...•.••.•••. -.-.-... -.•. ~ .•....• _ -•.•..•.. - ••• ~ •..... - ... - _ .••....• i .... ___ ... _ - -i i : : i .

Frot = 41:1 Hz:

Fig:(A-l) Diesel run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

M~",.

, .•.... _-- ·······1- ....... - .------+ . ,

1 i !

I ' I • _ ....•. _ ...... - i·······_·····_- _ ..... ! ••.•..•..• - ··_ .. ···'1····- . __ .... _.OHO .,_._-- - •••••• -. , . . . .. j i ; ! : : -- r"

Fig:(A-2) Diesel run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

"""'S.5

Appendix A I 107

ttatian' OFFFllJUTE. .. IbIchin.' OFF ROUTE, PQint:~ .[X1'7

F n!!G~" 0 I1Z AftQJltUde 0.04 "I'"S.5

Dl9:5e1 fttl ,if no IO:J';

Ylbn110ns-pectrum on the cl!lnder heed In ~nU~a! fU,,"CtJon

Frot = &4.'6 ttz

Fig: (A-3) Diesel run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

Itet ionl OFFROUlIi:. "-cthinel OFF ROUTE.. Point: Wl.1&

-----.i .. , --~. - -

, ;

···················-····,··~+"1········ .. ·····-<·· .............. . l

Fig: (A-4) Diesel run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

108 I Bio-diesel

S ta t Ion; OFFAOUTE ~ t1aCh lne; OFF ROUTE I

~tosDeetn ...

. . ~"-'-' -...... -- --,._.- -------.-- ·_-------t----- - ------.... "---

i

Ylbra1ion 3pectrurn radl~1 to the cylrd:Jr INlne the 'Ill1S': at thllt cronksh~t

._u ••• ___ - •• ,._-- ------- -- ------- -~----- •• ···_········· ••• f' ---._-- ---.------ ---T-- __ .•......... u ••••

: I : ,

__ ~ •• ________ ._. __ • __ ._~ __ .... _____ ._. ____ • __ ~_ • ___________ .,. __ .':' __ u.n ••• ___ • _____ ._

~ i j

Fig:(A-S) Diesel run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

It:.tianl OFFAOln£. ltachine: ~ ROUTE. Pointl woo.

RUtO!i~tl"'Ult

3 ...... " ...... " .. i ...... · .... · .... · .... 'r

a.tplituct_ 0.04 "" ....

Die •• , Run iIl",_. VibratIOn spech"m 01"1 the 1000001100 or lhe «"elM

Frot: ... 14.95 ....

Fig: (A-6) Diesel run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

300 __

Appendix A I 109

3tat:lon; OFFROUTE. ttachlne; (FF ROUTE. Polnt; tI01::1i

Aut'OSDe!C t..,..,

Run M IJoI.th lo;;}[J

~ltirallcn s: pectrum en lhe q tillde r he~ ~r( 't'eonlcal Cflrec1i:rl

Fig:(A-7) Diesel run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

Statlon. OF'FflDUTE:. tIiIIchlne. OFF ROUTE~ point •• 0118

AUtasaect rUM

~ .t lJ41h bod Yibntion ::S:p:dlUm on ihc fcum:lQl11on of tl'la qine

_0 ---_0_- _ .. _~_. _______ 0 .. _. _____ ----r----- ---__ .0 __ 0 ___ 0 ____ :

i

: :

J i ··-·_--_· .. ·.---+1-----· .. ··----_·· ~- .------ ------- - ---+-- -".---- _0 ._-.00 I i

i :

Fig: (A-B) Diesel run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

110 I Bio-diesel

statian: OFFftOUTE .. "-=hinez OFF flDUTE.. Point:: 1101.,

400r---------~--------~--------~------------------., :D.:el Rut'! at h~f bai

.00

800

100

o

;VItJf:attrl'SP8C1II.rn rad!~ to 1tecyllnder :Iollne 1hc .).~ot 1he crtnb~.ft

- ....... _ ...... ~ ........................ \ ... - ......... - .. -~ ..... --.- ....... -.-... t - - _ ... - .. -... -

Frequency 0 Hz AHplitude a.3S ... 0 F"ot as. D.1 Hz

Fig:(A-9) Diesel run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

nO

~tatlon: OFFROUTE. naehtne: OFF RUUTE. P01nt: .,18

0(8$8t Run attl.ol1 fOQ:t

Vlbrttion speotlU'1l rUl.1 to1he .,1....,.... ~uI"to the .' .. k .... lt

.... _-- ... - "--"1-- .......... _ ..... OH.!_ ................ n····f- .........•. _ ... __ u .. y ············_···········t

Fig: (A-lO) Diesel run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 111

s:tat lan: OFFR1tUrE .. M;;a,ehina: OFF no.rrr::. Paint· *lJ.'9

Au tuspe!c t run

•••••••• ___ •••••••• .l ••• _________ ._ ••• , _______ •• __ • ____ • __ .J .... _._ ..... _____ _

3.02 t1G Frot = 24.9"1 Hz:

Fig: (A-H) Diesel run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

Station: E. ac ne:

AUtD5pectrut'll

1nt: Oil

lbJooiiltion of h enc:,"!!: , ! :

... - --.~ .. ---.- --_ ... _-- - - t---···_- - ----.. ----- ~- _ ... ------.- ---------1- ... _----- ... _-! ! :

.. j ..

AnpJit:ucle S.S~ nO f:"rot: = 24.9G HI!:

Fig:(A-12) Diesel run at half load Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

112 I BiD-diesel

S t at ion: OFFROUT£ I Nach!ne: OFI=' ROUT E ..

: Dllnl j:;U-, ::.1 314 th b;d l'tlIDr~tlon spl!!!C1Jl.1'n f'\aj1~11o rh!!!!

!CYII'l:le' 1mllne the: eXI:i of 1he cnnksheft

----~-------~--.-----~ : : i

•••• • •• ~. 4·· -.

Fral' ':: 24_ 94 H:r

Fig:(A-13) Diesel run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

EJO ch ne:; on

AutD$o..-cil;rUM 8~~ ______ ~ ______________________________________ ~

-----_._ ... -._ ... _ ....... _._- _._._----_ ..

P, ••• I Run ot 3/4111 bal YlIoNh:J1 S'pectlU'Tli1d1t1 to the c,llnder pcrpendo..lfil'kl the crankshaft

i ;

•• _ •• _ - ••••• __ •• ~ ••• " ••••••• _ ... _ ••••••• ~ __ •• __ ••• _ ._ •• W" ~ •••• ____ ._ ••••••• _ ••••• _+ ... _ .... _ ... _ ... _. ! ! !

; :

...... - .... _ .... ~_ .. _._._ ...... _ ... _. _,_~ _ .... ___ ...... _ .... :._ .......... ___ ...... __ .. + .......... _ ·0 _._._.

Frol "" 25 • .14 H:t

Fig: (A-14) Diesel run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 113

~~atton: OFFROUTE. Machlne: DFF ROUtE. Potnt: .W!7

D_' RU/\., 314th ,,'lbr..rD"l s:peCHU'l'I Q",1he cyllMI?I'h?~

In ~rt ':011 et. rectlon

Fig:(A-lS) Diesel run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

""

S.tatlon: OFFROLnE. r1ach1ne. OFP ROUTE. Point; 110&8

.. -....... '1·' ... -..

Aulu!l9cct r1.Jn

D If'sel Rl.n ~t ::.14 tn hold ','I bt etlon ~ pec11Y11 on the

found9tO'l 01 the a-gma

i -

Fl""Ct = 35.1.1 Hz:

Fig: (A-16) Diesel run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

1141 Bio-diesel

station: OFFROUTE. ""chi",,: OFF ROUTE. Point: .om

_ .. __ .. - ·-~-······--·-·-···-···-·t-·-···· ................. [

FreQuency AMplitude

i i , , , , I : : :

Run at I'lO baci E::pectrwn red I 81 to the oyllrder txt:S of "tie crenk$'left

Fig:(A-I7) JME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

nO

~tatian~ OFFROUTe, Madhlna! OFF ROUT~#

1 j ,

tk.Jt:aApIIII:!tru,",

JNE ~n ot no Io:od

................ i

~lbnllQn .".,..Irum rad,o! 10 the cylndor perpsrdlcuJar 10 1he

cr.nk.shef1

.•.. _u._ .. ___ ._, ..•.•............. _. __ .'u __ ._.~_. __ ... _._ ... _ ..... _

Frequency! Anplituda

I .

01tZ 1.0.58 nO

·······1········· .. ······ ,

HE

Fig: (A-18) JME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 115

Stat.lon; DFP'fICIUTI!. ~ehlne: OFP'ROUTe:# Point: Il00:1

, ............. ········i····_·················· ~.-....... -.-............ ~

, ·············_·····l··········

i !

Hz

UJ .86 nO.

Fig:(A-19) JME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

AutOSPeClt ""'"

!NE /U! 01 "" bod. Y,bra/I)II $lleCloum on'" i _.1 lnaerclre'

i . ... -........ _._- ... - ":"'--"-- ._ ... _ ..... ~-.

"'reQUenC:~ 0 Hz _lIt.- 15.76 lOG

: : : : : :

Fig: (A-20) JME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

116 I Bio-diesel

Station: OFFROUTE. Mach.ne: OFF ROUTE. Point: _007

JME Run at 114th lo<Cl VlbrQtcn s.pectrum rQdl~1 to 11"e cplnder tnline tlc .xi.:!: of the crEnK311ft

_ ........... ..... .l ..... ................. i __ ................... .

······1····· ............. ····f-······ ............. ·T···--················· .~- .. -.- .. -............ -. :: : ! , ,

Fig:(A-21) JME run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

Statian! OFFRDUTE~ "adhina! OFF ROUTE,

AUt: OSPE!!Ct rUtt

-_ ....... __ . --t .. _- .... __ a ._. "'-i---- ----._- ...... _-

JME Run .ll/4th lOad ~/lbratlmSpectrum radtalfo 1rIe c,YHnr:ter perpendicul;.rto"'. cranUhdt

, ..................... + ......... _ ......... f··· ···lfll·II·I··········~···-·······················1

Hz -20()~-----ri~----~r---~~-----n~ ____ ~

Artpl :itude 5.86 ...0

Fig: (A-22) JME run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 117

Station; ClFFROUTE, I1achlne; OFF ROUTE, Polnt; .O~

Anplitud~ o Hz 4.0. nO

AutOSQectrut'l

:JME Run ~1 1/4th b;,d

:VLbt8ton :po:::tll.ffl on the c.,.lmde~hcecl ;11'\ Yflrtt"~1 dlt'Pr::fIQI"I

Fig: (A-23) JME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

Salon: ne;

AUt OSIlec t"-'"

o n

AU'\ ~t J/4tn fo:za

~ VlbretDl.::lpectn.rn en the i found::rt en af ttle en&lre

; ----4--. ,

1.

...... ---. _0- .. _--:-_ .. --- .. - "'-----r- ., ......... _ ... _ .. TO- ...•...... _,0 •••••

! : : : : :

AI"Ipltt'ude 13. '97 I1G

Fig:(A-24) JME run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

118 I Bio-diesel

nil

stat lon: OFFNJUTE. nachlne: OFF fIOtJIE. Potnt": 11C114

AutOl!SPOCt rLa1

JME Run " h,W Iood Vibr.tion ~m filthl 10 1h:' c,Ylinder petperdiculer to the cnnkdl 111ft

_.1-\ ..................... +_.- ... _ ........ _ ..................... _ ...•....... I :

!

i • -- ... .j. ---- •• -.- ------- ._-, ... __ .. ---

Freta.JenCu 0 Hz AnpIJtwe 6.as nO Frot ::. 1::100 tu

Hz

Fig:(A-2S) JME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

~ -- .- ---.--. ---r--- _ .. · ____ .u. -- -- -t-----_·,-- -_.-

i i ! j : :

i

·······II····fI1·1·11················ -+·······_····_·_····:·t·········

i

Fig: (A-26) JME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 119

St.tiun: OFFHOOTE, Hac:hinl!: OFF ftOUTEJ

JME ~A1 at h.W Ic,d ~ 11o ration ~ pectn.m on the cyllndct he td ~n 'l1e rtlcel dlreot IOn

; ----T-----------l-----

Fraquency AltDlltude Frot = 1300 tiZ

Fig:(A-27) JME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

AUtOSP8Ctrura

. .

JIAE Run at hott 10"" \libr~tion spelctlU'11 on h foundatIOn of the qre

........... - ··i·····_···_······_·····,_····· _ ... - - ...... , ........... - _···_···.··········_······_···_-1

·1 .. ·_···_··;···_······- ..... _ ................. .

... -a~I~----T.M----~m---~~----~r---__ ~n

PreQURIICY AMplitUde 4.:H nil Frot = 1.:JOO Hz

Fig: (A-28) JME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

120 I Bio-diesel

tt ... t ian: OFFROUrE .. Machina: OFF ROUTE. Point: e019

~litud. l2.85 MO

JME'RI..n it ~/4th Ioid YlbratlOl1 spectrum r;ctJal to the cylinder

mllne the 8.(1$ of ihB cnnk~hef1

Frot ::::: 25 I-b:

Fig: (A-29) JME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

St:ationl tFFAOUTE-I Hachine: OFF JKllITE~ Point: tKJao

AMplitud. 2.89 ..0

JIItf lUI,t :l(~th lo,d. Vlbfltion z:J,'8Ctrum redtal to the c)llmde, pRrpandlCUlQr to ... cra"lkSh~t

- _. _ .. - - ·····t····· __ ···· .. ········ -r"" .. _. -..

Frat = 25 H2

; ;

Fig:(A-30) JME run at 3/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 121

~tat iQn~ OFF'ROLR£. H.ehin.~ OFF ROLnE. Point: .021

Autcapec t '-1A1

m\ll:rtll;fldlrcctJon

{ -

_·····1······ .......... .

3.48 .. 0 Frot = 25 Hz

Fig: (A-31) JME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

.. 0

stat ion: OFFlQJTE~ Kachine: OFF ROUTE. Po int: Mla8

I:

Al'WJIlltUde ia.4.l 116

AU tcspac: t 1""1 •• "1

ME Run at 314th Iood : \!Ibrttaon zrocetnrn Q'l t'C :tOWl(lallon or tile ~,"e

1 :

--.I:tl--llI'jI" ~IIII-\\-·----"----- ------- -- ------- -- ---.--.

Frot = a::. Hz

Fig:(A-32) JME run at 3/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

122 I Bio-diesel

:stat~on: OFFRtIUTE .. Haehine: OF'F' ROIII£. Poi~t: Il001

: , " ... --r

Qtn;) bQeI ~pcctU'1'l ,.~".I I. the ':)I~,*,rl

1he '01Il:: 15: 011t'1e crll1l1sh;d't

---r- -------.... -

.............. , ............. --,·····-r·· - ........ - -- -···r--···- .... -.-.-... ~ .... _.- ... _ .......... ..

Frat = 24 .•• la

Fig: (A-33) MME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

, ! i I -.- .. -_ ... _-- ... :--.... --_ ...... -- ··~·-·t·

! i i 1 j :

! ! ....... _ ........... L ...................... i .. .

AlI'IJllit:uda 5.1fi MO

liME Run "''''' laod. Vibration $IlI!CI""" '10101 to the CYII'lIe' pcrpcru.llcu\erto the cnricshet1.

---1".···----··· ---.

·il-·········· __ ·······,··················· ..

Frat = 24 9'9 Ha

Fig:(A-34) MME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 123

AUtosoectrlM

MME Aun it no bid

IlIbratcn ~pectllJfTl (J'1 ihe cylmder hCid

!nVl!"rtciilldl~tion

300

Anplitude 7."113"0

Fig:(A-35) MME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

,,0

Etat ion: OF=F'AOUT~~ t'l;;;aahine: OFF ROUTE:# PCllnt: 1100l1li

Run et ro bid, Vlbreban speotMTIon 1he

1DunOQttcn or thlf qlne

........ -- .......• .................. ... ........ . ......................................... _ .. !

Anp) i.tude: 1.5 • .1& nO Frol ::: 24.'5 Hz

Fig:(A-36) MME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine

124 I Bio-diesel

nO

Steticm: OFFAOUTE. "echine:: IJF'F nOOTE.. Point:.aD?

400~--__________________ ~ ________ ~ ________ ~ __________ ~

.00

.,

,

MNf Run at ~/4tn load YlbtatlOt"l spectrum rtdlel to the C J"!ll"IdBr 1nl ne tfote Ji\{I$' of the C IG:n k6:t'I ~tt

----. _____ ----.'T-.-.-------.. -- ______ ~-_____ ._._. ________ ..... h __ -- ----. __ . __ ._.'-. . . i 1 i

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:.:1~~~.:~~~t,:Z Fre~ AnJJ 11 tutle

o H% 11.64 t'IO Frot = 24."8 IiZ

Fig:(A-37) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

Stet::Lon: CFFROUTE, "-="i"o: OFF ROUTE.. Paint: 11009

Aluta.paotru ..

Fl.n Jilt lf4.th baj

:\llbnilDn ~pcctrum ndlill tD h

':1:: 'cylrderperpendlcular'to the ~r:mks:n:illrf

-------··--·']'--------_·-·_-----------i----··----------.-.. -.---~--.--.--------------.--~-.----.. -----.--.

: I ~U"ll-.f ...................... + ........................ ! ......................... , ........................ ; ............... ..

! I

................... , ......................... ; ........ _.,.

Frnt = 25,115 I-b

Fig:(A-38) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 125

Station: 0 Uf£, Kach i ne: R £. Point:.OO9

Aut.ulISpelC.trUl"l

MME Run lilt l/q.th load V Ib ration spec~ IU"Tl on fla c ~11'l".i3r he td In 'le rtlC e! dl 'lSetlon

-- •••• j ••••••••• __ ._-_ .••••. , ••• _-_ •••••••••.• -.. -•.•• --•.•••••••••••• _ •. --------•••• -

Fig:(A-39) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

ttatsan: OFFROUTE, Mae:hil1Q: OFF ROUTE. POlnt: fIOLO

Auto:!lflectruf'l

MME Pun ~t 1/4th ID~

... _ .... -r .- ........... -.... f'----

............ __ ..... L ._ ........ -....... _. L ... . ___ ..• L __ ..•..•..••. _. _ ... 1. .... _ ._ .....•... _. f ! ! f

Fig:(A-40) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

126 I Bio-diesel

St.tiont (]FFOOUTE~ l1IIIchine: OFF'ROUTE, f'lalnt: Ml13

Autc:::lSpaetrLIM

MNf IU1 ,t h,lf Y Ibrat IOn &: pectr\lm r8:lli.1 to 1he c yllt'ldar

hllne In. "lsoflhecran~Sh."

....... _- .0 ----.~---- ------ _. ---A-A._of _._--- -"""'. -----r-----'---" ""----T _. __ ..... -••••••• 0

; ; : :

................ , ........ -......... ; ...... _ ...... -... J ........... -....... , ................. -..

Fig:(A-41) MME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

-St;:at ien: OF'FFlOUlIE:". fIIachin.: OFF ROOT,".. Point: 8014

Autoc;PClCtruM

;

f,ilClLQI to 1he

pe'pen."ul.,tOh

_ •• '" ••. __ .••• __ ••• \ ••• --_ .••.•••• _. __ .••• -.- .••. _-------- '-"'- ••• ~--.-- -_---- •••••• ----<- -_ .••••••. : ! i

. . . . . . ••..•.•••.. __ .•• !-_. __ . -_····· .. ··_--···-t· __ · -- ... --.----._- --+ ... ----.. -----_.- _··t ------._. _ ....

: 1

""T :

Frot = &4. 88 tU:

! !

... l .................. . 1 !

Fig:(A-42) MME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 127

Statton: OFFRD~E. Machtne: OFF ROUTE.

AMplituda 3.15 MO

MME Run :a h~lf ~ Ytbra1lon spcch .. rn Cf"I t.hc cyhnderheEd In o"enlcall1trectkm

l ....... --+_ ... -_ ... _ ... -.

Frat :::' 24.'98 H2

Fig:(A-43) MME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

at an;

AUtQ5PlICtr"",

oSn.

I¥IME QIon It hel1 la eel 1I'1DfQtJon$peetrumon 1he 1ounda1 D'"I 01 the ena:ne

.. '" ........ ; ..................... L .............................................................. . , : 1

i

.. - .- -.. - ..... ~ ... _.-.- ....... -_ .. ·t· .. · .-.-.. ······t··-··· -_.-.- .. _--- ···i·- .--..•..• ---. ""-

!

2.05 RG

Ob

Fig:(A-44) MME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

128 I Bio-diesel

~t.taDn~ [FFFWJtUE, "achu-: Q=F ROU1E. Palnt' *ot9

Rutos~truM

............... ; .......... -- .. ·······t- ............. - .. ~ ..................... , ... .

····,············ __ ·····+··················f·········· .......... ; ................... .

Fig:(A-4S) MME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

St.t:jan: OFFAQU1E. II.-ehl".: DFF ROUTI£. Point: eo:ao

Auto.ec:tru ....

1

t,.d 11110 the c1' bndc r : po 'I,Md",," I,,, t. the c .."k.h.tt

i I ~u ........ _ ............. _.~ ...... _. __ ._ ... _ .. "1' .... - _ .... _ ... _._,

; : ;

1 ! ! ! :

.... ·Hf- .. ·_ .. · .. - ... -.~ ...... -.... - ...... -., .. ~ .... -- _ .... _- .. ,- -: :

i , , i i

." ..•••••••• . .i. __ •.. _ .••.•.••• _ _ ._L ...... . ,

Fig:(A-46) MME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

nO

Appendix A I 129

Station: (FFROLRE .. Machin@: lFF ROUTE. POlnt: 1021

ftt1p li tuda a. '15 ftG

ftutospac:trUfoll

~ 1I314th load

bnh:n ;,pectrum 0"11he cyl,,,der he;':;

~n wrtc~1 o lr'8c1 0""1

Frot = 24.0? Hz

Fig:(A-47) MME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

St.tion: CFFRDUTE, "ac:talrw: OFF NXJ1'E, Point: It022

Aut~tr'--

MMERUnot3l4th_ \ltbr.tlOn~rumon1hc

foundatIOn of .... eft8t"11!

.. - - .. - ........ j ............ -......... f· .. - ............ , ........................ , ..... - - .. - - -

.. f' .......... _ .. -1 ....................... ~ ............. "-

Fig:(A-48) MME run at 3/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

130 I Bio-diesel

-sa.thlln~ OFFROUTIi .. It;u!hin.: OFF fKlUTE... Pojn~: .crn

fIIut:Qspa:.trun

4DQIr---------~------------------------------------..,

300 .~ .. _ .... _ .. __ . _ ..... ~_. __ .......... _ .0 •••••••••••••• _ •••• _ ••••• , .

~OD

PKME run It no laid

y,~rattn SpoC1rum rad,,' to tne clIIrder nine 1t'"e txb: of h creotkl5heft

.. •• __ •••••••• _ •••• ~.---••• - •• - •• _0 •••• __ ~ ••••• _ ••• _ ••••••• _ ••••••••••••••• 0 ••••• , ••••• '1" ••••• ••••••••••••• _-

.. ..---ne .. AN:Illtudit

o Hz LIl.OS nO

Fig:(A-49) PKME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

PKNE rul'l :11 no lom II1brt1ion5poo1rum r .... ltDtho cylinder pe rlllflllCUltr 10 11'10 eranft.halt

---•• _ .•..•.. _ .. j ...•••••••• __ •••. -•... ~ .. __ 0 _.0 •• _ ....... + ................ _ ....... 1

- ..... 0 __ --.·. _ •• _ .:. _0 ..... 0 •• __ .' __ F •• : ____ • _ •••••• _ •• __ •

: :

Fig:(A-50) PKME run at no load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 131

St.t:ivn. OFFnDUTE .. tt-=hirw; err ACUTE.. '--'int;: .003

Ru to!iP!Ctr ....

: PI(~E run ~1 no load ''tlbntion spec.tlUT1 en tre tylrdcrh=ild ,If'IlJerhcaldll''lCt1ot1

...•.... - ....... ; ....... , ..... -........ ~ ....... - .... _ ..... ,;" .......... - .......... _ ... _._ ... -

.... 1 It udR

Fig:(A-S1) PKME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

! .. ifound.11on of .... "",me i i

.. ········ .. ·······1·· .................. + .................... f···················· ... + .. · .. ,· .. ·· .. ····,···-.... ·1 i

! : i .. ~.

Fig:(A-S2) PKME run at no load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

132 I Bio-diesel

S tat ion: OFFAOUTE .. Machina: OFF ROUI'E. Point: .037

AutaspectrU"l

400r---------~--------~--------~--------------------., :P~ME ",,".t 1l4ih lotd.

300

aou .

100

:--:

"1--

o Hz 10.4 I1IIl

1

iVlb'3ttonspeC1rum ra(JJaqo '!he :oyllnlMr r'Ilneh txh,;of tha je·rankSI1:;.ff

-1 !

Fyot = 24.82 Hz

Fig:(A-53) PKME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

"0

Stilltian! OFFRWT," .. "'aehl .... : OFF RWTE .. Po 1 nt ~ tI028

Auto.ectrWt

8DDr---------~--------~--------~--------.. --------., :PK!lE "'" et ll~th 1.ld ; \llbn1lDIl S pec11l.n1 rad. III I to 1ht

!c)'ln:;Ier pcflilendbJl'f kz th" jC,.~nk~h~rt

: : 'OD ....•..••.•.. w •••••••••• ;_ ••• _ •••• - ••• _ ••••• t ................ _ ...... t- _ .. -.- -- .. -.- ... ~ ......... -....... " .... _.

zoo

! l ;

--.--.. -... ~_ ... _._.;_._._ ... __ . __ . __ .! .. _ ........... _ .....• ~._.i_. __ ._. ____ ._ •.... .: __ ..........•..•......•. _

Fr-.-..,., ..,litwMo

, : : '

o Nz 1.112 ... G

: : : :

! ! : '---";

Fro. ::: 25 Hz

Fig:(A-54) PKME run at 1/ 4th load, Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 133

Si:et ion: OFFAOUT£ .. tlachinel OF=F FlDUT£~ Point: 110:19

AUtOSDectnm

run ~ :l/4'1f-; IOid '\llbnilon spectn.lm 00 1he C,kndOf he,d In wnlc~ Ijll1!dm

, , ......................... -................... ~ ......... - ... _ ... - ~ .. _ ........ ··r··· .. ·····

: .......... "1"'"

!

F'rot =:. 8S Hz

Fig:(A-55) PKME run at 1/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

S tat 1on: OFAWIUTE.. ~ 1ne: ..=F IlUUTE, potnt: WD40

....

. .. - ......... + .. _ ..... ,. ....... -··i-···_···_···········+·_··· __ ·_,.·- _··,_·.,_······_'_···_····1

i l! !

·l·········

AlClttUde Frot = 4I4w" ttt

Fig:(A-56) PKME run at 1/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

1341 Bio-diesel

Staticm: OFFAOUTE .. HoC!hine: OF=F ROUJ"E, Point: HQ43

PKME IUrI ethel1 !otd,

; IItb,Qtlon ~pectrwt'l rOdlQltD h

'C1!lnder In line the 8);1501 1he :ertnh:::ihtft

Fig:(A-57) PKME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

.... Stat Ion: OFRIOUTE .. "~Inl!: OFF NJUTE. PoInt': tI044

AutosQectrun

runotYlOI1 O:;a i\ltbyt1iOftspectnm fecllllio ihe lPerrordiculQr to th. e~k'hatt.

, . . , ••••••• ~ •••••• __ .;, •••• _ •••••••• o ••••••• ! ....... _ ..... _._._ ... ~ .... _._ .. _._. __ .. _ .. ~ ..... _ ......... "

,

!

i •• _ ••••.•.•• o. - .... r ...................... .

! ! ,

... -.-.. , ...... r ····· __ ··········_····r···· .. ··· i

""pl:Hw:ftI: a.5 nU

Fig:(A-58) PKME run at half load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 135

St:ilt ion: OFF'ROUTE ... "ach 1"0.1 OFF ROurs::.. Point: .045

Autospec.t rUl1

run Qrrlalf lOad !V(b'9ton spectun en the cyl nder

;tl8ad 11'1 'tert~al dIrectIOn

. . .......... _ ...... j .......................................... i. .............................. _ ....... _ ..

ANJil.t ..... Frot = :13.1. Nz

Fig:(A-59) PKME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

Point; "46

! """1. ...... _ ....... _ ..... ; ....................... ,._ ..... _ .. 1 .... _ ... , ............... - ...... " ............... ..

Fig:(A-60) PKME run at half load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

136 I Bio-diesel

s::t~tlnn! OFFROUfE" Mamt,.., OFF ROIJl~. Paint! .049

~utostJect n ....

ME IU"I 11 3'~th 10 ad :'{'br:rtlor. (:~t'IJm f~l~p 1(1 ~h@

:CyllMdcr mllfle the ~I: or the :oTmll&:"'cft

: : ............. - .. ": .... -_ ...... - ---'''''r----'··'_····-'-'- ----:- -- - ." .. - - -'-'r- - -- ----

AR~) itudll 9.21 MG Frot ~ 24." J.lz

Fig:(A-61) PKME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder inline the axis of the crankshaft.

.... Station: OFFADUTC. Ilachlne:1 (FF' ADUI'E. Pai.nt: 4IOS0

! i -j"_.-I

, "." --- ._ .. - --~ .. ----. _·····-,.HiIo·+··

Pr~ OtlZ.

I"OI:1MI tol"e oe,,,,,I1dio<.I,, 10 the

-------'-'--1"" .--.----...... -

.- ... --t-- .. -; i ! I

AMpI '~uda 4.IIZ .... PrDt :: z •• ". tb

Fig:(A-62) PKME run at 3/ 4th load. Vibration spectrum radial to the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Appendix A I 137

,statIon; DFFPlOtnE. nachlne: nFF ROUTE, f"olpl: -IO~l

A,..,11tude

Autaspect n,,"

Ph 'AE nm et ,/4.1h '1IIJI1

~Ibr ... llon ~P"Gtl'.I11 m' 'h" c.,l.-der hl!'oiId ?~ · .. erlIMf cllIectloM

I'IIU.a.NI"Ill"ll'!Il'I\.'" Hr

Frot .:. 24.8& Hz

Fig:(A-63) PKME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the cylinder head in vertical direction.

....

F1. - Hl!lp

a t.t ian: OPFftOUTE. ts.c:hin.: OPT" ftOUTE. l'alnt: 1KJ58

£M:: - ERlt

• PkME Nn t13/41t1lold ! ",br,tu;" 3p:1;tnrn on the !tolJt'ldatCllolhqlllt

! i ... ·······r· ............ _ .... 'T'--

-- i .~ -

Fig:(A-64) PKME run at 3/4th load. Vibration spectrum on the foundation of the engine.

Appendix B

The time waveforms measured at various points on the

engine at various loads have been appended below.

!:t.tsan~ OF'FADUrlt~ IIac!oh1r.~ OFF RWTIi:. Pasnt' tKD2

~DD~ ______________________________________________ -.

!DiC$Cf run it no loci mm: ""'''t'Cfbtm vcrtc.1 ~ its cylnoerhead ,

: , 1 '!Ill -- _ •. _ •••• - •• - -i---'-.. _- -_ .. __ ...... ,+ ....... __ ._-_._ ..... _+ ... _ ......... _ .. _.- -:-------.. ---.. ----... .

i -:10 ______________ _ •••••••••••• _. __ ..i.. ••••••• _._._._ • ___ ~._ ••• ~" .••••• _. __ • 1 . i ! j

-IOD'~------~~ __ ----" .. r---~~!~~--~~~----~~.a~a Ti.,. 0 ... *"-1&..... D.!I" ",11 •• Fro~ _ as ..

Fig:(B-l) Diesel run at no load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

",5 •• c,~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~

:oesc, ..... ,1 ncI bC. iTirM ""M1atm !'del ,CJ'l tho oyIlIdor lp:letpIttdCultrto .. cr.,k hft,

.... _. __ ._ .. _ .. ----1--·-- ····_·_·········t-··········· __ ····- ···}···_-_···_····_-·····T········_···· __ ········ i

-20 -.-.. - ..... - ·;·················_······t· ................... ··t·············_······_·f ······· _ ........... _ .. 1 !

t 1 ! !

--~----~~~----__ ~ __ --~~!Tm~---n~~--~nR~. 13 T1Ma 0 NI "'-Jibdlt -a,la ..,;" •. s Frot • as He

Fig:(B-2) Diesel run at no load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

G

Appendix B I 139

S~a~tan' aFFRout"E. nachtna: OFF' RDIJITE.

TJN! s,.,al

4.r---------~--------~--------------------------__, D.ei.! run et ltlth ID~d. llme _UI~ ~rtlal

;J!"I fho:cylnz,r ! perpencllOU!lr 1(1 the cr1nk sneft.

a __________________ _ _ ........... _ .. _.J_ ....... _ ...... _ .. -i.

\/\1 -8 _______________________ _

:

~ .. ------~~ .. ------~~.w----~~~rr----~~~~----~~,3~3 0_ T ..... """,1 i tude -0." Q Fn:Jot .. 85 Hz

Fig:(B-3) Diesel run at 1/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

o

~'t.'tlon; ~ ... ttlAJll:.. I'IiIChIAII; ur-~ nuult:, 1"'0 1nl. ffU.1.,I:;

~D~ ________ ~ ________ ~ ________ ~ __________________ ,

:DIe-' Nn :111 1/4., IO:lld

... ,_.

:Tlme 9I!welOrm yertt;Q1

=on the cyfinderheld I

....... ~ .

~ ! I

-s "-"'-- .. -.... - .. ~- .. -- ........... - ~.- .............. _ ... ~ ...... -...... _ .... _ t-... _ ....... -._ .. _ ! 1 : i ! i i i ; ; 1 :

-~o~------~~~----~~nn~--~TY~~----~~.-----~~L3 0_ -D.::' a Fret = 25 Hr

Fig:(B-4) Diesel run at 1/ 4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

140 I Bio-diesel

stab",,' OFFROUTE. """hin": OFF ROUTE, Point: _mu

Ti ... lIlignal

10r---------~--------~------------------------------~

5

-5 , ................... , .............. ..

1

Dtes:el ru" ~i h~!f 1oQC!!

Time -It ~ .. efvrrn verT ~~I ", it'le I!ylrrl:;,t he~d

.~O~------~~~-----.~~-----r~~r-----~~~----~~~s Tine AMplitude

0"" o 19 G Frot =: 25 H'2'

Fig:(B-5) Diesel run at half load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

a

I:t:,at ian: 0FF'ArJln~. "'Cl:hif'lll~ OFF' ROUTE.. Paint' 11022

Dlec;et nm .t h,11 load Tme wO/.bm rGdual on the cyl,roor

! perpenllculorlO tne cr",k sI1811

a ...................... ~ .. _.- ..................... r-' .. ---_. ____ A _.J •••• _.- -- -_._._.-

-2 __ ........... _ ... ... i .. ___ . __ :

"" -4~-------..,~~----~~~----~~nn~----~~~----~~.313 Q MS

-0.04 B Tl". Anplituchl Frat = 2S HE.

Fig:(B-6) Diesel run at half load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

Ii

Appendix B I 141

St~tion; OFFROUTE. Machine; OFF ROUTE,

Tine !.Jgnal

Z0r---------~--------~----------~--------~--------_, ;Oes;el run ~t Ylitrt b~ frl'1'le tJ' .. ~~fc Itl1 'oE'r '- ..11

iO::1' I"." ,:ylfTl"f h~"Id

10 ............ _ ....... + ............ . ·····················r--········ __ ···················· ... _'-'-.'

: :, . . ; ,~-i~ . f .

........... _ .... _ .. j ...................... f ..... ' ............ + .................. ~ . ..l. ............. .

-~0'~------~~~r-----~~ .. -----P~~,.----~~~----~~~13 0_ Tine Anplitude 0.01 [] ~rot ::. 25,08 t1z

Fig:(B-7) Diesel run at 3/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

o

~tatlon: OFFftWTE. ftacntne: OFF NJUTE. point: 1KJ30

Tl ... signal 4~--____ ~ ____ ~ ____________________________ --,

DI~~"llUn 111 314-th wiild TIt'r'e .... ~fQItTI rad!al on iJ"c cyhndcI perptondtcular to the cr..nk shaft

2 ... - ••...... - •• -i ... _ ......... "

-4~------,.~~----~~~----~~~----~~~----Tm~12 0_ 0.'" 0 rrot. .:. 2:1 HZ

Fig:(B-S) Diesel run at 3/ 4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

1421 Bio-diesel

~t.tiQn' OFFRmITE .. M~hi".! (FF R[lJTE. Paint- .,01

4r-------~ __ ------~--------__ --------__ --------~

-3 ,_",,_, _0. __ .. __ _

JME.., it no Iood

Time wilrc:fonn vertllOaJ

on m. c y Itna3r h •• a

I'IS

-4~------~~~~----.r~~----~~nm----~~~r-----~r.~312 T11'1C!:

","Dlitude c .. ,. 0,28 G

Fig:(B-9) JME run at no load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

G TUte S19J1iU

4r---------------------------------------------~ ;JME ..... al no loaa

=- .. _- -- -- ...... -.---.~ ...... -.-.--... --.. -. --1- -- - -- __ _ I

l I I

r

;imewavefoml radl~ :onthoeJAndo, ;pcrpcnch:utI ia the crenk :ihtft

-a ........ -.- ..... -.--.~.----.. -.-.-.. -.. -.. -... -i-.. -.. - .. - - .... -.-.. +----.--.... -.. -.. --.--~.-.... -.... -.. --.......... . I : : :

! : I ; !

-·'~----~~~----~~~--_n~~----~~r---~~13 Ti.... 0 MC

Aft,,) itude -0.04 G

Fig:(B-10) JME run at no load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

a

Appendix B I 143

S t at lon ; OFFROUT E ~ Mach 1 ne , OFF FlJUTE, Point; .0.11.

10~ ________ -. ________________________________ ~ __________ ~

5 ...........•.......

-5 ..... _ ........... .

Til'4lQ CI .. pJit:uda

. .IME Ilr. d1 1/4tl"llOal

.Tmc wlyc1atrT1 vett~el

'on the cylndElt heed

. , _ .................. ·r···········_· .- --...... ~ ..................... -.: --... -

-------~------------------------

a_ 0.1"1 G

Fig:(B-ll) JME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

G

Station: :ina: tnt: _2 4~ ________ ~ ______________________________ ~ __________ ~

! ~ a ............... : .. .

-2 ._l_ ...... . i

JME Nn .1 1I41h bid. TIme 'AatlltoltTl rO::llal

on .... ~yln:Ji!r PMP!lnJIr.Ulor to tie crank "".n

-4~------~~~----~~~----~~~----~~~-----n~13 0 .... -O.S? G

Fig:(B-12) JME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

1441 Bio-diesel

G

Station: IFFROUtE. "_ine: IFF ROUTE. POint: so17

tiNe si9nal 1~ ______ ~ ________ ~ ______ ~ ______________ --,

, .... -.. -.-.-.-.... ~- ....

-$ .................... , ... .

JME "'" et htll bed TimeNI'I'efotm...eri:bel on h cylirdsrh •• d

· __ ····_-_·-t-_··_·····_-_···_····r····--·-: : : : ; i i : : 1 I :

:

; : : : :

... •••••• •••• .0 •• _~ ...

:

f : : : ..

-l~~----~~rr----~~~----~r:~ .. --~~~~--~~~U Tt... 0 ... A .... Utu. -0.l1li a Fro~ = 1I:iOO Ho:

Fig:(B-13) JME run at half load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

a Ti ...... ianaJ

.r---------~--------~---------------------------,

11 ••••••

JI1AE run .t h.w 1.00. Tme nwcfotm rldllll D'l1he Cllllf'C1er perpendb.dar to tile cnn~SII."

-- - t ......... . ....... .

... • __ 0_"_", •• j ........ __ .... _ ... _ ..... _._ .... _ .... _ : i :

--·~------.. ~~~----.. ~nP----~~""~----""~~----~~.a13 0_ C.?8 IJ P'rot ::. 2:' Hz

Fig:(B-14) JME run at half load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

o

Appendix B I 145

St:.attan: OFPImUJE ... ftachln_: OFF RoutE... Point: .nz:a

TiMe si'!lJ1.1 ZC~----____ ~ ________ ~ ________ ~ ________ .-________ ~

iJME run .13141h I."" ;Tme w.,e1arm Mribll 101 the cvll'lderhe.d

i

10 ---1---·· , ... , ... - .*

1

i

l -~c ...................... , ... _ .. _ .. _ ......... ~ ............ __ ..... [_ .................... .j. ....................... .

1 !

i i -ac~------~~~----~ .. ~~--~~~w-----~~~----,.~13

TlMe 0 "5 ~ftplituda 0 • .13 G Frat =: a5 Nz

Fig:(B-15) JME run at 3/ 4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

G li .... i ... ' 4~ ______ ~ ________ ~ ______ ~ ________ ~ ______ --,

J ME run :lit 3,. .... loa:'f.

""... lAiye10lm radial

on tte cylInder porgenU:ulerb the crtnk ~htfl

a ..... .

! ! 1

---··1----······--·---·--· ··t··_···-- --- _ .. i ,

-4~----~~.w----~~~--~~~~--~~~--~~.~.3 Tine 0 "5 ,"-litue -0.8 0 Frot = es Ik:

Fig:(B-16) JME run at 3/ 4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder' perpendicular to the crankshaft.

1461 Bio-diesel

G

St.tion: OFFAOUTE, Machine: OFF ROUTE, Puint;; .DOS

T Ifta soll3na 1

~Dr---------------------~--------~----------____ ------.., !hWf It.f1 at "0 loa:! lTi-nc wiiN'!foml'l1!:ri'tci!

l 100 the cylil't:t!rhearJ ! ! ! i

... <~:.; < --- .- r .. --.... u_ ........... ..;- --~- .-- .'-~-.-"""

!

5 ........... __ i--

1 1 ,

-5 ...................... , ....................... ..,. ......... --.-----.. -.f ... --....... - ... --.---.:. .. -.--.... --.---.... -.

--lD~------~~~----_,~~~--~~~.-----~~ __ ----~~l~ 0 .... 0.$6 Q ........ t " 84.'8 Ha

Fig:(B-l7) MME run at no load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

St.tion: CFFADUTE .. ltachinal OFF ADlITE, Point:.aoc.

4r-------~------~--------~------~--------~ iMME nTI at no bid

a ._ ... _ ....... ..

iTme wiVCfolt11 reclt,1 !at\I'Ie,;:,ltnCII!r !penoondlC", .. tD1heeronklhllt.

, . i ---t· __ · __ · __ ··_··_-t·-.... ---'---'.'- -~

: . i i i

i i ! ,

•••• j. •• r.

i i i

i i I i

-a ._ ... _ ... _. -~ ... --~i ...... --.. --.-..... --~ .. - .. --- ___ ._. __ ~.-.... _-_.--_.-_._.-~--____ .-o-. __ ... d

i i i i i i i i

! 1 j I ! j! i i! ..

~r_----~~'mn~--~nr.~r---.,~~·~----~~'~----~~.SlS Ti_ 0 .. & _Ii~ 0.16 D FrDt :: 24.92 ab

Fig:(B-18) MME run at no load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

..

Appendix B I 147

St.at.lon. OFFROUTE J Hachlne; OFF flDUTE. Point.; _01.1

101r---------~----------~--------~--------------------~ MNE tun at lIo.tn 10QCf Thle waYeki It'TI 'ie rtle ~ I

(J'1 the c)'hnd~r he~d

5 ••. n_, ______ ._. ___ .~- _._ .. ____ ... __ .;. __ ..... ____ .. _.u~_ .. : :

! 1 : !

-s - ....... _ ..... _ .... .j. _ ..... - _ ..... - -·f- _ .. ···_·_·····_···f·· _ ............... j •....................... !! :

! ! :

-l~~----~~~----.r~r---~~nN----~~~----~~lS 0_ Tine AMPlitude -0.56 0

Fig:(B-19) MME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

G

2 ••.••..•• ___ •.•••• _ .•• ,; __ .•. __ .•••. _ •.. __ _

Ti ..... ~anal

.MIiIE"" 0111411"1 ~ .... !TI", .. ,ollOlo,"", ",1101 10"l the c'ybnder'

!perpendcular ID 1he cr<nk <hOlI

! , 'r"- .. _. __ .. _ .... n. r'·_·········_····· .. · : -... - -_ .......... - -!

-z ................ . -..... ~ .. _.-i ! i 1 -~r-------~"~----~~wp----~~~r-----~~~----~~13

Tu.. 0: ... _Ut...... -1.ft Q

Fig:(B-20) MME run at 1/ 4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

148 I Bio-diesel

&

st.tian: OrFN)UTE .. "-chin.: OFF nourE J .... int: tI01.'f

Tine signal

~Dr---------~--------~------~--------__ --------~ MM E "'" ., hollloQd TI'!e ""'I6101l'l'1 ~ertl::.1 cri , ... c~lnd.rho.d

5 ..•••. _. ___ .-- ..•• -.~-.... -... -•. n •••• - ••••• -i-•.. --. _ ..• _ ......••• ~.08 ... _ .. _._._._. ___ ._+_ ••• _ .0.

-5 ..... .

Tl .... AnD I I tu ....

Fig:(B-21) MME run at half load. Tune waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

o

..... , n' TiMe si .. ,

4r-----~~--------~------~r_------~--------~

a __ .... _._ .. _ ..

-z .. _

! , ; ! , !

: : . .. ;_ .... _._!_._-._._ ........ _._._ .... _.-: I . i

i I

!

MM!! run at halT ~. Timo .. _oon raiI,1 I7lIhaClllMer pol]OOl'1Cliculeru. ...... ",k .... It

i ! :

.... __ . __ 1 .. __ ... _ ........ ___ .. . :

! :

~ :

-4~------~~r---~~~r---~~~----~~.-----~~~a 0"5 D.~4 0 Frot :; &4. ". tU

Fig:(B-22) MME run at half load. waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

G

Appendix B I 149

Tt ... Signal

aDr---------~--------__ --------__ --------__ ------~ ~ MME ... et 3/4'" laod :r.,.,. __ .. rtJcll

:""thoo,lindorheod

, , . . . ~D .-.~-- .•• ····_·_·t···· .... _ .... _-- -i····_·_·_- .. ·····_·+····· __ ·-·····_······'1-····_· __ ····- ... _--

! I I

! !!

-10 , ........ , .. " ....

--20'~------~~r----'''~----~~~----~~~--~~13 Tt... 0_ _UC.- -0 •• a !'rut " .4. ~I ttz

Fig:(8-23) MME run at 3/4111 load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

a

Station: IFFIIOU1E. _i_: OFF fllUTE. Point:'"

.. _·_·_·_· ..... ·_·-i-·_····- --.-.. -

TiftII a ••• l

1 MME"", at3l4-th iO.i i Tlm ...... ""'" tool. i on hi D)l1h:ler i pel'plndtoullrtotiwcrenll;ettlfl i

-•. ~------~~.-----~~~--.,~,.r---~~~~--~~~;: TUte iI _ _ lit_ -0.54 G Frot " 2 .......

Fig:(8-24) MME run at 3/4111 load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

150 I Bio-diesel

&

Station: OFFROUTE: .. Machine: OFF" AOUtE:.. Point: .,35

T1f'111! siGnal iO~--------~--________ ~ ________ .. ____________________ ~ ~I(ME n.lYI:;,tfllll,;t.;aj

'TIme wwelDtm '''''''c~1 al1heCyllMe,head

5 .. ~ _________ ' __ .... " _.j ___ .• u ••• _. __ • __ •• __ •• L ...... ______ ...•.. n __ ••

-5 ... ' _ .......... ' .. i ... -... _ .. _ ..... --.. +.-....... _ ... _ ........................... -, ........... '-"'."'.

-iO~------~~~----~~r---~Tr~r---~~~~--~ar.\L3 0_ T ,Ma: AftPlitude O.L G F'rot = a5.oe Hz:

Fig:(B-25) PKME run at no load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

G

It.t ion: OFlTIOUTE ... n-::hi ... : OFF IKIJTE. re inU 4I03fi

TI.,.. .. tanal 4~ ________________ ~ ____________ ~~ ____________ -,

Pl<ME """ et nD bed.

2 ... ___ . ____ _ .... --j ..

o

lime "'I\lCfom t'8dill on \he oylhllcr pcrperdicwl.r to 1he orenk .shl1t,

.. + ! i ~ ~

~ ..! ••••• - "0" ·-_········r'··············· ____ wo r···u ....... _ ... -_oo-lo. -.. -. ····· __ ······-l·--·_······· __ u .. _ .... ..

~ ! ! ! ! ! l '"

-4~------~~~ __ ----.. ~~----~~~----~~.,r-----~~.3 riMe .; "5 AMlPlitud. -0.8'" G

Fig:(B-26) PKME run at no load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

a

Appendix B I 151

station; OFPROUTE. tladllne; OFF ROUTE.. Point; 41041

T i"Q s:;i" .. 1

~Dr-----------------------------__ --------~----------,

5 _

:p ,ME"", et II~th bed TmewN:fOfTltvertctl Pl th~ c;:! bnzr hcild

-5 .................... , ......... _ ............................... _ ............ _ .. .

-~D~------~~r.r-----.r,~----~~nftr---~~~r---~~~.313 D ns -0.79 G

Fig:(B-27) PKME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

t. Ion: jne: jnt:

finl! si'!llll'Ml

4

PKME run 011"11110011 r .... waveform ,odla! 01111110)'1"_

perpen:;;ljg,;~ 10 t1e crmk $l.t

2 .+ ..

o

; , -2 " .-....... -..•...• ~ ... -.- ._ ... _ ....... ~-..

•••••••• _ •• ~ ••• 0# .... __ -_. ----1'--'" j I

-4~-----.~~--~~.r--~~~~--~~~--~r.~~3 TU. 0 ns _110.- 1.~ 8

Fig:(B-28) PKME run at 1/4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

152 I Bio-diesel

G

Station; OFFROUTE. tlach1 ..... ; OFF RcurE. point; R04?

Tl .... t:.lgnal

l0r---------__ --------__________ ~--------~--------_, ! PKM[ nn.1·haI1l.1d

I !

Tlme ...... larn ... rtlc.1 on tie oylrldo, hcocl.

5 : , j ------------------·--1----· .. _._-_. __ ._-_.-!--_. __ ..... __ ..... _._--[-_._- -

-:I .... _ ........ _ ......... .

! i i i i

____ 0_ .0. _ ••• __ • __ 0 '0 __ • _ •• __ •••• !_ ... __ .... _ ... _ ... J. __ .~ .. _.,._ .. ~._ .. _. i i

~ ,

--l~r-----~~~~--~~~r---~~~r-----nm~r---~~~13 1"..... 0 .... A_Uta'" 0.1. 0 ...... 1: ~ 114.'. Ho:

Fig:(B-29) PKME run at half load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder head.

• on.

I ! i i i

.... TiMe sia.t_l

PHME ..... 01 half bocI. Ti",.. _otol1l rodI.1 onthc clli11der parpenclltul .. to .... ~ ... tt. .. -.. -... -.... -.-.-.. ~ .......... -.. -

i ~ ! ; !

TI_ D .... AlilpJ I tI.HM -0 ~ z. Cl

D n •

; ... ·······_·t·-_· .... ·_-······_, .... ·_·

j i

... • :I

Fig:(B-30) PKME run at half load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

o

Appendix B I 153

Station: OFFRIlUTE. "ad'tine: OFF FIOUTE. Point:_3

2~ ______ ~ ______ ~~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~

; Pl<Mf "".t :;\14th b;o;l :T~Yf ... cfolt'T1'1'OrttCel

~on the cyhnder head

............ - ....... ; ......... - .' ........ --1- .................. + ................... _ ....... _.- ......... .

1

-~ --_ .... _ .. -- .. - ... ~-----,- .-.. -.... -.. -~. - _._ ...... __ ... + ................. -I

1 , , ;

-2 :

Ti... 0 ..... AooPU<.- -0.&6 8 Prot = .4."1" ttz

........... - ............. .

!

Fig:(B-31) PKME run at 3/4th load. Time waveform vertical on the Cylinder h~ad.

8

a .. ........ .

-a ___ ._. _______ ._.

TU. a • .,.,.1

; PKNE run It 31~" told i r ......... 1""''''.101 1 cm tM cyft'der i pe",."d",ulor" 1hf Cl'",t sIlott

i _ . ........ _.- _ ... ____ ",.

~ !

1 I • .... - ••••. -'-"T" ••• - •••.•••.•••••. -

:

.. ~~----~~~----~~~---'~"r----'~~----~~13

Tt... 0 .... ,...lit..... 0.43 a

Fig:(B-32) PKME run at 3/4th load. Time waveform radial on the cylinder perpendicular to the crankshaft.

AppendixC

The pressure- crank angle diagrams for other loads not

mentioned in the chapters are appended below for

verification.

Engine Indicating System 100

~ : :::::::::::I::::::::::-r::-:~::::r:::::::::::r:::::::::::r::::::::: i 10 ------------r------- ----1------- --: ----------j----------"["----------­

~ 20 ----------+-- ------+-------- -1-- ----··--t--···--····r------·-·-

.20 no

IMEP (BAR) : 1.3 PEAl( PR_ (BAil) : 'IB_7 PEAK PR. Ill1r Toe (0"0) :.. 'I OP MAX (BAI1/0,,0): 1.5 OP I1AX IJIlT TOC (0"0) :.. 'I

100 r---"!"""-"""'"':"--~-""'!'""-~---' INDICATED POIlEI1 (KW): 0.93 SPEED (I1PI'\) : 1500

::::::::::T:::::::::-:r:"::::::::r::::::::-:r:::': .:::r::::::--:: .... ····+············!············1············r······· ... ~.-......... . --... --- i--····-···+········--j--···-······t·--········t·········· ..

e,~ph No.: 1 o ...

r,l" : BUO.pO .. ... Fig:( c-l) Combustion Pressure Vs-Crank angle for Diesel oil run at no load.

Engine Indlcatlng System '00

:::::::::::r:::::-::r:::::::::r::::::::::F::::::::r:::::::::: ···········t··········--i·_········.· ·········i············t .. ·········

: : : i ! ........ --. .;. •......... ~~ .... - .... ·4··· ........ +-•••••••••••• } •••.••••••••

1 i ..... --I.-..... -! \ 120 210 """ ...., no

er ... N'91-

II1(P (BAA) ,2.0 P(AK PA. (BAil) ,52.3 P(AK PIl. IJIlT TOe (Deo) , .. 'I OP MAX (BAI1/Deo), 2.1 OP MAX UIlT TOe (Deo) : .. "

INDICATED POIJE:Il (KIl): 1.39 SPEED (IlPM) : 1500

100~--~--~----~--~--~1----,

~ : :::::~::::r:::::::J::::::::::::r:::::::::::r:::::·::::T::::::::::

i : :~t:=f::r=+:= o .-.

e,~h No.: 2 r,l" , BUO.pO .. ...., 1188

Fig:(c-2) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for Diesel oil run at 1/4th load.

Appendix C I 155

EngIne IndIcatIng System

120 240 360 erank 1'In9l.

INDICATED POWER (KW) 1.85

- 600 720

lOO

IMEP (BAR) : 2.7 PEAK PR. (BAR) : 51.8 PEAK PR. WRT TOC {09g) : ~ 1 DP M/lX (BAIl/Ol>g): 2." UP I1AX WRT TOC <01>9) : + .,

SPEED (llPM) : 1500 80 ........... + ............ ~ ............ :... . .. _ ........... _ ...... _ ... .

~ 60 . a

... ········r············;·· __ ········j···· ·······;···········t············ 40 :

o!:

_0, ••• ···T············~············i········ .. ··i ........... '1 ........... . 20 ..... : .. ·········t············!··· ... - -··r-···········~··· ...... .

8r~ph No.: 3 o ....

fll" BlIO.pO o 98 196 294 392 490

C~indw Volu. (cc)

Fig:(c-3) Combustion Pressure V .. Crank angle for Diesel oil run at half load.

EngIne IndIcatIng System 100

. . . . . 80 -----------r .. --··--·--f--------···T· .. -----·--r-·--··--T----·--·--· i :::::

- dO ----.----.j' ...... -- .. '[".-----.... : · .. ----···Y'·---------r--------·--

i· 10 ..•..•••••• ~ •• u •••••••• i............. . ........ ~04 ••• --••••• .;. ••••••••••••

:: :: :; ::

/i. 20 ••••••••••• + ............ ! .......... ·i· u .--- •• -~.- ••••••••••• ~ ••••••••••• -

! i i 1 1 . . ....... 1'-_..... . o 120 no

IMEP (BAR) PEAK PIl. (BAil) PEFIK PIl. WilT TOC (0"9) UP "AX (BAIl,o..o) UP MAX WilT TOC (089)

3.3 59.0 .. B 2.7 .. 1

lOO r---~----~----~----~--~-----, INDICATED POWER (KW) 2.26 SPEED (IlPM) : 1500

8r~ph No.: '1 fil" BlIO.pO

j : ::::'::::::l:::::::::::r::::::::::r:::::~::::r::::::::t:::::::::::: i 10 .. - --. ..+ ..... --.--.+-----.. ---+ ...... --.. -+ ......... --+ .......... .. 4t 20 : ......... j ............ L ........ u.j. ............ ~ ........... .

: ~ ~ 1 o

o 98 -Fig:(c-4) Combustion Pressure Vs-- Crank angle for Diesel oil run at 3/4th load.

156 I Bio-diesel

EngIne Indlcating System .00

90···' .. ·········,············t··········t········ .. t··· ..... . ~ 60 ············t············;'············t ·······f··········'(·········· ~ ~o .. " .... ~ ........ --:-.. ........ ··········t···········t············ ~ 20 ··········r·········r·:::::::.:L:.::::····r·········r·· ....... .

o .20 720

It1EP (BAil) PEAK PII. (BAil) PEAK PII. WilT TOC (0"11) OP t1AX (BAII/O"II) OP t1AX WilT TOC (0&11)

APEX

0.7 ~6.2 .. B 1.1 .. 0

INDICATED POWEII (KW) SPEED (IIPt1) :

0.48 1500

~

'00 r---~----~----~----~--~----.,

eo ···········r···········r···········r···········r·········r··········· 60 ·············t············t············i············j····· .. ·····t············

• i ~

: : ! : ! ·~··t·-·--····-··r············~···-····-···i .. ···--····t o

••••

on

••••

: : : : : _. . ········ .. ··r···········r··· .. ······y····u· .. ··r'·····H .... 20

8raph No. : 1 o F.l .. JATN.pO

o 98

Fig:(c-5) Combustion Pressure Vs· Crank angle for JME run at no load.

Engine IndIcatIng System APEX

.00

eo ···········t···········:·········· .. j .... ········:-···········r············ ~ 60 ···········j········ .... (·········;· .. ·········t .. ········.j ........... . i 40 ············t··········t············:· ......... 1" .......... '( ......... . ~ 20 ···········t············t·········· 'j'" ··· .. ···y············r············

It1EP (BIIII) PEAK PII. (BAil) PEAK PII. WilT TOC (0"\1) OP t1AX (BAII/O"\I) OP t1AX WilT TOC (0"\1)

1.6 51.4 .,. 8 1.7

.,. " o ! : 1 l 1 ·········r· .. ·· ..

.20 240 3<!0 1&0 er .... _.

'00 I NO! CA TEO POWEII (KW) 1.11

···-·-·-·_t··n····-···~············i····-···u.-i" .. -... u····r······· .. · .. • 1 1 1 i 1

··.·~·~······T··········T··········T·········T··········r··········· ........ t ............ t ............ t ............ t ............ r.n ........ . ......... ; .......... + .......... +-......... + ......... + .......... .

SPEED (IIPI1) : 1500 eo

~ 60

• I 40

~ 20 . .. .

8raph No. : 2 0

F.I" JATN.pO o 98

Fig: ( c-6) Combustion Pressure V .. Crank angle for JME run at 1/ 4th load.

Appendix C I 157

Englne Indlcatlng System 100

eo .. ' ·······t············(··········;············-;.· ·········t············

~ 60 ···········t············!···········-j-···········T···········t············ i 40 ··········T··········"[""·· ................ , ..... ······1 .......... .

~ : ··········r·········!····::::::.T:.::::···T··· ······r··········

o 120 240 360 .. eo no er ... 1InqI.

100

INDICATED POWER (KW) 1.56

IMEP (BAP) : 2.3 PEAK PP. (BAP) : 5i.8 PEAK PP. IJPT TOe (0"11) : ~ 8 !JP MAX (BAP"O"II): 2.1 DP MAX IJPT Toe (0"11) : .. .,

1500 eo

~ 60 • ~

::::::::::r:::::::::r:.:::::::r::::::::::I::::.::::::r:::::::::: SPEED (RPM> :

40 ~ ~

-- ... ··r····u .. ····r .. ··········r···········r·········--r···· ....... . 20 ..... : -··-··-····t·-· .. ·······~··· .. ····-··tu········t·-······ ... .

Brap,", No. 3 0

nl" JATN.pD o 98 .. 90

Fig:(c-7) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for JME run at half load.

Englne Indlcating System 100

. . . j : ........... -...................... T .......... ·r ........ ·r .......... · - -.. ···········t····· .. ·····f· .. ··-······~ ···········t· · .. ······f··········u • ! ill i 40 .......... ·r .......... r .......... · ......... 1"' ......... -: .......... .. t 20 ........... +_ ....... _ ..•........... ~~ ... -..... ~ .......... -. .;. ..... -.. ---.

o i i ....... \........ i i

o 120 720

IMEP (BAP) PEAK PP. (BAP) PEAK PP. IJRT Toe (0"11) op flAX (BAP/O"II> OP MAX IJRT Toe (0"11)

2.7 58.7 .. B 2.5 .. 1

100 r---~----~----;-----~--~-----, INDICATED POWER (KW) 1.B5 SPEED (RPM> : 1500

., JATN.pO

~ • i ~

eo

60 '::::':::::r:::::::::r::::::::::r::::::::::r:::::::::L::::::~: 40 OH ...... ~ •••••••••••• ; ........ u •• ; ••••• _ ••••• ~ •••• _ ... u • .;. ••••••••••••

1 i ~ 1 1 20 · .......... \· .......... ·1 .......... ·t ...... · .... 1" ...... · .. · o

o 98 .. so

Fig:(c-8) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for JME run at 3/4th load

158 I Bio-diesel

Englne IndIcatIng System 100

. . 80 .......... + ......... ~ ............ ! .......... ; ......... ~ .......... .

~ 60 .......... + ........ \ ........... I ........ + ....... .. ·i .... ....... . i ~ ....... · .. ·: ............ 1 ...................... ; ........... -r-- ........ :

· :·iF'j······ .. 0 120 210 360 180 600 720

er_ Anglo

100

INDICATED POWER (KW) 0.39

It1EP (BAR) PEAK PR. (BAR) PEAK PR. WRT TOC (0"0) OP MAX (BAR/O"o) OP t1AX WRT TOC (0"0)

0.6 ~9.8

+ " 1.6

+ "

SPEED (RPM) : 1500 80 ......... _.+ ......... ___ ~_ .. __ . ___ .. _:. __ ._. __ .... ~_._ ... _0_ .. -.:- ........... .

~ 60 · ~ 10 ·

. . , , . ...... · .... ·f· .. · ...... ·! .. · .. · .. · .. ·: .... · .... · .. r ........ ~· ........ ···

··· .. r··········--i···--·_····-t······---ur--··········r············

· .\: 20 ... ! .... · .... ·+ ........ ·+ ...... ·· .. ·t .......... --r-.. · ........ Sr"ph No. : 1

0

"I .. t1f1HNLpO o 98 196 294 3!12 490 1588

e;,llndor UoI_ (cc>

Fig:( c-9) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for MME run at no load.

100

o

o

Engine Indlcating System

.. ······.··-:-·.····.···.·!-·----·.··.·i.·····.·····+····u ..... -f-.-_ ••••••.•• : : : ! !

···········t···· .. -···-~--···---···-1--·-.. -.. ···t· .. ········tu

••••••••••

........... .;. ••••••• _____ ; •• __ ............. u ... .f. •••••••• ~ •• .;. ......... u.

:! :! ... _ .. __ .. n~ .... --.... -.i. __ .. --_ .. ·i ........... L ........ n.J .......... ..

! ! ! l ! : ..... · .. 1 ........ : :

120

1I1EP (BAR) PEAK PR. (BAR) PEAK PR. URT TOC (0110) OP I1AX (BAR/O"O) OP t1AX WRT roc (0"0)

-1.6 53.0 + 8 1.9 + ~

100 ~---.----------~----~---.----~

INDICATED POWER (KU) 1.13 SPEED (RPM) : 1500

8raph No.: 2 "I" MAHN 1. pO

80 ........... .;.. ........... : ............ , ............ '- ........... .:. .......... ..

i dO ; ; i ~ ;

·~Fr~:rf: o

o 98

Fig:(c-10) Combustion Pressure V .. Crank angle for MME run at 1/ 4th load

Appendix C I 159

Engine Indicating System 100

80 .•.•••..•.. .,. .•••••••.••. , .•........• ; ..•••.•••... .,. ...••.•.•.• .,. •••••.••••••

I ::j::i:j··:l~: .!: 20 .• ··········,········ •• ··i·········· .j ........... ~ .......... .; ........... .

o : ! ....... + ....... : !

120 :I0IO - 720 er_ AntjIo

100

INDICATED POWER (KW) l.-iB

IMEP (BAR) : 2.1 PEAK PR. (BAR) : 53.5 PEAK PR. WRT TOC (0"9) : .. -1 OP MAX (BAR/0"9): 2.1 OP MAX WRT TOC (0109) :.."

1500 eo

~ <10 . i

::·:::::::T::::::::::C::::::::T::::::::::L:.·: .. ~ ........... . SPEED (RPM) :

-IQ

.l: ..... ··-r···········i··········T······· .. ··r···········r···· ...... .

2(1 .. ": ........... ! ···········!···· .. -·····~-············r· ......... .

Br"ph No. 3 Fil" MAHNl.pO

196 332 CylincJe.r Uoll •• (cc)

Fig:(c-ll) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for MME run at half load.

Engine Indicating System 100

• • • ! !

~ : ::::::::::r:::::::::r:::::::::::r::::::::::r::::::::r:::::::::: i -IQ ••• ••••••• ..t ............ i ...................... j ............. ~ ........... . • i 1 , j 1 .!: 20 •••••.••.•. + ............ ~ ........... ! ... ·······~··········· .. r············

! ~ ....... ;. . . ... ...! !

o 120 720

IMEP (BAR) PEAK PR. (BAQ)

PEAK PR. URT TOC (0"9) OP MAX (BAR/0"9) OP MAX WRT TOC (0"0)

2.9 58.2 .. -1 2.7

.. "

100 ~---.----------~---------.----~ INDICATED POWER (KW) 2.03 SPEED (RPM) : 1500

Br;aph No.: " r.l" MIIHN 1. pO

i : ::::·::::::t:::::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::t::::::::::r:::::::::: i -IQ •••••• ···~···········l-··········l············j···········t·· ........ . .!: 2(1 ··········r···········r··········r·········-r

98

Fig:(c-12) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for MME run at 3/4th load.

160 I Bio-diesel

Englne Indlcatlng System 100

110 •••••••• •• ·.t ..... ·.·.· .. t··· .. · ...... j.·.·.··· .... t .. ·········1······· .... · ~ i i i i i

i : :::::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::i:'::::::::::r:::::::::r:::::::::: d: 20 .•..•• n···r····u····T······u. -r ·······-r··········r········ .. ·

o I •••••••••• 1'........ . o 120 no

IMEP (BAR) PEAK PP. (BAP) PEAK PP. UPT TOC (000) OP MAX (BAP/Ooo) OP MAX UPT TOC (000)

APEX

1.0 51.3 .. 1 loB .. 1

l00r---~----~----~----~--~----,

INDICATED POUEP (KU) 0.72 SPEED (PPt1l : 1500 ~ : ::::::::::T:::::::::r::::::::::j::::::::::::r::::::::::r::::::::::

s 10 ..••. n .. -t. •••••••• u··;·-_·········i··u .. n····i··· .. ·.u ... ..;. ... -....... . i ~! i ~ j et 20 ••. ·············f···· .. ······i············i············1·· ......... .

: : ! !

Br"ph No. 1 o

Filo PMN.pO o 98

Fig:( c-13) Combustion Pressure Vs-Crank angle for PKME run at no load.

Englne Indicating System 100

110 ············t··········-t············j············t···········t·········-· i :!:! i v <SO ············f············t············t············t···········f············

: i . : : 10 ···········t·····-·····i····-······.· ·········t···········t············

·· .. ··--··-f--···u.--.. ~ ... -...... A··· ······ .. +····-----·f··--······· i .!: 20

i : : : i o . ..---.ur--······ . o 120 210 3<SO - no

Crri AnQI. 100

IMEP (BAP) PEAK PR. (BAP) PEAK PR. UPT Toe (0"0) OP MAX (BAP/OoO) OP MAX UPT TOC (0"0)

!

APEX

1.5 51.B .. 8 1.8 .. '4

l.05 1500 eo .... _ ..... + .... _. __ ... ! .............. ~.u ......... + ............. + ... _ ....... . INDICATED POUEP (KU)

SPEEO (QPM) :

~ <SO • i 10

.!: 20

! : : ! : : : : : : ····· .. ····r···· .. · .. ·····r· .. ···_·_·r-······ .. ··T······· .. ···1···..-·_·· .. ·

~~j::=f=l=:~i=:: 8"~h No.: 2 ril" PMN.pO

o 88

Fig:(c-14) Combustion Pressure V .. Crank angle for PKME run at 1/ 4th load.

Appendix C I 161

EngIne IndIcatlng System 100

eo ··········.1-.·.·······., .. · .... ·.···; .. ·.·····.·+ ... ·······f············ '" ; 1 1 l l ~ 60 ••••••.••• + ........... , ............ ; ............ .,.-- .... ""'-;"""""'"

1 '!! i 10 ···········-r············t············· ········-1············-[············ a: 20 •••••.••.•. .;. ...........• , ..••••••••• j •.......... .;. ............ ; ..........•.

o : l ....... j ......... : : 120 210 360 180 720

er_ AnQI. 100

INDICATED PDIlEIl (KIl) 1.7B

II1EP (BAil) : 2.6 PEAK PIl. (BAil) : 55.0 PEAK PIl. !JilT TOC (0"0) : ~ .. DP I1AX (BAIl/D"o): 2.2 DP I1AX !JilT TOC (0"0) : ~ "

1500 80

~ 60 · ~

:::::::::::F::::::::r::::::::::c:::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::.:::: SPEED (IlPI1) :

10

= a: 20

.0 •• 0 ..... ~ •••••••••••• i ............ i ............ +- ............ ~ .......... u

! ! : ; : ..... ; ........... ~ ............ ~ ............ +.-.-....... + ........... .

. . : : i Br;aph No. 3 fil" PI1H.pO

o 180

Fig:(c-1S) Combustion Pressure Vs- Crank angle for PKME run at half load.

Englne IndIcatlng System 100

; eo ·_········t············i············j······· .. ···(·········t············

j 60 .•••••••••• + .......... + ........... j ........... -+ .......... + .......... . :: 1: .u········t· __ · .... · .. ·i·ao .......... ·········t···········t········u.

·-.... ··· .. t·········-··~·········· -~... ·······i·--·········-t············ : : : : i

o : : ·······1·········, : o 120 210 360 180 720

er_ Anql.

100

1l1EP (BAil) : 3.2 PEAK PIl. (BAil) : 57.B PEAK PIl. !JilT TDC <0"0) : + .. OP MAX (BAIl/O"O): 2.6 OP tlAX !JilT TDC <0"0) : + ..

2.20 1500 eo

j 60 ::::::::::r:::::::::r::::::::::l:::::::::::r:::::::::r:::::::::

INDICATED DO!JEIl (KU) SPEED (IlPM) :

· ~ 10 · · a: 20

! : ! : : ••• "0 •• t ............ f ............ i ............ t ............ f ........... . ...... -. .; ··········f···········-j-···········j············t······ ..... .

Braph No.: ., fll" PI1N.pD

o 98 IS<! 392 180 C~hndM'" Uoh ... (cc:)

Fig: (c-16) ~ombustion Pressure Vs-Crank angle for PKME run at 3/4 th load.

Index

AP. Gill, 33 Accelerometer is mounted, 61 Adiabatic engines, 99 advantages of biodiesel, 1 Aliet,32 Alkali metal hydroxides, 53 Alkaline metal alkoxides, 52 alternative to petroleum-based fuel,

4 American Society for Testing and

Materials, 2, 43 Babu etal,8 Barbella et, 33, 34 Baseline Ordinary diesel fuel, 20 Bechtold,8 Bills supporting the use of biodiesel

and ethanol, 3 Biodiesel as an Option for Energy

Security in India, 4 biodiesel from rapeseed oil is, 42 Biodiesel is a chemically modified

alternative fuelfor diesel engines, 41

Biodiesel is an alternative, 7 biodiesel is suitable for replacement

for petrodiesel, 49 Biodiesel reduces carbon monoxide,

7 Biodiesel requirement for blending,

5 Brake Power, 20 brake specific fuel consumption, 47,

78,98 brake thermal efficiency, 22, 25, 48 burning bio-diesel turns a waste

disposal problem, 3 C.I. engine, 99 carbon-dioxide, 3, 7 Characterization of biodiesel, 49

Chemical engineering department of AD. College of Engineering, 55

Clean Air Act, 1 Combustion Analysis, 34 combustion pressure data, 71, 72 Conradson value, 42 Cost Audit, 98 Crank angle is measured, 61 Cummins N14-4I0 diesel engine, 34 Czerwinski, 34 DJ. Compression Ignition Engine,

55 Danish National Transport Plan

Trafik,42 Data Logging Equipment from the

engine cylinder and software, 69 Derivative of Pressure with Respect

to Crank Angle, 36 diesel fuel, I, 2, 14, 34 Direct Injection (DJ.) Diesel Engine,

63 Dulger,18 Economics of biodiesel in THE US,

6 Economics of Jatropha biodiesel, 6 Eddy Current Dynamometer

Details, 66 Edible oils are costlier than the non­

edible oils, 98 effects of fuel and engine

parameters on diesel exhaust emissions, 33

energy consumption is very low, 4 engine by using diesel oil as base,

71 Engine cycle analysis (ECA),33 Engine Loading System, 63 engine performance with the

rapeseed methyl, 10 Engine Vibration Comparison, 85

engines and fuel injection equipment, 1

Equation for Transesterification Reaction, 51

Ester of Mahua, 79 Esterification is a process, 44 Exhaust gas temperature, 28, 29 Experimental set up, 61 Experimentation Procedure, 69 Feasibility of producing biodiesel, 5 FFT Analyzer Details, 67 Free Fatty Acid Methyl Ester, 3 fuel consumption for all the esters,

70 fuel excise tax exemption, 3 fuel injection analysis (FIA), 33 Future Scope of Work, 99 Gatowski et, 56 global warming, 3 glycerin, 4, 99 glycerol, 4, 7 haulage rates, 1 Hayeset, 56 Heat Release Equation, 57 higher thermal efficiency, 44 higher viscosity, 50 highest peak pressures, 79 high-speed direct injection, 18 Hydrocarbon, 4, 28 ICengine,53 improve the combustion process, 18 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure,

36 Jatropha curcas, 5, 6, 7 Jatropha oil Methyl Ester, 25, 72, 78,

85,98 Kaltschmitt, 41 Karanja oil, 25 Karim,57 Kernel palm, 53 Kernel Palm, 71 Kevinet, 8 Kirloskar Company, 63 Kittelson, 33

Knothe,42 Krieger et, 56 Kumar,25

Index I 163

Linseed oil methyl ester, 43 Linum usitaissimum, 43 Lovelace Respiratory Research

Institute, 1 low-sulphur diesel fuel, 2 Mahua oil methyl ester (MME), 47 Making Vegetable oil Methyl esters,

53 maximum differential pressures, 78 mechanism of the base-catalyzed

transesterification reaction of, 52 Methanol, 41 methods for computation of heat

release rate from cylinder pressure data, 56

methyl E'ster, 50, 71, 99 methyl tallowate, 32 Mineral fuels, 3 MME,72,78, 79,84,94,96 mono-saturated fatty acids, 7 Murayama, 10 mustard biodiesel, 7 natural rubber compounds, 2 net heat release rate diagrams for

three different operating conditions, 14

Niehaus et, 34 noise emanation from the engine,

98 non-edible oil-seeds, 5 On-Time software for vibration

analysis, 96 operated in any diesel engine, 1 operation of the engine is smooth

on,28 Organic fuels are derived from

plant and animal fats, 3 Original Engine Manufacturers, 2 Palm oil methyl ester (POME), 20 Palm Oil Research Institute of

Malaysia, 20

164 I Bio-diesel

performance curves of the engine, 78

performance of biodiesel, 1 performance of diesel engine with

biodiesel, 49 performance of the engine and

combustion parameters, 28 Perkins,8 Perkins et, 8 Petro-diesel, 78 petroleum diesel, 1 petroleum diesel (HSD), 4 Phase Analysis, 94 Piezo electric transducer, 61 Piezo Electric Transducer, 66 PKME, 72, 78, 98 PKME, IME, DIESEL, MME, 96 Pollutant emissions reduction from

dieselengines,33 pollutants, 99 POME,21,22

Po,!gamia Pinnata ('Honge' or 'Karanja'), 5

pose a waste disposal problem, 3 potential of rapeseed oil methyl

ester, 18 power and torque curves for, 8 power development suffers to some

extent, 98 Pressure vs Crank Angle, 34 problems of diesel engine operation

with biodiesel, 8 Process employed for making the

methyl esters, 53 process of utilizing biodiesel in the

IC engines, 41 production of 36 million gallons, 3 production of biodiesel from non­

edible vegetable, 54 properties and performance of the

hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels, 51

Proposed Jatropha Plantation, 5 Pure biodiesel, 1

pure methyl ester, 14 quick yielding plant, 5 Raising Jatropha plant, 6 Ramesh et, 57 rapeseed methyl ester, 8 rapeseed oil, 25, 34, 42 Rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME), 7 Rate of Heat Release Vs Crank

Angle, 38 reflects the combustion process, 56 replace fuel filters, 2 rice bran oil, 25 rise in energy demand, 4 rise of petro diesel price, 50 RME, 18 seeds of Jatropha, 6 Senatore, 11 Shundoh et, 34 single-cylinder diesel engine, 28 SME is an alternative to diesel fuel,

19 SME operation, 19 soaring petrodiesel price, 50 solvent effect, 1 Sound pressure levels at one-meter

distance, 71 Southwest Research Institute.

Biodiesel, 1 Soya diesel, 7 Soya oil, 6 Specific energy consumption, 48 Specific fuel consumption, 21 specific fuel consumption is higher,

28 Stanadyne Automotive Corp, 1 Straight biodiesel, 8 substitute of mineral diesel oil, 44 succession of experimentation with

the oils is, 96 Sunflower oil methyl ester (SME),

18 superior lubricity, 1 Tenth Plan Working Group, 4

The diffused combustion phase is synonymous, 79

thermal efficiency and brake thermal efficiency, 78

Time Waveforms of Vibration, 91 torque, 1 Torque,21 transesterification of oil, 7 transportation, storage, 2 U.S. Congress in 2001, 3 U.S. Department of Agriculture, I, 3 U.S. Department of Energy, 1 UK,42 Ulf Schuchardt{45l, 52 UnitedStates,42 use of biodiesel in existing diesel

engines,2 used in pure form, 2 Using organic fuels, 3

Index I 165

Varaprasad Rao, 57 variation of peak pressure and the

rate of pressure rise for, 29 Vegetable Oils, 51 Vegetable oils have comparable

energy density, 40 vibration, 71 vibration acceleration levels, 96 vibration data, 72 vibration levels, 79 Vibration of the engine on the

cylinder, 71 Vibration phase measurements, 98 vibrational severity of the engine,

98 Viscosities of POME at various

temperatures are, 22 waste vegetable fats used, 3