Electronic Knowledge Management 2

Benefits of Electronic Knowledge Management in Achieving Organizational Objectives A Study across Different Countries[Name][Course Title][Course Instructor][Date]

Table of ContentCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION31.1.Introduction & Context of the Study31.2.Research Aim61.3.Objectives of Research61.4.Research Questions71.5.Rationale of the Study71.6.Significance of the Study81.7.Structure of the Research8CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW102.1. Knowledge as wider concept102.2. Knowledge Management112.3. Electronic Knowledge Management142.4. Knowledge Management and Organizational Benefits15CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY173.1.Introduction173.2.Research Philosophy173.3.Research Design183.4.Type of Investigation193.5.Research Approach203.6.Data Collection203.7.Content Analysis Plan213.8.Accessibility Issues and Ethical Considerations213.8. Limitations of the Research22References23

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction & Context of the StudyKnowledge is a strategic asset for an organization and a key resource for research, innovation and competency. It is recognized as a valuable commodity that strengthens the performance and competitiveness of an organization (Magnier-Watanabe et al. 2011). For this reason, managing and sharing the knowledge resources among the employees is vital in the growth of workers as well as the organization (Hegazy & Ghorab, 2014). Knowledge is a difficult concept to define, but broadly it may be understood as any information that comprises of, and integrates with, experience, context, thinking and interpretation; whereas, knowledge management (KM) is leveraging the intellectual assets of an organization to extract optimal value from them (Kulkarni et al. 2007). KM is also defined as the effective and efficient utilization of the knowledge resources for the achievement of organizational goals (Hegazy & Ghorab 2014; Zaim, 2006), or the discovery, organizing and sharing of knowledge resources to advance the intellectual capital of the organization in order to enhance performance and resources. Jurisica et al. (2006) highlight that the field of KM deals with the creation, acquisition, organization and evolution of different forms of knowledge, and this research is based on the methods, theories and instruments of managing knowledge. KM is emerging and building on the theories of organizational culture and behavior, performance management, information technology and strategic management, leading to the emergence of concepts like knowledge organization, knowledge equity, etc. (Baskerville & Dulipovici, 2006). In this age of information, knowledge is increasingly being stored on the virtual space. Hence, the management of online computer systems and electronic knowledge repositories is a key challenge and an opportunity for organizations to maintain and control their knowledge databases. In order to lead the leveraging of knowledge assets and gain a sustainable advantage over the competitors, electronic knowledge repositories have become one of the most commonly used instruments in the management of knowledge practices across the organizations (Chung, 2009). These repositories are, according to King et al. (2002), databases that allow access to storage and retrieval of research information, management and technical knowledge; moreover, these databases maintain sustainable and long-term organizational memory (Olivera, 2000, as cited in Chung, 2009). Chung (2009) further points out two challenges pertaining to supply and demand of knowledge in managing these repositories: the first is to encourage the employees to contribute knowledge resources to the intellectual assets of the firm, and the other is to encourage the employees to utilize their resources in enhancing their personal and professional competency. Gottschalk aptly captures the point by indicating that the mere presence of electronic repositories do not also motivate the employees to build and share the knowledge resources; it additionally requires important changes in organizational culture, and incentives to stimulate the exchange of knowledge (as cited in Bots & Bruijn, 2002).In general, Baskerville & Dulipovici (2006) suggest three theoretical frameworks that underlie the evolution of knowledge management practices: these include intellectual capital, intellectual property and core competency management theories. Intellectual capital theory holds that the intangible assets of an organization are relatively more valuable than the tangible ones in gaining competitive advantage, with a particular focus on intellectual assets. Intellectual capital adds to the book value of a firm and makes it worth more than its numerical value. This theory includes intangible assets like copyrights, patents, trademarks, goodwill, knowledge and culture of the organization, constituting an intellectual portfolio of a company. Intellectual property theory builds on the preceding one, emphasizing the ethical and legal considerations in managing the intellectual assets. It also accounts for risk assessment involved in quality and measurement of knowledge. Finally, core competency management involves multiple facets, but their focus is to see the business competition as a contest for developing skills and competencies. The competitive advantage is located in resources and capabilities which foster this aim and hence KM is recognized as an effective instrument in maintaining competency. According to Bots & Bruijn (2002), the knowledge management practices are divided into two fundamental approaches: these are analytic and actor perspectives. The former perceives KM as based on content of knowledge, determined by objectives, useful in fulfilling these objectives, and it should be a planned activity. The latter approach KM as based primarily on the professional expertise, goal-seeking, interactive and intuitive process. Knowledge sharing is not natural, and is often restricted or encouraged by various personal and workplace factors. Some of the enablers or factors of KM identified by Magnier-Watanabe et al. (2011) include organizational culture, leadership and organizational control. Organizational culture is a system of shared and collective meaning the employees hold and associate with the organization. Employees understand knowledge management and sharing practices in the context of this culture and meaning. This culture also directs and controls the behavior of the employees. Hence, in a culture of open communication, exchange of knowledge is stimulated; whereas, in a culture of power and authority knowledge sharing is hindered. Leadership fuels the KM practices, since it provides vision and guidance for the knowledge creation and exchange. An achievement oriented leadership demand results and may be less encouraging of KM, while people oriented style encourage individual and team learning, capacity building and sharing among each other. Organization control is about defining values, traits, mission and goals of an organization, which, if clear and effective, should inform the employees as to what intellectual resources are to be created and exchanged; whereas, in case where these controls are rigid and unclear, with little to no understanding of relevant skills and guidance, the knowledge management process suffers, adversely affecting the organizational goals (Magnier-Watanabe et al. 2011).

1.2. Research AimThis research aims to understand and elucidate the advantages of electronic knowledge management in attaining organizational objectives, with reference to the knowledge management practices in different countries.

1.3. Objectives of ResearchA research is reliable if its results corroborate its proposed objectives. The main objectives identified in this study were: To understand and review the concept of electronic knowledge repository and its management. To discuss various approaches towards knowledge management practices in order to meet organizational objectives. To highlight the theoretical frameworks that underpin the concept of knowledge management. To present different enablers of knowledge management in various countries for achieving organizational objectives.

1.4. Research QuestionsResearch questions guide the process of the research towards the achievement of research objectives. In this study, following key questions were posed: What are electronic knowledge repositories and their management? What are the approaches used in knowledge management practices in achieving organizational objectives? What are the theories underlying the concept of knowledge management? What are the enablers influencing the knowledge management practices across different countries for attaining organizational objectives?

1.5. Rationale of the StudyThis research reflects the personal intellectual interests and curiosity of the author, and a need for understanding and expanding the scope of knowledge management by exploring the concepts of KM and the practices it encapsulates in different cultural contexts. As indicated in the introduction, the need and importance of knowledge management in the organizational performance, worth, and sustainability is realized given the challenges of this fast-paced information age and the opportunities of securing sound competencies and advantage over the competitors. The justification of this study is also captured by the myriad of prospects in the application and research of knowledge management in a host of diverse disciplines like IT, economics, psychology, human resource management, R&D, etc. This research presents contemporary and significant aspects of KM theories, approaches and practices which can guide the conduct of future studies and may also enable the integration of these concepts and frameworks in different cultures. The study contributes to the literature in a positive direction by highlighting the advantages of KM, electronic knowledge repository in particular, along with the factor that may reinforce or impede its implementation; hence, it has the potential to assist researchers and professionals in the study and practice of KM.

1.6. Significance of the StudyAside from the importance of KM in the organizations, this research also encourages knowledge acquisition and personal development in general. In a way, the nature of this study outlining the benefits and use of KM contributes to the social development as well by emphasizing the role of KM as an intellectual asset of worth and distinction. This study also suggests various implications for the experts in related disciplines, for example in IT to identify the issues in knowledge management systems and enhance their software solutions for organizational application and simple accessibility, etc. Likewise, the overview presented on the approaches and theories can guide the managers in decision making and formulating a dynamic mix of practices and approaches to suit their own organizational culture.

1.7. Structure of the ResearchThis study is divided into five chapters:Chapter One outlines the introduction and context of the topic of the research. It also presents the research problem, aims and objectives to direct the research process, research questions based on the objectives, the rationale and finally significance of the study. Chapter Two discusses in detail the relevant literature to highlight the existing knowledge in the domain while also pointing out the potential gaps that can be replaced with further research. Chapter Three presents the research methodology applied in carrying out this research. This chapter contains the research philosophies, research design and approaches, data collection and content analysis plan, ethical issues and limitations of the study. Chapter Four evaluates the sources and literature to extract important insights, themes, patterns and explanatory theories. It provides a thematic analysis of the contents and concept of this research.Chapter Five presents the conclusions of the study obtained from the analysis, and highlights further implications of the research along with useful recommendations for future research.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW2.1. Knowledge as wider conceptKing (2009) deployed the notion of knowledge management as a justified personal belief. He further discusses that for centuries the philosophers, scientists and the intelligent laymen have been emphasizing upon creating, communicating and acquiring knowledge. Their efforts are also directed towards the re-utilization of knowledge. However it has only been a decade since the concept of knowledge management has emerged, which discussing about the acquisition of knowledge in a more formal context. Cho (2011) states the different kinds of knowledge that have been specified by several taxonomies; however the most significant and fundamental distinction exists between explicit and tactic knowledge. Most of the knowledge that an individual may absorb is initially tactic in nature, as its development takes place over a longer period of time, through the method of trial and error (Cho, 2011). It is usually underutilized, as organizations do not understand its importance. Tactic knowledge is what dwells within the mind of an individual and it can either be difficult or impossible to articulate. Jeffery & Nobeoka (2002) discusses that some knowledge is also embedded in business activities, processes and relationship, which is usually created over time, by implementing a series of improvements (Jeffrey & Nobeoka, 2002). On the other hand, explicit knowledge exists in the firm of sentences or may be words, organized data such as documents; and computer programs. If the organization is able to accept the useful yet difficult to articulate notion of tactic knowledge, a fundamental problem of explicating it would be solved and it can easily be made available to the other users (Jeffrey & Nobeoka, 2002). According to Botha & Snyman (2014), an organization may work towards differentiating among know how, know what and know why level of knowledge management. Know what identifies the actions that must be taken by an organization at the time when it is exposed to a set of stimuli (Botha & Snyman, 2014). For example, a salesperson that has been trained by a company and knows what product is suited for what; possess the know what level of knowledge. After the know what levels comes the know how, which helps the organization to develop an appropriate and effective response to a specific stimulus. This kind of knowledge is required when a programmable relationship which exists between the stimulus and its response, which is considered to be the essence of know what knowledge. This takes place, when a considerable noise exists in the symptomatic information and the direct association between the symptoms and diagnosis is uncertain. Vernon (2013) argues that know how kind of knowledge helps the individual to figure out that what will be most appropriate treatment for the problem that has been diagnosed, even if there is a presence of significant noise. The most advance level of knowledge which exists is know why knowledge. At this point, an individual develops a deeper understanding about casual relationships, uncertainty levels and interactive effects, which are directly associated with the observed symptoms and stimuli. This requires an in depth knowledge about the underlying theory or a wide range of experience that may include interactive effects, instances of anomalies and the exceptions to conventional wisdom and norms of an area.

2.2. Knowledge ManagementAccording to Woldemariam (2012), knowledge management is defined as the process of planning, motivating, organizing and controlling the human resource and the systems and processes within an organization, in order to ensure that effective employment of knowledge related assets. Such assets may take into account knowledge presented in the form of printed documents such as manuals and patents. It also include the knowledge that exists within the electronic repositories such as the database, the knowledge of the employees regarding the best way to do a certain job, knowledge existing in the processes, products and relationships of the organization or that held by the organizational teams whose goal is to work on some focused problems. Hahn & Subramani (2000) state that the process of knowledge management may takes into account the acquisition, refinement, creation, transfer, storage, utilization and sharing of knowledge. The knowledge management functions present within an organization is responsible for operating these processes, developing methodologies and system that supports and motivates the employees to participate in them. The core objectives of knowledge management is the improvement and leveraging of the knowledge assets of an organization, in order to improve the behavior within an organization, its performance and decision practice and enforce the implementation of better knowledge practices. Kimiz (2013), in his book discusses that each of the knowledge management process that has been discussed can be easily performed by any individual, as knowledge management is an organizational activity whose emphasis is on what the actions of the managers are and what they can do to achieve the goals associated with knowledge management. Knowledge management also investigates that how the manager motivates the employees to participate in achieving the objectives induced and how they may create social processes that will help in facilitating the success of knowledge management. Shim et. al. (2013) states that the social processes are based on communities of practice, expert networks and self-organizing groups of people that have common interest and networks that allow fostering communication between the ones with less expertise and the ones with greater expertise. These social processes are crucial as the knowledge that exists within the minds of the individual needs to be transferred to others through social, teams, groups and networks, in order to ensure the success of knowledge management process. This is the reason that the knowledge management process is more people oriented and less technology oriented. The modern organization must also support knowledge management with appropriate communication technology and information (King, 2009). According to Alavi & Leidener (2001) argues that knowledge management system of application such as the information system and computer based communication, existing within an organization for supporting the implementation of knowledge management processes. This process can be different from CIS, as it involve database such as directories, networks, which put the participants of the organization in contact with the experts in wide range of areas. One of the significant differences between the organizations CIS and knowledge management system is that in many organizations the knowledge management system can be less automated and it may require human assistance to carry out its operations. In any other information system it is required that the human makes the choices first and then let it operate automatically, whereas the knowledge management system requires the participation of humans in its operational phase (Botha & Snyman, 2014). For example, when the sales database is designed, employees need to design its structure and content, when it is in the operational phase, as it works automatically. When the creation of lessons learned knowledge repository takes place, there is a need of making same design choices by the people. However, there is a need of participating in the operational phase, since each of the knowledge unit which is there for submission is unique and therefore it must be assessed for its importance and relevance (Cho, 2011). 2.3. Electronic Knowledge ManagementLeibowitz & Megbolugbe (2003) discusses that knowledge management system is divided into technologies that sustain the personalization approach, providing support to the codification approach of knowledge management. Knowledge networks such as electronic communities of practice and knowledge directories such as yellow pages are some of the examples of the first category of electronic knowledge management. The second category of the electronic management process is based on electronic knowledge repositories that store the codified knowledge within them for future use. These electronic knowledge repositories can be used for the storage of various kinds of knowledge ranging from the customers and product knowledge to the best practices taking place in a certain industry. Some of the most effective examples of Electronic knowledge repository are Xeroxs Eureka system and Accentures KMXchange system (Alavi & Leidner, 2001). The successful sharing with the electronic knowledge management system depends on the knowledge contributors that keep on populating the Electronic Knowledge repositories and the knowledge seekers that are constantly retrieving content from these repositories for the purpose of reuse. There are many past studies that focus on the concept of knowledge contributors. However the study conducted on these knowledge contributors has been limited to the qualitative study and on the benefits and cost associated with using Electronic knowledge management system within the organizational setting. Therefore the theoretical ground provided by these researches is weak, as they only generalize the finding of the studies on knowledge seeking from Electronic knowledge management (Mammadov &Galusca, 2005). 2.4. Knowledge Management and Organizational BenefitsThe growing importance of knowledge as the organizational resource has been recognized by various researches of the recent times. This is the reason that organizations have increased their spending on their initiatives related to knowledge management and technologies (Tichkiewitch, 2008). A recent study conducted, emphasize towards the fact that 80 percent of the largest organizations operating globally, have their knowledge management projects in practice and 25 percent of these organizations also have their Chief Knowledge Officer. In most of the Asian countries like Singapore, where the main and most valuable resources are human knowledge and skills, there is an immense need of transforming such economies into knowledge base for the purpose of their survival. This is the reason that the exploitation of the intellectual resources has turned out to be a major challenge for such economies (Housel & Bell, 2001).Despite of the fact that the awareness regarding knowledge management has increased in such countries in the recent years and the high level of infrastructure has also been maintained, there is still the need of changing the views and perception of the organizations towards concepts like knowledge management. The organizations are still not aware of the idea that how the knowledge management can be initiated and implemented on organizational levels and how it may contribute towards the development and growth of any economy. In the environment, where the awareness regarding the importance of knowledge management is high, the organizations have started to implement the knowledge management but still there is lack of research that discusses the successful implementation and adoption of Knowledge management system (Hari, Egbu & Kumar, 2005). There are a number of ways through which the relationship existing between knowledge management and organizational learning can be conceptualized. It has been discussed by Alwaneh (2009) that the major emphasis of the knowledge management is on the content which is created, acquired, processed and eventually used by an organization. Knowledge management pays off by assisting the organizations to engrave the knowledge into the processes of the organization, so that continuously improvement in the behaviors and practices of the organizational processes may take place, for the purpose of achievement of organization goals.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY2. 3. 3.1. IntroductionResearch can be defined as the process of logical, organized and systematic investigation into a phenomenon or discipline conducted in order to discover or enhance the scope of knowledge and human understanding. Research is usually based on existing theories and assumptions to reach new information and conclusions by testing these theories in various contexts (Kumar, 2010). Research can be classified into two broad categories: basic and applied research. The former kind of research aims at the discovery or understanding of a specific event, while the latter is targeted to improve the research practices of a field of study (Merriam, 2009). According to Rajasekar, et al. (1994), any systematic and logical investigation advancing our present knowledge can be understood as a research. A research methodology is an analysis of the research methods and principles relevant to a study. Usually, there may be multiple methodologies available and applicable to a particular research from which an appropriate mix is chosen as a research design. According to Bryman (2012), a research methodology is a detailed guideline for the researchers to align their research process with the proposed aims and objectives. It is an overarching framework consisting the elements of research philosophy, approaches, methods and design to direct the research (Creswell, 2012).

3.2. Research PhilosophyMerriam (2009) and Creswell (2012) present various research philosophies or paradigms that may be utilized in a research, sometimes in conjunction with two or more paradigms. Some of these include interpretivism, positivism, realism, critical theory, pragmatism and postmodernism. Interpretivism will be briefly discussed here since it is more appropriate to the current study, being a qualitative research. It holds that there is no constant and objective reality, no external standard out there against which the truth can be determined. Instead, reality is a matter of understanding and interpretation, with different people arriving at different conclusions over a single concept, event or phenomenon. Reality is constructed by knowledge rather than the other way around; and it is often socially constructed by people and their experiences, beliefs, attitudes and practices (Merriam, 2009). Hence interpretivism is also sometimes called constructivism. In contrast, realism and positivism are based on single, independent and external reality, usually suitable for quantitative research. In this research, which is based on secondary data, interpretivism is used for content analysis and interpretation of the literature because the primary aim of this study is to develop an understanding of the knowledge management practices, their benefits and challenges, analysis of theories and approaches, and the relevant instruments such as electronic knowledge repository. The focus of the research is to understand various concepts, experiences and events surrounding the knowledge management process. In doing so, the understanding and interpretation of a researcher may vary from others, but these viewpoints add substance to the literature and guide the study and research of other people.

3.3. Research DesignA research design is a modus operandi, a way of operation, for conducting a research. It is a particular method of doing research, formulated in light of the research problem or question posed. A research design adopts the chosen methodology to the specifics of an individual study, by defining what needs to be done and how exactly it will be done. There are three basic categories of research: Qualitative Research, Quantitative Research and Mixed Research Methods (Creswell, 2012). In this research, qualitative methodology is used based on secondary data, content analysis and interpretation. According to Creswell (2010), the researcher in a qualitative research usually makes intpretivist/constructivist or advocacy/participatory (focusing mainly on social issues and their resolution) knowledge claims or both. The purpose is to collect open ended information to identify patterns, develop themes, and suggest interpretations. Qualitative methods are apt for dealing with problems that are based on individual or group experiences and meaning in historical or social context. The researcher, by the use of qualitative methods, intends to develop meaning of an event or phenomenon from the view of his/her research participants (Creswell, 2012).

3.4. Type of InvestigationThere are three types of research: descriptive, exploratory, and explanatory (Kumar, 2010; Saunders et al. 2012). Descriptive research is conducted for detailed inquiry of a well known and already studied phenomenon to expound new insights and implications from it (Bryman, 2012). Exploratory research is carried out where existing theories need to be investigated or tested under different conditions and environment to test their generalization or applicability in different domains. Finally, explanatory research is directed at explaining in detail the concepts, events or phenomenon as the object of a research. This study is undertaken where the subject in question has room for improvement, expansion, explanation and interpretation (Kumar, 2010). The nature of this research is explanatory based on the secondary research sources on the topic. This is because the phenomenon or concept in this study, i.e. knowledge management, is dependent on diverse practices and culture of the organizations, yielding different approaches and interpretations of the favourable practices of managing knowledge. Because of this, there is a lot of scope of contribution to the existing literature that is likely to enhance our present understanding of the subject.

3.5. Research Approach According to Maxwell (2012), the process followed in a research is logically inductive or deductive. Deductive researchers begin with a well-conceived hypothesis which is then subjected to empirical observations and experiments to test its validity, while inductive research is based on data collection through empirical means on the basis of which theories or concepts are formed (Merriam, 2009). This study is primarily inductive in that it builds on the secondary sources who have collected data (observations, experiences, reports, etc.) in different settings and reported their observations with subjective content analysis and interpretation in order to understand the topic. From the literature, this research extracts themes and patterns that may inform a plausible theory of knowledge management.

3.6. Data CollectionData collection is generally classified into two types: primary and secondary data. Primary data is fresh and raw data that do not already exist in the literature, such as interview, experiments, surveys, etc. Secondary data is collected from extant resources such as refereed journals, books, newspaper, articles, internet, etc. Since this research is based on secondary sources, the data used therein is collected from aforementioned resources and involves credible research papers and sources. 3.7. Content Analysis PlanThe data analysis process involves review, organization, assessment, and interpretation of the data collected for the purpose of this study. The extracted data is analysed and interpreted and based on that conclusion and recommendations are presented. This data analysis includes understanding of relationship and correlation between the research variables. There are numerous data analysis techniques that can be used for conducting researches, including questionnaires, surveys or interviews (Harwell, 2011). Among all the data analysis techniques, this study uses qualitative data analysis for collection and interpretation of data (MacDonald and Headlam, 2011). Qualitative researches are more intensive and focus on definite themes or patterns. Most of the data for qualitative secondary research is conducted from online sources. Internet has a plethora of knowledge on all subjects and topics. Hence, it is a great source for secondary research. This research employs content analysis method for data interpretation, where secondary data will be collected and interpreted in thematic manner.

3.8. Accessibility Issues and Ethical ConsiderationsAll research studies have more or less limitations, including accessibility of data and ethical issues of the research. According to Saunders, et al. (2012), for a research to be valid and reliable, objectivity and neutrality is necessary. Any biased tone in the research must be recognised and eliminated and ethical issues must be addressed promptly.In this study, the researcher faced accessibility issues in data collection as there was plenty of data available on the internet and to screen out all the unnecessary information from relevant information required for the study. Additionally, some data was not available publicly and protected by various agencies. However, the researcher made use of what relevant data was available for use. The paid or restricted databases were avoided in this study.The awareness of ethical issues of research is crucial for the credibility of the research as well as the researcher. Hence, for secondary qualitative study, the researcher had to ensure that the information collected is sourced and referenced correctly. Another ethical issue is the plagiarism. The researcher has endured that the data collected in not copied directly and any quotation is cited with relevant reference.

3.8. Limitations of the ResearchEvery research has some shortcoming, which may be related to research method. The limitations may be in the research design or analysis technique. However, it is necessary for the researcher to recognize these limitations and present recommendations for future researchers. One of the limitations of this study is the research design. The study only uses secondary data for collection and analysis of data. Hence, the researcher was unable to provide any primary data to provide opinion or perception of target audience. Another constraint was budget and time. The researcher had limited time and finances for conducting this research, hence the study did not include any in-depth analysis.

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