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242 Bibliography

Abramovitz, M. 134acquisitions 42–3adaptive needs 55advantages of backwardness thesis

142, 148advertising expenditures 105, 122,

192, 193, 195, 197, 198, 222, 223Africa 5, 21, 24, 25, 26, 134after-sales service 66agglomeration 107Aitken, B. 115, 116, 125–6, 127–8,

135, 160, 178, 179, 187, 198allocative efficiency 110, 120Andersson, T. 130apparel industry 139, 140, 141, 144,

146, 147, 153, 156, 158, 159Argentina 24, 115, 124, 182Asia 24, 82, 97

exports 83–91 passim, 93–6modes of international

investment 26spillovers 108technology inflows policies 203see also East Asia; South Asia;

South-East AsiaAsian newly industrializing

economies 5, 21, 134Astra 20Australia 115, 124, 135, 160, 177,

187, 206

backward linkages 113–15, 116,126

balance of payments 71, 73, 78Balassa, B. 72Bardhan, P. 161, 203barriers to entry 124Beamish, P. W. 33

Behrman, J. 50, 114Bergsman, J. 120Berry, C. H. 44Bhagwati, J. 203bilateral trade 67Blomström, M. 5, 38, 68, 177, 179,

221, 228modes of international

investment 15, 21, 25productivity convergence in

Mexico 134, 135, 136, 159productivity spillovers and

competition 187, 188, 189, 190,191–2, 198

spillovers 116, 120, 122, 124, 125,129–30

structural adjustment in LatinAmerica 84, 86, 90, 91, 92,93–4, 96

technology inflows policies 204–5, 209, 216

technology, market characteristicsand spillovers 160, 161, 162,163, 165–6, 169, 170

blue-collar/white-collar division163, 222

brain-drain 117Brander, J. A. 189Brash, D. T. 115Braunerhjelm, P. 128Brazil 24, 26, 182

electrical equipment industry122

exports 83, 84, 86, 88, 91pharmaceutical industry 122textile industry 119–20

Buckley, P. 3, 64, 66, 69, 70, 73,104

Index

243

244 Index

Canada 67, 121, 124, 135, 177, 179productivity spillovers and

competition 187technology inflows policies 206technology, market characteristics

and spillovers 160Cantwell, J. 104, 126, 128, 150, 160,

162, 178, 179, 182, 190capacity utilization 39, 120, 180,

182, 183capital equipment 206, 207, 208,

214–16, 217capital formation 211capital goods 227capital intensity

Mexico 137–8, 139, 224productivity spillovers and

competition 191, 192, 193, 195,196, 197, 199

spillovers 122Sweden 65, 70, 73technology inflows policies 212,

213technology, market characteristics

and spillovers 163, 164, 165,168, 170

Uruguay 180, 182, 183capital requirements 105, 122, 227,

229capital stocks 178, 180, 222Casson, M. 3, 64, 65, 66, 69, 70, 73,

104catch-up 147, 148, 149Caves, R. E. 2, 16, 135, 160, 163,

177, 187, 198, 204entry strategies 43, 47joint ventures 30, 32research and development in

Sweden 49–50, 54, 56spillovers 106, 110, 117, 121, 124

centres of excellence 128Chang, S. J. 128chemicals industry 23, 162, 182,

207Latin America 92, 93, 94, 95, 96Mexico 139, 140, 141, 144, 146,

147, 156, 158, 159Chen, E. K. Y. 117–18, 123

Cheng, L. 189Chesnais, F. 182Chile 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91Chow, G. C./Chow test 77, 78, 165,

168Civan, E. 72Coase, R. H. 2Colombia 24, 26, 187

exports 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91competence 39, 127, 130competition 10

Mexico 136spillovers 101–3, 105–6, 111–12,

118–24, 126–7, 130technology inflows policies 204,

205, 209–11, 213, 216, 217technology, market characteristics

and spillovers 160, 162, 169,170, 171

Uruguay 178see also productivity spillovers

from competition between localfirms and foreign affiliates

competition, labour skills andtechnology transfer 221–31

consumer goods 227, 228contagion effects 105, 187, 188, 193convergence 161Corden, W. M. 110country determinants 22–7Culem, C. 72cultural distance 24

dairy industry 182Davidson, W. H. 18, 32debt crisis 8–9demonstration effects 110, 112,

118–21, 187, 188developed countries 6, 38, 47

intra-firm trade in Sweden 64,72, 74, 75, 77, 78

modes of internationalinvestment 20, 24, 26, 27

spillovers 122, 124technology inflows policies 206,

207–8, 209, 213developing countries 6

intra-firm trade in Sweden 72, 75

Index 245

joint ventures 31, 38, 39modes of international

investment 19, 24, 26, 27productivity convergence in

Mexico 136, 137spillovers 115, 117, 124technology inflows policies 206,

207–8, 209, 213, 214see also less developed countries

development 60, 209differentiated products 179diffusion 111diversification 44, 45, 47dual markets 171Dunning, J. H. 4, 66–7, 121durables 227

East Asia 109economic development 6, 72, 209economies of scale

productivity spillovers andcompetition 187, 195, 197

spillovers 102, 105, 107, 109, 122,123

Sweden 50, 54–5, 56, 72technology, market characteristics

and spillovers 163, 171–2Uruguay 179, 181

education 160, 204–5, 211–17, 227see also learning

efficiency 113, 121, 122, 123, 124,190, 191

allocative 110, 120see also X-efficiency

Ekholm, K. 128elasticity of demand 43electrical industry 22–3, 161, 207

Latin America 92, 93, 94, 95, 96Mexico 139, 140, 141, 144, 146,

147, 157, 158, 159electricity consumption 180Electrolux 20employment 25, 162, 163, 191, 192,

222see also labour

enclaves 169, 170, 171, 172, 179,184, 194, 195, 198, 199

endogeneity test 194–5

entry strategies 42–8data and model 43–5empirical analysis 45–7new venture or acquisition 42–3

equipment 205, 206, 214, 216, 217,223

electrical 139, 140, 141, 144, 146,147, 157

equity 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27joint ventures 30, 32, 33, 34

Ericsson 20Europe 25, 178, 206

spillovers 114, 117, 119, 126technology, market characteristics

and spillovers 160, 162see also Western Europe

European Economic Community24, 26

European Free Trade Area 24, 26Evans, P. B. 120, 122exchange rates 63, 71experience 26, 35, 44, 47, 54, 58export 81, 85, 129

complementary 67Latin America 83–4orientation 38, 123, 128performance 53, 81–5, 92–5productivity spillovers and

competition 189propensities 82, 85–92spillovers 109substitute 67Sweden 69

external effects see spilloversexternalities 101–2, 107

factor intensities 181Fagre, N. 31Fairchild, L. 118Far East 114Findlay, R. 161, 165, 188finished goods 69Finland 23, 69firm determinants 22–7firm size 35, 67, 116, 123Fischer, W. 50Fischwick, F. 121fixed costs 108

246 Index

food industry 23, 207Latin America 92, 93, 94, 95,

96Mexico 140, 141, 144, 146, 147,

152–3, 156, 158, 159Uruguay 178

foreign affiliates 162, 164, 165, 166,168, 192

Mexico 222, 226, 227productivity spillovers and

competition 191, 192, 194, 195,196, 197, 198

technology, market characteristicsand spillovers 170

Uruguay 181, 182, 183, 185see also majority-owned foreign

affiliates; productivity spilloversfrom competition between localfirms and foreign affiliates

foreign market shares 171–2forward linkages 115–16, 126fragmented markets 209France 121, 125, 178franchising 31, 136free trade 123Frischtak, C. R. 124furniture industry 139, 140, 141,

144, 146, 147, 156, 158

General Motors 114, 115geographical dispersion 24–5, 126,

162Germany 121, 125, 128, 134, 178Geroski, P. A./test 194, 195, 197Gerschenberg, I. 117Ghana 120Globerman, S. 135, 160, 163, 170,

177, 179, 187, 198, 204spillovers 121, 124, 128

Goldsbrough, D. J. 67government policies 229government regulations 27Great Britain 119, 125, 134, 178greenfield see new venturesgross domestic product 33, 35, 55,

60, 68gross national product 19, 33, 45,

60, 72growth 43, 44–5, 46, 47, 53

Haddad, M. 125, 135, 160, 161, 178,179, 187, 198

Håkansson, L. 49Harrison, A. 115, 116, 125–6, 135,

160, 161, 178, 179, 187, 198Havrylyshyn, O. 72Helleiner, G. K. 63, 65, 67, 73Herfindahl index 35, 44, 164, 192Heston, A. 211Hirschey, R. 49–50, 54, 56Hjalmarsson, L. 123Hodson, C. 128Hone, A. 109Hong Kong 24, 89, 90, 91, 117–18,

123horizontal foreign direct investment

2Horstmann, I. 189human capital 19, 118, 206, 214Hymer, S. H. 2, 5

IKEA 109imports

intensity 53restrictions 68spillovers 123substitution 76, 124Sweden 64–8, 69, 71, 73, 75, 77–8

India 21, 24, 25, 26, 90, 91, 114,123

indirect effects 109, 145see also spillovers

industrial pattern 110industrial secrets, protection of 50industry

characteristics 52concentration 163; productivity

spillovers and competition192, 193, 195; spillovers 122,124; technology, marketcharacteristics and spillovers163, 164, 169

determinants 22–7distribution 209localization 213specific factors 50structure 121–4

infrastructure 209innovation 104–5

Index 247

instruments industry 139, 140,141, 144, 146, 147, 157, 158,161–2

intangible assets 16, 17, 18, 23, 32,35, 136

intermediate goods 129, 130, 227,228

internalization theory 2, 3, 4, 65,66, 69, 70, 73, 78

international division of labour131

internationalization 66intra-firm trade 8intra-firm trade in Sweden 63–80

and affiliate imports 64–8empirical results 72–7hypotheses and explanatory

variables 68–72Ireland 114iron and steel industry 68Italy 121ITT 114

Japan 114, 117, 125, 128, 134, 178,206

Jenkins, R. 119Jensen, R. 189joint ventures 6, 16, 17, 30–41

data and statistical model 33–5empirical results 36–9exports 85, 91modes of international

investment 18, 23, 25, 27,28

spillovers 109theoretical framework 31–3

Kamien, M. I. 52, 56, 123Katz, J. M. 115, 117, 123, 124, 126Keesing, D. B. 108Kenya 117, 119Kindleberger, C. P. 2Knickerbocker, F. T. 121knowledge 26, 31, 32, 50, 128, 135Kogut, B. 128Koizumi, T. 188Kokko, A. 21, 128, 129–30, 135,

137, 150, 160, 182, 204Kopecky, K. J. 188

labour mobility 108labour productivity 140, 142, 143,

166–7, 197Mexico 137–8, 145, 148, 150spillovers and competition 190,

191, 193, 194, 196technology, market characteristics

and spillovers 163, 164, 165,168, 169

Uruguay 180, 181, 183, 184labour quality 163

productivity spillovers andcompetition 192, 193, 195,196

technology inflows policies 214technology, market characteristics

and spillovers 164, 165, 166,168–9

Uruguay 180, 182, 183labour skills 211, 216

see also competition, labour skillsand technology transfer

labour training 112, 116–18, 129,136, 205, 214

Lake, A. W. 119Lall, S. 42, 49, 50, 108, 113–14, 120,

122, 123, 137intra-firm trade in Sweden 63,

64, 65, 66, 70Langdon, S. 119Lapan, H. 161Latin America 5, 8–9, 76

exports 83modes of international

investment 21, 24, 25, 26productivity spillovers and

competition 188spillovers 114, 117, 118, 123, 129technology inflows policies 210see also structural adjustment in

Latin AmericaLavergne, R. 65, 67leakage risks 51learning capability 205, 209–11,

214, 216learning-by-doing 18, 23, 32leather industry 139, 140, 141, 144,

146, 147, 154, 157, 158, 159, 182Lecraw, D. J. 31

248 Index

Leibenstein, H. 120less developed countries 7, 23, 85,

161intra-firm trade in Sweden 64,

65, 67, 68, 71–2, 74, 76, 77, 78spillovers 120, 122

licence fees 16, 28, 31, 136, 192,195, 206–9, 216–17

Mexico 222technology inflows policies 211–

14linkages

backward 113–15, 116, 126forced 115forward 115–16, 126

Lipsey, R. E. 22, 36, 68structural adjustment in Latin

America 83, 84, 86, 90, 91, 92,93–4, 96

local content regulations 116, 204local firms see productivity

spillovers from competitionbetween local firms and foreignaffiliates

localization 4lumber and wood industry 139,

140, 141, 144, 146, 147, 156, 158,159

Lundberg, L. 72

McAleese, D. 114, 115–16McDonald, D. 114, 115–16MacDougall, G. D. A. 4, 110machinery, electrical 22–3, 92, 93,

94, 95, 96machinery industry 23, 58, 161,

205, 206, 207, 208, 214, 216, 217Mexico 158, 159, 223

McManus, J. C. 2–3Maddala, G. 193Maddison, A. 144, 159majority-owned foreign affiliates 7,

21–2, 44, 206joint ventures 34, 35, 36, 37, 38modes of international

investment 16research and development in

Sweden 52Sweden 66, 67, 69, 78

Malaysia 24, 26, 90, 91, 122management 120

capacity 69contracts 31, 136Mexico 136personnel 180resources 75skills 31, 117, 118

Mansfield, E. 49, 51, 119, 204marginal costs 109, 205market

characteristics see technology,market characteristics andspillovers in Mexico

concentration 43contracts 31, 136forces 216imperfections 64–5practices 122shares 198, 222, 224–5skills 31structure 5, 112, 123see also market access; market

sizemarket access spillovers 102, 108–

10, 111, 114, 119, 127, 128–9market size 6, 18, 52, 53, 58, 116,

126entry strategies 43, 45, 47joint ventures 33, 35, 36, 37, 39Sweden 60Uruguay 182, 183

Markusen, J. 189Mehra, S. 42, 43, 47metals industry 178, 207

Latin America 92, 93, 94, 95, 96Mexico 139, 140, 141, 144, 146,

147, 154, 157, 158, 159Mexico 201–2

competition, labour skills andtechnology transfer 221

exports 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90,91

modes of internationalinvestment 24, 26

productivity growth 10productivity spillovers and

competition 187, 190, 191, 194,196, 198

Index 249

spillovers 122, 124–5, 126, 127technological capability and

productivity spillovers inUruguay 177–8, 179

technology, market characteristicsand spillovers 160, 161, 162,171

see also competition, labour skillsand technology transfer;productivity convergence;technology, marketcharacteristics and spillovers

minority-ownership 16, 21–2, 34,35, 36, 39

modes of international investment15–29

analytical framework 16–19industry, firm and country

determinants 22–7majority-ownership and minority-

ownership 21–2Sweden 19–21

monopoliesproductivity spillovers and

competition 193, 195, 197spillovers 105, 111, 123technology, market characteristics

and spillovers 164, 171Uruguay 181

Morocco 125, 135, 160, 161, 178,187

multinationality 70, 73, 75, 77

Nadiri, M. I. 125, 178Nash equilibrium 189national origin 39Netherlands 129, 134new ventures 42–3New Zealand 206Newfarmer, R. S. 122, 124non-electrical equipment 92–4, 96,

139–41, 144, 146–7non-equity 17, 33North America 24, 26

see also Canada; United States

oligopolies 122, 123, 130, 193optimum tariff policy 110

Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development67, 210

output 43, 161Latin America 82Mexico 137, 148, 222, 224

ownership 4, 6, 31see also majority-ownership;

minority-ownership

Pack, H. 120packaging 109Page, J. M. 120Pagoulatos, E. 72paper and pulp industry 22, 68,

139, 140, 141, 144, 146, 147, 156,158

parent companies 53–4patent fees 128, 163, 164, 168, 180,

192, 195, 210Mexico 22, 223, 225, 226, 228

Pearce, R. D. 66–7performance requirements 205,

209, 210, 214, 217, 221Persson, H. 124, 160, 162, 163,

165–6, 170, 177, 179, 187, 191–2,198

Peru 24petroleum and coal industry 139,

140, 141, 144, 146, 147, 154, 156,158

Pfizer 114Philippines 24, 86, 115policy concessions 122political instability 209Porter, M. E. 123Portugal 69positive externalities 188predatory conduct 122price 115

controls 71elasticities 63see also transfer price

printing and publishing industry139, 140, 141, 144, 146, 147, 156,158

private ownership 162, 164, 165,166–7, 192

Mexico 138

250 Index

private ownership cont.productivity spillovers and

competition 191, 194, 196, 197,198

Uruguay 181, 184, 185product

characteristics 115, 227development 130differentiation 26–7, 35, 105line 47quality 109

production conditions 32–3, 50, 66productivity 10, 113, 160productivity convergence in Mexico

134–59aggregate trends 137–41, 142–5regression analysis 141–2, 145–8technology transfer 135–7

productivity gap 161, 170, 171, 172,180

productivity growth 10productivity level 135productivity spillovers 101–2, 110–

12, 114, 119–20, 127–30, 148and competition 190, 191definition 103–6in home countries 106–8see also technological capability

and productivity spillovers inUruguay

productivity spillovers fromcompetition between localfirms and foreign affiliates187–202

data, model and method 191–3empirical results 194–8;

endogeneity test 194–5;regression results 195–8

endogenous spillovers intheoretical models 188–91

profit 71, 130, 204proprietary technology 180, 182,

183

quality standards 136

Raizada, R. 130regression analysis 66remissions restrictions 71

research and development 2, 7–8,15, 23

adaptive 58, 60expenditure 59, 69, 77innovative 58, 60intensity 59, 67, 69joint ventures 35productivity spillovers and

competition 189sales ratio 68spillovers 102, 107, 108, 116, 118,

123, 129, 130technology inflows policies 204,

210see also research and

development in Swedenresearch and development in

Sweden 49–62, 66, 73data, estimation method and

model 51–2factors related to parent

companies 53–4factors related to subsidiaries

52–3factors specific to industry 54–5host country characteristics 55statistical results 56–9theoretical framework 49–51

research intensity 26resource allocation 120, 121, 123resource endowments 68Reuber, G. L. 38, 114, 115Riedel, J. 118risk aversion 18, 33rivalry 221Romeo, A. 119, 204Romer, P. 130Ronstadt, R. 50, 51, 53Rosenberg, N. 106royalty payments 180, 192, 206,

207, 209, 211–14, 216, 217rubber and plastics industry 139,

140, 141, 144, 146, 147, 154, 157,158, 159

Scandinavia 123Scania 20Schumpeterian dilemma 123Schwartz, N. L. 52, 56, 123

Index 251

second-best policy 199semi-processed materials 69semiconductor industry 119Singapore 24, 89, 90, 91SKF 20skills 50, 110, 129

competition, labour skills andtechnology transfer 221

human capital 118intensity 67productivity spillovers and

competition 192spillovers 107, 116

slaughtering industry 182Sleuwaegen, L. 66, 76soft budget constraints 162, 191Sölvell, Ö. 123Sorensen, R. 72Sosin, K. 118South Africa 206South Asia 210South Korea 90, 91South-East Asia 92, 210Spencer, B. J. 189spillovers 5, 10, 101–33

diffusion 32endogenous 188–91, 198home countries, effects on

128–30host countries, effects on 113–

28; backward linkages 113–15;demonstration effects and competition effects 118–21;forward linkages 115–16;industry structure 121–4;linkages between MNCs andlocal firms 113; statisticaltesting 124–8; training16–18

identification 110–12productivity convergence in

Mexico 135, 136, 142significance 177size 177technology 135see also market access spillovers;

productivity spilloversstate-ownership 137, 138, 162, 164,

191, 192, 222

stone, clay and glass industry 139,140, 141, 144, 146, 147, 154, 157,158, 159

Stopford, J. M. 31, 33structural adjustment 8structural adjustment in Latin

America 81–97export performance 82–4export performance by industry

group 92–5export performance and United

States 84–5export propensities 87–92export propensities and United

States 85–7structural effects 107, 129, 130structure–conduct–performance

paradigm 1subsidiaries 52–3subsidiary production 16, 17, 31Summers, R. 211Swan, P. L. 118–19Sweden 6, 7–8

entry strategies 42, 43–4, 45, 46,47

joint ventures 31, 33, 35, 36, 38,39

modes of internationalinvestment 16, 18, 19–21

spillovers 123, 128, 129, 130technology inflows policies 208see also intra-firm trade in

Sweden; research anddevelopment in Sweden

Swedenborg, B. 18–20, 27, 33, 35,44, 54, 67–8, 69

Switzerland 129, 134

Taiwan 90, 91tariffs 71taxation 71, 182technical

assistance 222, 223, 226, 228documentation 205efficiency 110personnel exchanges 205progress 123service contracts 136skills 117, 206

252 Index

technology/technological 31, 32advanced 105, 179, 192, 195, 229capability 49, 116capability and productivity

spillovers in Uruguay 177–86;data and variables 180–2;regression results 182–4

development 75diffusion 112, 145, 150flows 128gap 10; Mexico 137, 143;

productivity spillovers andcompetition 189, 190;technology inflows policies204, 211; technology, marketcharacteristics and spillovers165, 169, 171; Uruguay 181,182, 183, 185

imports 11, 211inflows policies 203–20; capital

equipment imports 214–16;dependent variables 205–9;explanatory variables 209–11;royalty payments and licencefees 211–14

inputs 193intensity 69, 107joint ventures 30expertise 64market characteristics and

spillovers in Mexico 160–76;data and variables 162–5;industry characteristics, impactof 166–71; regression results165–6

Mexico 142payments 164, 198, 214, 222, 224proprietary 180, 182, 183spillovers 10, 101, 103–4, 105,

111, 119, 122, 145Sweden 53–4, 76–7transfer 6, 11, 15, 102; intra-firm

trade in Sweden 68, 69; jointventures 32, 33, 39; Mexico134, 135–7; modes ofinternational investment 16,18, 27; parent-affiliate 205–9;productivity spillovers andcompetition 188, 189; reverse128; spillovers 112, 117, 127;

technology inflows policies204, 209, 210, 214, 216, 217;see also competition, labourskills and technology transfer

Teece, D. 16–18, 32, 104, 119, 137Teitel, S. 123telecommunications 23textiles industry 23, 178, 182

Mexico 139, 140, 141, 144, 146,147, 153, 156, 158, 159

Thailand 24, 90, 91Thursby, M. 189Tilton, J. E. 119tobacco industry 138, 139, 140,

141, 144, 146, 147, 153, 156, 158,159

Tobit model 49, 52, 57, 59Tolentino, P. E. E. 108total factor productivity 125, 140

Mexico 138, 139, 142, 143, 148Uruguay 178

tradeagreements 182flows 63marks 180, 222, 223, 225, 226,

228transaction costs 2–3, 16, 25, 104transfer pricing 106, 148, 164

Mexico 223Sweden 63, 65, 68, 71, 73, 75, 76,

78technology inflows policies 204,

206, 207, 210, 211, 216transfer skills 210transport equipment industry 161,

207, 208Latin America 92, 93, 94, 95, 96Mexico 139, 140, 141, 144, 146,

147, 157, 158, 159turnkey contracts 31

United Nations 33, 114, 145, 211United States 6, 8, 10, 134

competition, labour skills andtechnology transfer 221

Department of Commerce 69entry strategies 42exports 84–7, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,

95, 96joint ventures 33, 39

Index 253

and Latin America 82, 97majority-owned foreign affiliates

208, 211, 215and Mexico 135, 142, 143, 144,

145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 223modes of international

investment 18, 22, 26, 27productivity spillovers and

competition 190spillovers 108, 114, 117, 119, 121,

125, 126, 128and Sweden 66, 67, 71technology inflows policies 205,

206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211,216

technology, market characteristicsand spillovers 162

and Uruguay 178, 179Uruguay 10, 127, 128

see also technological capabilityand productivity spillovers inUruguay

Vaitsos, C. V. 65value-added 137, 163, 165, 180,

191, 192

van Ark, B. 144, 159Venezuela 115, 125–6, 160

exports 83, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91,135, 178

Vernon, R. 39vertical foreign direct investment 2Vertinski, I. 130Volvo 20

wages 130, 181, 222, 224Wallender, H. 114Wang, Y. 161, 165, 188, 189, 190,

204–5, 209, 216, 221, 228Watanabe, S. 114, 115welfare effects 110, 122Wells, L. T. Jr 31, 33Western Europe 108, 190White, L. J. 120Wilson, B. D. 43Wolff, E. 159wool industry 182

X-efficiency 120, 187, 190–1, 193,199

Zander, I. 128