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[170] Guo, Z., Zhu W., Performance Study of OFDMA vs.OFDMA/SDMA. Microsoft Research.

[171] Viswanath, P., Tse D. N. C., Laroia R., Opportunistic Beam-forming Using Dumb Antennas. IEEE Trans. on Information The-ory, June 2002; 48; 1277-1294.

[172] Aiello, R., Larsson T., Meacham D., Kim Y., Okado H., Multi-Band Performance Tradeoffs. IEEE P802.15-03/209r0, May,2003.

[173] Batra, A., Balakrishman J., Dabak A., Time-Frequency In-terleaved Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (TFI-OFDM). Physical Layer Submission to 802.15 Task Group 3a:IEEE P802.15-03/142r2, May, 2003.

[174] Rangan, S., Flash-OFDM: A New Wireless Technology forMobile Internet Access. http://www.flarion.com/.

[175] IEEE 802.16 and WiMAX-Broadband Wireless Access to Ev-eryone. Intel White Paper.

[176] Jonhston, D., Yaghoobi H., Peering Into the WiMAX Spec: Part1. http://www.commsdesign.com.

[177] Jonhston, D., Yaghoobi H., Peering Into the WiMAX Spec: Part2. http://www.commsdesign.com

[178] Saltzberg, B.R., Comparison of Single Carrier and Multi-tone Digital Modulation for ADSL Applications. IEEE Commun.Magazine; Nov 1998; 36; 11: 114-121.

[179] Wulich, D., Goldfeld L., Reduction of Peak Factor in Orthogo-nal Multicarrier Modulation by Amplitude Limiting and Coding.IEEE Trans. Commun.; Jan 1999; 47: 18-21.

[180] Kim, D., Stuber S.L., Clipping Noise Mitigation for OFDM byDecision-Aided Reconstruction. IEEE Commun. Let.; Jan 1999;3; 1:4-6.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 391

[181] Baum, R. W., Fischer R. F. H., Huber J. B., Reducing the Peak-to-Average Ratio of Multicarrier Modulation by Selective Map-ping. Electronic Letters; Oct 1996; 32: 2056-2057.

[182] Sandberg, S.D., Tzannes M.A., Overlapped Discrete MultitoneModulation for High Speed Copper Wire Communication. IEEEJ. on Sel. Areas in Commun.; Dec 1995; SAC-13; 9: 1571-1585.

[183] Hara, S., Prasad R., Overview of Multicarrier CDMA. IEEECommun. Magazine; Dec 1997; 35; 12: 126-133.

List of Figures

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

1.10

1.11

2.1

A basic PAM system

A basic QAM system

A QAM constellation

General form of QAM generation

The Collins Kineplex receiver

An early version of OFDM

OFDM modulation concept: Real and Imaginary com-ponents of an OFDM symbol is the superposition ofseveral harmonics modulated by data symbols

Spectrum overlap in OFDM

Spectrum of OFDM signal

Very basic OFDM system

A typical wireless OFDM architecture

Wireless propagation

2

4

5

6

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

16

394 LIST OF FIGURES

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

2.10

2.11

2.12

2.13

2.14

2.15

2.16

2.17

2.18

2.19

2.20

3.1

4.1

Received signal versus distance © [1]

Doppler effect

Fading illustration © [2]

A flat fading channel where is sampling frequency

Components of a multi-carrier system

A communication channel in information theoretic view

Constellation diagram

An FFT implementation (decimation in time)

System with complex transmission

System with real transmission

Two different techniques for FFT butterfly

Partial FFT (DIT)

Prefix and postfix cyclic extension

Pilot positioning in time and frequency

Typical impulse response of a wireless channel

Relationship between system functions

Relationship between correlation functions

OFDM time and frequency span

Time-varying channel

Optimum transmit power distribution by the water pour-ing theorem

Power amplifier 1 dB compression point

18

20

24

25

28

29

31

37

38

40

41

42

43

45

46

46

49

50

50

62

72

LIST OF FIGURES 395

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

4.10

4.11

4.12

4.13

4.14

4.15

4.16

4.17

5.1

Relationship between instantaneous and envelope clip-ping

Excursions of a Gaussian random process above

Normalized instantaneous distortion spectrum

Memoryless nonlinear mapping

Conditional probability of symbol error

Symbol error probabilities due to clipping

Symbol error probabilities using the additive Gaus-sian noise approach

Simulated and analytical symbol error probability floordue to clipping

Symbol error probability floor in a Rayleigh fadingchannel

Baseband equivalent system model for clipping at OFDMreceiver

BER in a Rayleigh fading channel, clip

BER in a Rayleigh fading channel, clip

BER for uncoded 16-QAM in a multipath fading chan-nel

BER for uncoded 64-QAM in a multipath fading chan-nel

Comparison of simulated and analytical symbol errorprobability floor for 64-tone OFDM signal in Rayleighfading

Wireless LAN adjacent channels

ACI caused by frequency offset

73

74

76

76

81

84

84

85

89

89

91

91

92

92

93

97

104

396 LIST OF FIGURES

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8

5.9

5.10

5.11

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.7

6.8

6.9

6.10

6.11

Synchronization sequence in OFDM

Frame synchronization

Timing offset estimate

Frequency offset estimation

A digital implementation of coarse frequency offsetestimation using maximum likelihood criteria

A typical oscillator phase noise power spectrum

Classical phase-locked loop

A second order digital phase-locked loop

Typical spectrum of a phase-locked oscillator

Inter-carrier interference noise

Observation of the distortion by channel [87]

Pilot positioning in time and frequency

Baseband OFDM system

Pilot arrangement

Time domain interpolation

LMS scheme

16QAM modulation with Rayleigh fading (DopplerFreq. 70Hz)

16QAM modulation with Rayleigh fading (SNR 40dB)

MIMO-OFDM architecture

General decision feedback equalizer

Equalizer configuration in training mode

105

106

106

108

109

110

111

112

113

116

118

119

120

123

129

132

133

134

135

139

143

LIST OF FIGURES 397

6.12

6.13

6.14

6.15

6.16

6.17

6.18

6.19

6.20

6.21

6.22

6.23

7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

7.5

7.6

7.7

Equalization using order update

An OFDM system with frequency domain equaliza-tion

LMS adaptation of a frequency domain equalizer mul-tiplier

Time and frequency domain equalization

An example system illustrating echo cancellation re-quirement

A basic echo canceller

Frequency domain echo cancellation

Combination echo cancellation for symmetric trans-mission

Echo cancellation where the transmit rate is lower thanreceive rate

Echo cancellation where the receive rate is lower thantransmit rate

Geometric interpretation of linear predictors

Lattice filter representation of predictors

Two-dimensional coding for OFDM

Construction of a canonical block code

Performance with block coding over a Gaussian channel

Implementation of periodic interleaving

CRC implementation

Generation of a convolutional code

State diagram of a convolutional code

148

149

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

162

163

168

169

170

172

173

174

175

398 LIST OF FIGURES

7.8

7.9

7.10

7.11

7.12

7.13

7.14

7.15

7.16

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

8.6

9.1

9.2

9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7

Viterbi algorithm applied to a simple convolutional code

Performance of a convolutional code over a Rayleighfading channel

Concatenated coding with interleaving

An expanded constellation partitioned for Trellis coding

Implementation of a Trellis code

State diagram of the Trellis code

Metrics used for Viterbi decoding

A typical turbo encoder

A turbo decoder structure

Attenuation constant of 24-gauge (0.5 mm) wire-pair

A bridged tap and its echoes

Crosstalk mechanism

Capacitive crosstalk mechanism

Inductive crosstalk mechanism

Near-end crosstalk generation

Comparison of WLAN standards [124]

IEEE 802.11 networks

Relationship between IEEE 802.11 services © [108]

IEEE 802.11 architecture © IEEE

The hidden node problem

RTS and CTS solution

Exposed terminal

176

179

180

182

182

183

184

186

188

193

193

194

195

196

198

205

207

213

214

215

216

217

LIST OF FIGURES 399

9.8

9.9

9.10

9.11

9.12

9.13

9.14

9.15

9.16

9.17

9.18

9.19

9.20

9.21

9.22

9.23

9.24

9.25

9.26

9.27

9.28

MAC frame

NAV Sub-module finite state machine

DCF finite state machine

Idle sub-module finite state machine

Backoff sub-module finite state machine

Frame sequence and retry sub-module finite state ma-chine

Timing of the 802.11 DCF: Note that station 6 cannothear station 2 but station 1

Time realization of DCF

Markov Chain model for the IEEE 802.11 DCF Modelin normal operating condition

and values versus

Throughput versus number of active nodes

Throughput versus number of active nodes for fixedusers and fixed total load

Macro states in PCF

Timing diagram for PCF

Contention free period determination

Access point CFP finite state machine

Station CFP finite state machine

Frequency hopping

Transmit and Receive FHSS © IEEE

Transmit and Receive DSSS © IEEE

Wireless LAN system architecture

218

221

222

223

224

225

225

227

228

231

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

246

247

251

256

400 LIST OF FIGURES

9.29

9.30

9.31

9.32

9.33

9.34

9.35

9.36

9.37

9.38

9.39

9.40

9.41

9.42

9.43

9.44

9.45

9.46

9.47

9.48

Logical block diagram of OFDM architecture

Scrambler/Descrambler

Convolutional encoder (k=7) © IEEE

Transmitter spectrum mask

OFDM subcarrier allocation

Nonlinear HPA model

Format of an OFDM frame © IEEE

Logical representation of an OFDM frame © IEEE

Format of an OFDM frame © IEEE

IEEE 802.11a PLCP/PMD transmitter state machine

Channel impulse response for typical wireless LANmedium

IEEE 802.11a PLCP/PMD receiver state machine

Frame synchronization and AGC

Channel estimation block

Simplified schematic of the IEEE 802.11a simulationmodel for the transmitter [132]

An example of power spectrum

An example of FIR filter where the required SIR atthe receiver is 30dB

Bit error rate of IEEE 802.11a in Rayleigh Channel

Bit error rate comparison of modulation schemes inAWGN

Phase noise (65dB of 10KHz)

256

257

258

261

261

262

264

265

265

267

268

270

272

273

275

276

277

277

278

279

LIST OF FIGURES 401

9.49

9.50

9.51

9.52

9.53

9.54

9.55

9.56

9.57

9.58

9.59

9.60

9.61

9.62

9.63

9.64

9.65

9.66

9.67

Channel estimation compared to Perfect Channel Knowl-edge (PCK)

An example of constellation diagram with IQ imbalance

IQ imbalance when there is no coding and no perfectchannel knowledge

IQ imbalance when there is coding and perfect chan-nel knowledge

Impact of clipping threshold on performance

Quantization performance in AWGN

Quantization effect in QPSK (AWGN)

Quantization effect in 16QAM (AWGN)

Nonlinear distortion in IEEE 802.11a

Hard or Soft decision coding

Co-channel interference

UWB interference

Impairments in 64QAM when there is no coding, andperfect channel knowledge

Impairments in 64QAM when there is coding and per-fect channel knowledge

Impairments in 64QAM when there is no coding andsoft decision decoding

MAC frame format © IEEE

MAC architecture © IEEE

EDCA mechanism

Reference implementation model © IEEE

280

281

282

282

283

284

284

285

286

287

287

288

290

290

291

295

296

297

298

402 LIST OF FIGURES

9.68

9.69

9.70

9.71

10.1

10.2

10.3

10.4

10.5

11.1

11.2

11.3

11.4

11.5

11.6

11.7

11.8

11.9

11.10A SDMA system

12.1

12.2

CAP/CFP/CP periods © IEEE

Direct Link handshake © IEEE

HIPERLAN/2 MAC protocol stack © ETSI-BRAN

Mapping between logical channels and transport chan-nels © ETSI-BRAN

Received signal in an SFN

Block diagram of a DAB transmitter

DAB frame structure

DVB transmitter structure

DVB receiver architecture

FDMA, TDMA and CDMA schemes

OFDM-CDMA system with frequency spreading

OFDM-CDMA system with time spreading

Discrete time MC-SS RAKE in frequency domain

Simplified RAKE receiver

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access System338

An example of channel gain

Flash-OFDM tone allocation

Flash-OFDM session control

UWB spectrum

UWB performance

300

302

304

307

318

320

322

326

326

328

333

334

335

335

339

344

345

346

349

350

LIST OF FIGURES 403

12.3

12.4

12.5

13.1

13.2

14.1

14.2

14.3

Impulse radio receiver

An example of time-frequency interleaving for the multiband OFDM in three band. © IEEE

Example transmitter architecture for the proposed UWBPHY © IEEE

Global wireless standards

WirelessMAN OFDM transmitter © IEEE

DWMT transmitter

DWMT receiver

IF sampling and digital radio down conversion

351

353

354

358

359

368

369

370

List of Tables

6.1

9.1

9.2

9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7

11.1

13.1

13.2

Simulation parameters for channel estimation

Comparison of LANs

FCC rules for IEEE 802.11 FHSS

FCC rules for IEEE 802.11 DSSS

IEEE 802.11a OFDM PHY characteristics

Eight PHY Modes of the IEEE 802.11a

Key parameters of the IEEE 802.11a

Priority access category mappings for IEEE 802.11e

Flash-OFDM parameters

OFDM symbol parameters for WirelessMAN OFDM

Data rates achieved in 802.16 with a 1/32 guard time(Mbps)

131

206

248

250

255

259

263

294

344

360

360

406 LIST OF TABLES

14.1 Relative advantages of single carrier and multi-carriermodulation. An denotes the system with betterperformance or lower cost. 364

Index

A

B

C

ACK, 215, 223, 226Adaptive, 2, 138, 186, 201, 245,

254, 291, 329ADSL(Asymmetric Digital Sub-

scriber Line), 13, 79, 148,189, 191, 200–202, 363,365

Aliasing, 39, 44, 94Alphabet, 2, 28, 171AODV, 208ARF (AutoRate Fallback), 291ARMA model, 142, 145, 146,

151, 160, 163, 164Association, 212ATIM, 242Authentication, 243Auto-correlation, 55, 141, 145,

332

Bandwidth regrowth, 94, 262Bit Allocation, 37, 201Bluetooth, 219, 253Bridged tap, 192

BSS, 209, 212IBSS, 206, 207, 240–242, 293Infrastructure BSS, 217, 241

Bussgang’s theorem, 77

CDMA (Code Division Multi-ple Access), 328, 331,334

CDMA2000, 331cdmaOne, 331

Channel estimation, 33, 117–120,122, 124–127, 130, 132–135, 273

Clipping, xvi, 69, 70, 72, 75,77, 78, 80, 82, 86, 88,90, 93, 94, 96, 262, 275,276, 289, 365

Codingblock, 168, 172, 179concatenated, 29, 168, 179,

324convolutional, 29, 168, 173,174, 178–181, 183, 185, 258,313

408 INDEX

Reed-Solomon, 171, 179, 180,201, 202, 370turbo, 29, 168, 185, 187

Coherence bandwidth, 19, 49Coherence distance, 21Coherence time, 21, 49Conjugate appending, 201CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check),

172, 173, 201, 202, 250Crosstalk, 167, 194, 197, 199CSMA/CA, 204, 242, 248Cyclic extension, 44, 45, 103,

156

DDAB (Digital Audio Broadcast),

33, 317, 320, 323, 324DCF, 217, 220, 227, 299DFE (Decision Feedback Equal-

ization), 64, 65, 138, 143DIF (Decimation in frequency),

42Distribution system, 303DIT (Decimation in time), 42DMT (Discrete Multi-Tone), 12,

13, 143, 151, 190, 367Doppler, 19, 21, 23, 119, 121,

133, 134, 280, 323DSDV, 207DSR, 208DSSS, 245, 250, 251, 253

HR/DSSS, 252

EEAP, 243, 244

Echo, 138, 153–155, 325Echo cancellation, 153, 156, 201Entropy, 28Equalization, xvi, 7, 48, 117, 137,

138, 142, 149, 151, 154,273, 324, 365, 369

Error probability, 58, 60, 61, 63,66, 78, 87, 90, 97, 167,170, 181, 184, 365

ESSID, 208

FFDMA (Frequency Division Mul-

tiple Access), 329, 330FFT (Fast Fourier Transform),

12, 37, 41, 44, 104, 152,255, 337, 338, 348, 352,353, 365

butterfly, 255, 274, 370partial, 41, 42, 44

FHSS, 245, 248, 249, 251Flash-OFDM, 343Fragmentation, 219Frame synchronization, 272Frequency offset, 44, 99, 102–

104, 108, 269, 280Frequency selective fading, 22,

120, 249, 331

GGap, 64Gating, 7, 52Gram-Schmidt, 161Gray coding, 57, 86GSM, 330

INDEX 409

Guard interval, 44, 262, 304, 318,319, 354

HHard or Soft Decision Decod-

ing, 279, 286HIPERLAN

HIPERLAN/1, 204, 302HIPERLAN/2, 204, 303, 309,311

IICI (Inter Carrier Interference),

102, 121, 134, 278IEEE, 203, 328

802.11, 203, 204, 206, 208,211, 212, 215, 241, 244, 328

DIFS, 220, 222, 229EIFS, 220, 223PIFS, 220, 235SIFS, 219, 224, 226, 235,299

802.11a, 253, 254, 258, 260,272, 276, 286, 303, 310, 311802.11b, 204, 245, 252, 253,312, 313802.11c, 312802.11d, 313802.11e, 204, 293, 294, 301,316

AIFS, 295, 297EDCA, 293, 295, 296TXOP, 295, 296, 299

802.11f, 313802.11g, 313

802.11h, 314802.11i, 244, 315802.16, 336, 357, 359802.1x, 243, 244, 315, 316

IFFT, 154, 260, 274, 275Interference, 7, 18, 44, 288, 289,

312, 314, 319, 323, 325,367

inter-carrier, 100inter-channel, 102, 104, 137,367, 368inter-symbol, 2, 3, 7, 44, 99,102, 121, 137, 139, 142, 155,254, 319, 336, 367, 368Narrow-band, 275, 288, 354,367, 369RF, 253

Interleaving, 13, 172, 178, 185,187, 259, 321, 354

IPv4, 210IPv6, 211IR, 252ISI (Inter Symbol Interference),

22, 88, 122, 137, 138,262, 329, 337

JJitter, 99, 102, 115, 255

KKineplex, 7

MMarkov Model, 227Matched filter, 47, 108, 142, 254Mesh network, 357

410 INDEX

MIMO, 134MMAC, 204, 312Mobile IP, 210, 211Multiband OFDM, 354

NNAV, 221, 226, 237Noise, 70, 85, 99, 109, 112, 121,

139Phase, 108, 111, 114, 115, 275

Nyquist criterion, 2, 9, 27, 82

OOFDM, xv, xvii, 7, 10, 11, 13,

14, 30, 33, 35, 44, 51,59, 60, 69, 86, 94, 100,115, 117, 328, 332, 352

MIMO-OFDM, 119, 134, 135OFDM-CDMA, 332OFDM-FDMA, 329OFDM-SDMA, 346, 348OFDM-TDMA, 330OFDMA, 336, 337, 348TFI-OFDM, 353, 354

Open system authentication, 212

PPAM, 1, 3, 4, 56PCF, 217, 237Peak-to-average ratio, 71, 94, 262,

365, 366, 370Phase-locked loop, 110, 112Pilot arrangement, block-type,

122, 124, 133Pilot arrangement, comb-type,

126

Point-to-multipoint (PMP), 342,357

Point-to-point (P2P), 359Power amplifiers, 71, 371Power management, 241, 242Puncturing, 174, 259, 304, 311,

321

QQAM, 4, 9, 32, 56, 59, 69, 181

16QAM, 133, 285QoS, 293, 299, 303QSTA, 295, 299

RRAKE, 332, 334, 351, 352Rate Adaptation, 291Rayleigh fading, 23, 35, 80, 96,

133, 318Ricean fading, 25Roll-off, 3, 101, 103RTS/CTS, 215, 216, 233

SScattering function, 16, 49Security, 206, 244, 315SFN (Single Frequency Network),

13, 318, 325Shadowing, 17, 269, 318Shaping gain, 59Shared key authentication, 212SSID, 240SSR, 208Synchronization, xvii, 90, 99,

104, 107, 186, 239, 269,321, 325, 331

INDEX 411

TTDMA, 328, 330Throughput, 209, 231, 249, 330Time-varying channels, 35, 48,

49, 51TORA, 208

UUWB, 288, 289, 349, 350

Impulse radio, 289, 350, 351

VViterbi algorithm, 175, 176, 178,

183, 258, 370

WWater pouring, 61Weiner, 112WEP, 243, 315WiMAX, 358, 362Windowing, 44, 103, 367Wire-Pair channel, xvii, 60, 152,

190–192, 199, 200WLAN (Wireless Local Area Net-

work), 203, 210, 253,293

WPAN, 355WRP, 207WTRP (Wireless Token Ring Pro-

tocol), 328

ZZIF (Zero IF technology), 292