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Biochemistry
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1) Primary structure of protein.Dependence of protein conformation on primary structure (collagen and other
exp).Protein polymorphism
2) Changes in primary structure: hereditary diseases (sicke cell anemia,other examples)
3) Secondary,supersecondary and tertiary structures of protein.Protein folding.Denaturation and renaturation of
proteins.
4) Structure and func. Of oligometric protein.Hemoglobin-oxygen saturation curve,transport of oxygen,agents
affecting oxygen binding
5) Allosteric enzymes,regulation of their activity (adenylatecyclase and other examples)
6) Specificity of protein-ligand interactions. Lock and key model and Induced fit model for substrate
binding.Types of natural ligands.Competitive inhibitors.Drugs as competitive inibitors
7) Enzymatic catalysis.Specificity of enzyme action.Dependence of rates of enzymatic reactions on conc of
substrate,enzymes,temperature n ph.Michealis constant. (KM)
8) Classification of enzyme,examples of each enzyme class.Isoenzyme: hexo-glucokinase
their location and function.
9) Cofactors of enzyme.Coenzymes.Vitamin as coenzyme precursors
10) Inhibitors of enzyme( reversible ,competitive,irreversible) : mechanism of action,therapeutic application
11) Mechanism of enzyme regulation in cell ( covalent modification, regulation of enzymes amount ,influence of
other factors)
12) Allosteric regulation of enzymatic reaction.Structural and functional properties of allosteric
enzymes.Examples of metabolic pathways controlled by allosteric enzymes
13) Regulationof enzyme activity: phosphorylation- dephosphorylation, partial proteolysis. Actication of protein
kinase A
14) Regulation of enzyme activity by the cascade system involving Camp.
15) Regulation of enzyme activity by the cascade system involving IP3,DAG,CA2+.
16) Diagnostic significance of enzyme assays.The examples of isoenzymes used for diagnostics.
17) Structure and biological role of DNA.Species- and individual specificity of the primary structure of DNA.
18) Synthesis of DNA and its biological significance.
19) RNA: types,structure,biological function.Biosynthesis of RNA. Posttranscriptional modifications of RNA.
20) Genetic code and its main features.Role of tRNA in the decoding of genetic information.
21) Biosynthesis of proteins: main components and steps.Posttranslational processing of polypeptide chains and
its biological significance.
22) Inhibitors of template biosynthesis: therapeutics applications
23) Disorder in the primary structure of DNA. DNA repair: biological significance.
24) Regulation of gene expression in procaryotes.Regulatory factors,mechanisms,biological significance.
25) Regulation of gene expression in eucaryotes.Regulatory factors,mechanisms,biological significance.
26) Cell differentiation and ontogenesis as a result of regulation of gene activity .Identify of the primary structure
of DNA in various cells of same organism.
27) Molecular mechanism of genetic variability: types of molecular mutation , biological effects.Examples of
hereditary diseases caused by mutations.
28) Polymorphism of protein.Causes of protein polymorphisms.Biochemical individuality of human
beings.Polymorphism and hereditary diseases.(refer to question)
29) Structural organization of membranes.Main components of membranes. Function of membranes.
30) Structure of main membrane lipids.Structure and properties of the lipid bilayer.Selective permeability of
membrane.
31) Mechanism of transmembrane transport of substrates (diffusion,active transport,secondary active transport)
32) Diversity of membrane structure and functions.Functions of lysosomes.Roles of lysosomal disorders in
inflammation and abnormalities in degradation of proteoglycans,glycoprotein and glycolipids.
33) Catabolism and anabolism.ATP-ADP cycle. Main pathways of ADP phosphorylation .ATP utilization.Substrate
level phosphorylation,its significance.
34) Structural organization of the ETC chain. Oxidative phosphorylation of ADP. P/O ratio.
35) Structure of mitochondria and structural organization of ETC chain.Transmembrane electrochemical potential
as an intermediate form of energy in oxidative phosphorylation.
36) Coupling of oxidation of ATP synthesis in the electron transport chain .Respiratory control.Uncoupling of
respiration and phosphorylation.
37) Regulation of the ETC chain( respiratory control).Thermoregulatory func of tissue respiration.
38) Disturbance in energy metabolism: low energy states.Hypoxia and other causes of low energy states.
39) NAD-dependent dehydrogenases and their substrates.Structures of oxidised and reduced forms of
NAD.Electron route in respiratory chain. P/0 ratio.
40) FAD-dependent dehydrogenase and their substrates.Electron route in respiratory chain. P/O ratio.
41) Specific and common pathway of carbohydrate,fat and protein catabolism.TCA cycle as the main source of
dehydrated substrates in ETC chain.
42) Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate.Total equation .Structure of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex:
regulation relationship with electron transport chain.
43) TCA cycle: reaction sequence , biological significance,regulation,relationship with the ETC.
44) Relationship btw the TCA cycle and ETC chain.Mechanism of regulation TCA and ETC chain.
45) Dietary carbohydrates: daily requirements, structure, digestion and absorption.Impaired digestion of
carbohydrates.
46) Aerobic glycolysis: reaction sequence,functions of aerobic glycolysis.Rate limiting enzymes.
47) Anaerobic glycolysis: reaction sequence, functions of anaerobic glycolysis.Rate limiting enzymes.
substrate level phosphorylation aerobic and anaerobic is 7 & 10oxidative 6
48) Role of aerobic and anaerobic degradation of glucose in muscle activity.
49) Gluconeogenesis from lactic acid. Glucose lactate cycle.
50) Gluconeogenesis fr amino acid and glycerol : biological significance. Glucose alanine cycle.
52)Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver( regulatory enzyme activator and inhibitors.
53) structure of glycogen. Function of glycogen in skeletal muscle n liver. Synthesis and degradation of glycogen
54) Hormonal regulation of glycogen metabolism in liver.
55) Regulation of glycogen synthesis and degradation in skeletal muscle.
56) Glycogen storage diseases.
57) Glucose metabolism in erythrocytes.
58) Glucose metabolism in adipose tissue.
59) Pentose phosphate pathway of glucose metabolism : reaction of oxidative phase of pentose phosphate
pathway, distribution, physiological significance
60) Role of pentose phosphate pathway of glucose metabolism in erythrocyte.
61) role of pentose phosphate pathway of glucose metabolism in the liver and adipose tissue
62) major lipids of human organism : structure, function(TAGS, phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipid) main fatty
acids
63) Synthesis of prostaglandins(cyclooxygenase pathway) main types of prostaglandins and their
functions.inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis
64) dietary lipids, daily requirement. Essential fatty acids. Digestion and resynthesis of fats.chylomicrons:
structure, formation, function. Hyperchylomicroanemia
65) bile acids. Structure, function, synthesis and recycling
66) beta oxidation of fatty acid: reaction sequence, biological significance, regulation
67) disorders in fatty acids oxidation. Medium chain acyl coa dehydrogenase deficiency
68) Biosynthesis of fatty acid reaction sequence, regulation, biological significance effect of insulin
68) biosynthesis of Tag from carbohydrates in the liver and adipose tissue. Effects of insulin
69) tag degradation in adipose cell. Hormonal regulation. Fate of fatty acids and glycerol
70) very low density lipoprotein(vldl) : synthesis, composition, transport function, hypertriglycerolemias, fatty
liver
71) synthesis and utilisation of ketone bodies: reaction sequence and biological significance. Ketonemia and its
effect
72) cholesterol : biological role, biosynthesis of cholesterol, reaction sequence( down to mevalonic acid
formation) regulation
73) low density lipoproteins(ldl) formation, transport function.ldl receptor (disorders). Familial
hypercholesterolemia
74) high density lipoprotein (hdl) : formation, transfer function. Role of lecitithine cholesterol acyltransferase(
lcat)
75) lipoprotein of blood plasma.formation, composition, function.hyperlipoproteinemias
76) hypercholesterolemia: causes and effects.mechanism of atherosclerosis and treatment
77) role of full-value of protein nutrition in human health.essential n non essential amino acid. Digestion of
protein in gastrointestinal tract : enzyme, activation of mechanism and biological signifance
78) transamination reaction of aamino acids: enzymes coenzymes, biological role.diagnostic signifance of
transaminase assays
79) type of deamination of amino acids : role of glutamate dehydrogenase, biological signifance.
80) catabolism of amino acids: formation and detoxification of ammonia in tissues. Toxicity of ammonia.
Hyperammonemia: causes and effects
increase level of ammonia decreases liver functioning cell.symptoms blurring vision, slurring speech, flapping tremors, hepatic coma, death. treatment low protein diet
81)Biosynthesis of urea : reaction sequence. Biological role. Hyperammonemia: causes an manifestations.
CPs1 rate limiting enzymes
hyperammonia 'coz of inability to detoxify nh4 causing encephalopathy
hyperammonaemia 1 cardamom synthase 1 deficiency
hyperammonaemia 2 orbiting transcarbamoylase deficiency
82) Ammonia production in kidney : biological significance
83) Metabolism of carbon skeleton of amino acid. Glycogenic and ketogenic acid. Gluconeogenesis from amino
acid. Role in starvation, regulation
84) Essential and non-eseential amino acid. Biosynthesis of essential amino acids fr glucose.
85) Metabolism of serine and glycine. Role of H4-folate and its derivatives in amino acid and nucleotide
metabolism.
86) Metabolism of methionine : transmethlation reactions, biological role.Regeneration of methionine
87) Catabolism of tyrosine: main stage, end products. Alkaptonuria causes and manifestations.
88) ceratine synthesis and biological function
89) synthesis of catecholamines: role of vitamin b6 and methionine. Catabolism of catecholamines.
90) Synthesis of thyrosine. Phenylketonuria : causes, manifestations, diagnostics.
treatment restrictions of phenylalanine in diet and increase tyrosine contain diet
91) Dopamine: biosynthesis, biological, inactivation. Parkinson disease
92) Histamine : synthesis , biological role, inactivation
93) Purine nucleotide : synthesis,regulation of synthesis. Formation of 5-phosphoribosylamine. Origin of purine
nucleus atoms
94) Catabolism of purine nucleotides: reaction sequence,end products. Hyperurikemia: causes and
manifestations. Gout
95) Pyrimidine nucleotides: synthesis and its regulation. Orotic aciduria
96) Biosynthesis of dioxyribonucleotides : substrates. Biosynthesis of TMP : role of H4-folate. Inhibitors of TMP
synthesis as drugs.
97) Central regulation of endocrine system : role of liberins,statins and tropic hypophyseal hormones
98) Signal transduction by hormone, binding to intracellular receptor.
99) Signal transduction by hormone, binding to membrane receptor
100) Epinephrine: structure , mechanism of action, effect on metabolic processes in target tissues.
mechanism don't write inactivation . write signal transduction of glucagon
refer to 102
101) Glucagon : structure,synthesis,secretion,mechanism of signal transduction,effect on fuel metabolism in
target tissue
102) Insulin receptor. Effect of insulin on metabolism: transport of glucose across membrane,regulation of
enzyme activity and synthesis.
look at pic gallery. GLUT4
103) Insulin: structure,synthesis,secretion, effection on fuel metabolism in target cell.
104) Cortisol: structure,synthesis,regulation of cortisol secretion, effect on fuel metabolism in target tissue.
Cushing s syndrome.
105) Diabetes mellitus: metabolism change in DM.Causes,symptoms and late complications of DM. Insulin-
dependent and insulin-independent DM
106) Metabolism change in starvation. Role of hormone in maintenance of blood glucose level in starvation
107) Hormonal regulation of sodium and water balance. ADH structure, mechanism of signal transduction and
effect on target cell.
108) Aldosterone : structure,mechanism,signal transuction,effects on target cell. Hyperaldosteronism
109) Renin- angiotensin-aldosteron system.Biochemical mechanisms of renal hypertension
110) Tyroid hormone: structure,synthesis,biological effect. Feedback regulation of thyroid hormone secretion.
Hypo- and Hyperthyroidism causes and symptoms.
111) Function of calcium Hypo- and Hypercalsemia causes and symptoms
112) Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin: chemical nature, mechanism of action,effect on calcium and phosphate
metabolism.
113) Calcitriol : structure,synthesis, mechanism of action,effect on calcium and phosphate metabolism. Rickets
114) Heme degradation.Bilirubin.Type of jaundice.Diagnostic signifivance of bilirubin assays in biological fluids.
115) Heme and haemoglobin : synthesis,regulation. Porphyrias