Benavides F.S. a Global Zero Tolerance

8/3/2019 Benavides F.S. a Global Zero Tolerance

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agloBalzerotolerance? coloMBianPrisionsfroMaWorldHistoricalPersPective

Resumen

En este artculo quiero mostrar la historiadiscursiva de la reforma del sistemade justicia criminal y cmo la reformacolombiana est atada a una tendenciaglobal que est tratando de usar la prisinno como un lugar de rehabilitacin,sino como un lugar para el control delexceso. En Europa y en los EstadosUnidos este exceso es ejemplifcado conlos inmigrantes ilegales y las leyes quese usan para tratarlos, mientras que enColombia la ley criminal se usa contra losdesempleados y los pobres.

Palabras clave: economa, ley criminal,sistema de justicia criminal, prisiones, leyy desarrollo, historia legal colombiana,tolerancia cero.

Farid Samir Benavides Vanegas*

A global zero tolerance?

Colombian prisions from

a world historical perspective**

AbstRAct

In this paper I show the discursive historyof reforms to the Criminal Justice Systemand how Colombian reform is tied to aglobal trend that attempts to use prisonfacilities not as places of rehabilitation,but as places for the control of excess. InEurope and the United States this excessis exemplified with illegal immigrantsand the laws that are used to deal withthem; whereas in Colombia, criminal lawis used against the unemployed and thepoor.

Keywords: economics, criminal law,criminal justice system, prisons, law anddevelopment, Colombian legal history,Zero tolerance.

* ProfesorAuxiliar.Grupode InvestigacinCOPAL.FacultaddeDerechoyCienciasPolticasySocialesUniversidadNacionaldeColombiafsbenavidesv@unal.edu.co

** ThispaperwasdeliveredattheLatin American Studies Association Annual Meeting,SanJuan,March,15-192006.ApreviousversionwaspresentedattheAnnual meeting of the Law and SocietyAssociation.LasVegas,June2005;Annual meeting of the American Political Science Association.

Washington,September,2005;andtheConference on World-Systemic Crises and ContendingPolitical Scenarios. 29thConference of the Political Economy of the World System (PEWS) Section of

the American Sociological Association (ASA).UniversityofMassachusetts.Amherst,April14-172005.


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faridsaMirBenavidesvanegas

introduction

InJuly1991ColombiasConstituentAssemblypassedanewconstitutionthattransformedthestructureofthepoliticalandlegalsystems.Severalnewmeasureswereincludedtoprotectthefundamentalrightsofthepeopleandamoreopenpoliticalorganizationwasestablished.Oneofthemostrelevantreformswasthetransformationofthecriminaljusticesystem,whichincludedareformtothejudiciary,creatingforthefirsttimetheAttorneyGeneralsOffice(Fiscala).Thenewattorneysweregivenhigherlevelsalariestoavoidcorruption,andaseparateadministrativeentityforthejudiciarywascreatedinordertoguarantee

itsindependence.ThisreformdidntmakeanyreferencetothePrisonSystem,otherthanthedefendantsrighttoadueprocessunderthelawandtheinclusionoftherelevantUnitedNationsrulesinColombianlegislation1.

The1991constitutionalreformforcedastructuraltransformationoftheCriminalJusticeSystem,whichwasunderstoodasareformtothelegalinstrumentsregulatingitssphereofaction.ThePenalCode,theProceduralCode,andthePrisonCodewerereformed.ThePenalCodemadeastructuraladjustmentofthepenaltiesandtwitchedcriminallawtomakeitconstitutionallysound;theProceduralCodegavecriminalproceduremoreelementsoftheadversarialsystem;

finally,thePrisonCodecarriedasuperficialreformthatdidntaltertheideologyofrehabilitationthatwasinforceinthelawsincethe1960s2.

However,in1995,asaresultofawaveofrobberiesonthestreetsofBogot,NestorHumbertoMartinez,thenMinisterofJustice,proposedareformtothecodethatmadeprisonmandatoryforminorcrimes(Law228of1995).Amongthemeasuresinthereform,amandatoryminimumprisontermwasestablishedforsomecrimesandprisonwasrecommendedasapreventivemeasureinothercases.PrisonandpreventivedetentionbecamethecentralelementsinthepenalpublicpolicyoftheColombiangovernmentundertheadministrationofErnestoSamper.

Therationaleforthereform,accordingtoNestorHumbertoMartinez,wastheneedtoadoptazerotolerancepolicyagainstcrime.ForthefirsttimeinColombian

1 SeeStandardMinimumRulesfortheTreatmentofPrisoners.AdoptedonMay13th1977.2 In2001 therewasa reformto the system that involveda substantialupdateofcriminallaw.Accordingtothelawyersleadingthereform,ColombiancriminallawneededtoadapttothenewdoctrinesexistinginGermany.In2005theCriminalProcesstheproceduralcodewasreformedinordertoincorporateanAmericanmodelofcriminallaw.Howeverinneitherreformtheprisonsystemhasbeentransformed,andthelawstillhasacorrectionalideology,despitethefactthatthe

realityofprisonsgoesmorealongthelinesofawastemanagementmodel.SeeMalcolmFeeley&JonathanSimon.ActuarialJustice:theEmergingNewCriminalLaw.InDavidNelken.TheFutures of Criminology. (London/ThousandOaks/NewDelhi:Sage,1994).


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criminaldiscourse,theideaofshowingzerotoleranceagainstcrimeandtheneedtodealwithminorcrimesforreasonsotherthanthemereenforcementofthelawwereusedasjustificationfornewrules.Theintroductionofthisregulationispartoftheconstructionofabuildingforlawandorderwherelawyershavelosttheirabilitytomakerelevantstatementsaboutcrimeandcriminallaw,andthe

roletodosowaspassedontoeconomistsandmanagerstrainedinotherfields.Statementsaboutjudicialexpediencyandimpunityweremadefromaperspectivethatrarelyinvokedjustice,butmostlycorruption,efficiencyandtheattractivenessofColombianmarketstoforeigninvestment.

Colombianprisonsareincrisis.Thediscourseofrehabilitationisincreasinglylosingitsvalue;thenumberofinmateshasincreasedinthelastfifteenyears;thediscourseaboutprisonsgravitatesarounddiscussionsofinefficiencyintheCriminalJusticeSystemandtheneedforamoreeffectiveuseofincarcerationtime.Thelackofresourceshasledtoanoverloadofthesystem,whichhasgained

moreadherentstothemoreprisonsareneededclaim,withoutaddressingtheissuesandpoliciesthatledtooverpopulationinthefirstplace.

PenalpoliciesinColombiaarenotcreatedinavoid.Theystemfrompoliciesdesignedandappliedinotherplaces.InthispaperIwanttoshowthetransformationincriminalpoliciesintheUnitedStatesinthe1970s,andhowinthiscountry,aswellasinEurope,theCriminalJusticeSystemhasmovedfrombeingofacorrectionalisttypetobeingmorefocusedonthecontrolofpopulations,asortofrestrainoveradangerousclass.TheemergenceofanactuarialsystemofjusticeledtopolicieslikezerotoleranceinNewYork,incapacitationtheory

intheprisonsystem,andanunprecedentedincreaseintheprisonpopulation,whichhassometimesmadetheCriminalJusticeSystemtobecalledthelargestcityintheUnitedStatesafterNewYorkCity.Ishallarguethatthereisaglobaltrendthatrenouncestothediscourseandpracticesofrehabilitationandinsteadoptsforamanagement/controlapproachofpopulationsthatarearisknotatriskforsociety.FollowingAlessandroDeGiorgisanalysis,Ihavelabeledthistrendaglobalzerotolerance,toexpresstheviewofthepeopleinvolvedandatthesametimetoemphasizethecentralityoftheAmericanexperienceinthistrend.Itseffectsinthereductionofcrimearedebatable,butthisattitudehasledtoan

increaseinprisonpopulationandtoactsofpolicebrutality

3

.However,fromaworldhistoricalperspective,IaimtoshowthepathsthatbroughttheseideasandpoliciestoColombiaandthereasonswhytheAmericanmodelofcrimecontrolwasadoptedinColombiaduringthe1990s,aspartofthetransformationsinthemodelofdevelopmentcarriedoutundertheadministrationofCsarGaviriaandfurtherenactedinthe1991Constitution.TheparticularitiesoftheColombiancasewillshowthatthegroupsundercontrolrespondtodifferentconfigurationsthantheonesadoptedinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.

3 Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthereductionincrimeissubjecttodebate.Someauthorslike

HarcoutandBowlingshowthatthereductionincrimeistheresultofadifferenttrendanditisnotrelatedtopolicieslikebrokenwindowsinNewYorkCity.SeeBenjaminBowling:1999andBernardHarcourt:2002;andAlessandroDeGiorgi:2000.


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1.tHEEndofcorrEctionalism:

towardsacontrolofriskypopulations

In1973JockYoung,IanTaylor,andRogerWaltonpublishedabookentitledThe New Criminology(JockYoung,IanTaylor,RogerWalton:1973).Thisbookwasessentiallyanattackontraditionalpositivistandcorrectionalistcriminology;arguingthatthesetraditionsactedasanacademicjustificationfordiscriminatorypracticesintheprisonandcriminaljusticesystems,theseauthorsproposedaradicalapproachtocriminologyandcriminalsystemsthattookintoaccounttheinterestsoftheworkingclass(JohnMuncie:1998).Asaresultofthebook,butalsooftransformationsinsociologicaltheoryduringthe1960s,devianceandcrimewerenotseenasindividualpathologicalacts,butratherastheresultofdefinitionsthatcamefromsitesofpowerandinrelationshiptostructuraltransformationsinthenationalandworldeconomy.Thebookwasacritiqueofhowsocietyworksandhowsocialorderismaintainedandsubjectedtopoliticalchange4.

Afteranalyzingdifferenttheoriesaboutcrime,Youngetal.showthatcrimeisanideologicalcategorygeneratedbystateagentsandintellectuals.Giventhisdiagnosisofcrime,itwasnotasurprisethatcriminologistwereconcernedaboutthefateofthecriminaljusticesystemandthewaytodealwiththisproblematicsituation(AlessandroBaratta:1986).InMarxistthoughttherewasadisputeaboutthedisciplineitself.Somecriminologist,writinginacollectionentitledCriticalCriminology(JockYoung,RogerWalton,IanTaylor:1975.),putintoquestiontheveryideaofaMarxistcriminology5.Fromthispointofview,thecriminaljusticesystemwasseenasoppressiveandintrusive.Thecorrectionalistideologywas

criticizedasadisciplinaryinterventioninthesoulsofprisoners,andthereforeaspartofthecrisisofmodernity(MichelFoucault:1977).Theleftistcritiqueleftpenalandprisoninterventionswithoutlegitimacy.AccordingtoDavidGarland,duringthe1960stheleftcriticizedtheCriminalJusticeSystem(CJS)andfoundthatitwastoointrusiveinpeopleslivesandthatitcouldleadtoadisciplinarysociety(DavidGarland:2001).TocriticalaccountsoftheroleoftheCJS,theideaofrehabilitationwastoototalizinganditcouldnotbeacceptedinademocraticsociety.DuringthesetimescritiquesliketheonemadebyNilsChristieaboutthepaindeliverynatureoftheCJS,aswellasotheraccountsshowingtheneedtoeliminatetheprison,theCJS,orcapitalistsocietyingeneralwerethecommon

currencyoftheday.Thealternativeswererestorativejustice,communityjustice,andadialoguebetweenthevictimandhervictimizer6.GiventhefailureofthealternativesandtheproblemsthatitcausedintheinterventionfromtheCJS,attheend,adiscourseofnothingworkslefttheCJSanditsalternativeswithoutlegitimacy.However,atthesametime,anotherdiscoursewasdeveloping.Facedwiththeinefficiencyofthesystem,someauthorslikeJamesQ.WilsonandGaryBeckerproposednottheeliminationoftheCriminalJusticeSystem,butinsteadatransformationoftheCJSandanimprovementofitsperformanceintermsof

4 Ibid.P.221.5 AlongtheselinesseealsoRobertoBergallietal:1982.6 NilsChristie:1981;ThomasMathiesen:1974;LoukHulsman:1984.


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efficiency.BeckeranalyzesthesupplyofoffensesandhowtheyaredealtwithbytheCJS.AfteranalyzingtheCJSintermsofcostsandbenefits,andintermsofthecoststhatcrimecarriesforthetaxpayers,Beckerpointsouttheneedtoanalyzetheoptimalconditionsinwhichcrimecanbecontrolledviaarationaldecision,wheretheagenthastoweighthebenefitsofthecrimeagainstthecost

ofthepunishment.Beckerwrites:

The main contribution of this essay, as I see it, is to demonstrate that

optimal policies to combat illegal behaviors are part of an optimal allocation

of resources. Since economics has been developed to handle resource

allocation, an economic framework becomes applicable to, and helps

enrich, the analysis of illegal behavior. At the same time, certain unique

aspects of the latter enrich economic analysis: some punishments such as

imprisonment are necessarily non- monetary and are a cost to society as

well as to offenders; the degree of uncertainty is a decision variable that

enters both the revenue and costs functions(GaryBecker:1968,169-217).

Byapplyinganeconomicframework,Beckerisnotonlyintroducingtheideaofefficiencywithinthesystem,butsomethingmoreimportant:agentsintheCJSarerationalandtakerationalchoices;therefore,socialconditionsandhistoricalreasonsarenotexplanationstothecrimeproblem.Alongsimilarlines,JamesQ.Wilson,explainedthecrimeproblemasaquestionofcitydisorganizationandasasortofenvironmentalproblem(JamesQ.Wilson:1975).In1982,inanissueofTheAtlanticMonthly,WilsonwrotehisarticleonBroken Windowsthatledtoaseriesofpolicies,promotedfromtheconservativethinktankManhattan Institute,

whichlateronwouldbeknownasZeroTolerancepolicies(JamesQ.WilsonandGeorgeL.Kelling:1982).InthisarticleWilsonanalyzessomeliteratureoncrimecontrolandshowsthatindividualsincertainareasofthecityarenotafraidofcrimebutratherofdisorderlybehavior.Wilsonconsidersthatdisorderlybehavioraffectspeopleslivesanditcanleadtoanincreaseincrime.Heanalyzessomeresearchwheretheeffectsofbrokenwindowswerestudied.ToWilson,thesestudies showthatdisorderlybehaviorsuggeststhat inthearea law isweaklyenforcedandtherebyanythinggoes.Ifdisorderlybehavioriscontrolled,peopleareinclinedtothinkthatthelawisenforcedandthereforemoreseriouscrimes

willnotoccur.Thismeansamoreactiveroleforthepoliceandmoreinvolvementfromthecommunity.AnalyzingthecaseofNewYork,whereZeroTolerancepolicieswereimplemented,Bowlingshowsthelimitationsofthispolicyandthelackofsupportfromsocialsciences7.WilsonwritesattheendofhisarticleonBrokenWindows:

But the most important requirement is to think that to maintain order

in precarious situations is a vital job. The police know this is one of their

functions, and they also believe, correctly, that it cannot be done to the

exclusion of criminal investigation and responding to calls. We may have

7 Bowling:1999andHarcourt:2002.Supran.3andBernardHarcourt:2001.


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encouraged them to suppose, however, on the basis of our oft-repeated

concerns about serious, violent crime, that they will be judged exclusively

on their capacity as crime-fighters. To the extent that this is the case,

police administrators will continue to concentrate police personnel in the

highest-crime areas (though not necessarily in the areas most vulnerable

to criminal invasion), emphasize their training in the law and criminalapprehension (and not their training in managing street life), and join too

quickly in campaigns to decriminalize harmless behavior (though public

drunkenness, street prostitution, and pornographic displays can destroy a

community more quickly than any team of professional burglars).

Above all, we must return to our long-abandoned view that the police

ought to protect communities as well as individuals. Our crime statistics

and victimization surveys measure individual losses, but they do not

measure communal losses. Just as physicians now recognize the importance

of fostering health rather than simply treating illness, so the police andthe rest of us ought to recognize the importance of maintaining, intact,

communities without broken windows(JamesQ.Wilson:1983).

Theideaofmanagementthusentersthefieldofcriminallawandcrimecontrol.Thesetwoideasofamoreefficientcriminaljusticesystemmanagementofresourcesandtheneedtocontrolnotindividualsbutpopulations,thebiopoliticalmanagementofpopulations,werecentralelementsintheparadigmofsocietythatwasbeingdevelopedinthe1970sandthatFoucaultlabeledasgovernmentalityandthatDeleuzecalledsocietiesofcontrol8.InFoucaultwefindthetransition

fromadisciplinarysocietytoasocietywheretransformationofthesoulisnotasimportantascontrolthroughfreedom.Foucaultshowsasubtlemovementfromdiscipline,wheresoulsaretheobjectofdisciplinarypractices,toregulation,whereundertheideaoffreedom,subjectsareleftwithoutstateinterventionandthereforetheyhavetocontrolthemselves9. Neoliberal governmentality complementsthelawwithregulatorypracticesthatarebeingexercisedoutsidethestate.Inneoliberalism,subjectsarenotdisciplinedwithinthestate,buttheyarelefttotheirownfreedomandprivateinstitutionsareinchargeofnormalizingpractices.AccordingtoHudson,neoliberalgovernmentalityestablishesagovernmentfrom

adistance.Stateinstitutionsdonotinterveneinpeopleslives,atleastnotdirectly.LawbecomeswhatDeleuzeandGuattaricallanensembleofcapture,thatis,thelawandthelegalsystembecomeplaceswheredifferentsitesandwaysofpowermeetandconstituteagentsandfields.Inthismanner,thelawceasestobeusedasaninstrumentofdisciplineorofdirectpower,andbecomesatooltocontrolpopulationsthatcanconstituteariskforthemanagementofsociety10.According

8 MichelFoucault:1990;MichelFoucault:1992;MichelFoucault:1998;MichelFoucault:1993;GilesDeleuze.SocietiesofControl.Lautre journal, Nr. I, Mai 1990.

9 FrancoisEwald.Norms,Discipline,andthe law.EnRepresentationsNo.30.P.138;Nicholas

Rose&MarianaValverde.GovernedbyLaw.SocialandLegalStudiesNo.7Vol.4.541-551.10 BarbaraHudson. PunishmentandGovernanceSocial and LegalStudiesNo. 7Vol.4, pp.554-559.


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toVictorTadross,neoliberalgovernmentalityfocusesnotontheactsofindividualbutontheirlives,thelawbecomespartofabiopower(VictorTadross:1998).

Theprisoncrisisisrelatedtotheemergenceofanewparadigmofcontrol,onethatismoreconcernedaboutcontrollingpopulationsthanaboutcontrollingcrime

orparticularbehaviors.Thenewcriminalpoliciesarefocusedoncontrollingthecriminalordangerousclass,andthewholestructureofthecriminaljusticesystemisdedicatedtothisgoal;itistheefficientriskmanagementofthecriminalclass.Crimecontrolisde-individualized,agentsarenotparticulartargetsofdiscipliningpractices,butrathertheirclassasawholeisobjectofcontrol.AsMonaLynchhasputit:

Feeley and Simon suggest that the new penal machinery may be heading

towards a kind ofwastemanagementmodel in practice. Specifically,they argue that contemporary corrections may be pushing toward a self

understanding that views its primary role asherdingaspecificpopulationthatcannotbedisaggregatedandtransformedbutonlymaintainedakindofwastemanagementfunction. The waste management model emphasizessecuring and neutralizing the threat posed by the criminal class at the

lowest possible cost, while striving to downplay and deny the emotional,

irrational, and psychological elements of punishment11.

Asaresultofthemodel,increasingnumbersofpeoplehavebeensenttoprison.Theprisonbecameaplaceofconfinementandmanagementandnotaplaceforrehabilitation.Thisiswhathasbeenlabeledasacrowding crisis,acrisisthatisnot

theparticularexperienceofindustrialnations,butalsopartoftheexperiencesofothercountrieslikeColombia,wheretheneedformoreimprisonmenthasbeenimported.InthesectionstocomeIllshowhowthisdiscursivefieldhasbeenconstructed,makingrelevantthestatementsofeconomistsinthefieldofcriminallawandcrimecontrol12.Thenextsectionisdevotedtoexplainhoweconomistsenteredthefieldofcriminallawandhowtheyrefashionedittointroduceideasofefficiencyandcrimecontrolcraftedforaneoliberalformofdevelopment.

1.1. Cmn lw nd the Cvzn Pcess

YvesDezalayandBryantG.GarthhaveanalyzedtheconstitutionofafieldofpowerinthelawinLatinAmerica.Intheirbooktheystudytherolelawyersandeconomistsplayedinthetransformationsthattookeffectfromthe1960stothe1990sintheregion.Intheiranalysistheyusetheconceptofpalace wars,aconcepttakenfromBourdieu,inordertoshowtheinternaldisputesbetweenlawyersandeconomistsforpowerandhowthesedisputesledtotransformationsinthestate.AccordingtoDezalayandGarth,lawyers,orwhattheycallgentlemen

11 MonaLynch.Thedisposalof inmate#85271.Notesonaroutineexecution.AustinSaratand

PatriciaEwick:2000,6.12 Onthistopicsee:RogerMathewsandPeterFrancis:2000;DavidNelken:1994;DavidGarland:2001.


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politicians of the law, representedakindofaristocratic idealofgovernment(YvesDezalay&BryantG.Garth:2002).Despitethedifferencesinthehistoricaltrajectoriesineachofthecountriestheyanalyzed,whatiscommoninallofthemistherolelawyersplayedinthe19thcentury.GarthandDezalayshowthatthelegitimacyofthelawwasproducedthroughinternationallyscholarlycapital

thatwasacquiredtraditionallyinEurope.Theyaddthattheclassicalpatterndidnotrequireallpoliticianstobelawgraduates,butthelawprovidedthekeynetworkofrelationshipsandlegitimizinglanguage(DezalayandGarth,2002,Pp.22).Ontheotherhand,usingJorgeI.Dominguezdescriptionofmodernrulers (Jorge I.Dominguez:1997),DezalayandGarthshowthat inthe1970stherewasatransformationintheelitescontrollingthecountriestheyanalyzed.Theyshowhoweconomists,educatedinitiallyattheUniversityofChicago,usedtheirconnectionstotheUnitedStatestoaccessthestateandtofinallyreplacelawyersinthegovernment.HavingaccesstotheUSwouldgivethemaccesstoprestigeandtointernationalcontactsthatwouldmaketheirculturalcapitalmore

attractivethantheoneheldbylawyers.Whilelawyersfieldofexpertisewaslaw,theirswaseconomics.

Thisanalysisisimportantbecauseitshowstheagentsthatintroducedideasthatlaterwouldtransformthestructureofthestate.However,intheiranalysis,DezalayandGarthjustpayattentiontotheprestigethatEuropehadinthe19thand20thcenturyinLatinAmerica,buttheydonottakeintoaccountthereasonswhyEuropeanlegalknowledgewassovaluedintheregionandhowitwasperceivedbytheelites.Atthesametime,theydonottakeintoaccountthatthetransformationsinthemodelofdevelopmentandinthehegemonyoftheworld

systemreshapedthesphereofpowerasaneconomicsphere,andhowthistransformationwasinstrumentalintheperceptionofthelawasaninstrumentandnotasconstitutiveorpolitical.AsTeivanenhasshown,inthe1990stheneoliberalmodelledtothedepolitizationofpolitics,andinthiscaseofthelaw(TeivoTeivanen:2002).InGarthandDezalaysanalysis,theconstructionofadiscursivesphereisleftasideandtheresultisputasoneofrationalchoice,whereagentslookforthemostprestigiousandexpeditewaytoaccesspower.

Inthissectionwewanttoshowthegeographyoflegalknowledgeandshow

howlawandcriminallawinparticularwasaninstrumentinthecivilizingmissionofthe19thcenturyinColombia.ColombianelitestriedtoapplyapolicyofwhiteningtheColombianpopulation,alongthelinesoftheSarmientomodel,andtodoso theyusedcriminallaw.ItisthisroleinthecivilizingmissionofColombiathatgaveEuropeanlawtheprestigeithadamongColombianlawyersanditisfromthispointthatwecanbuildouranalysisfollowingDezalaysandGarthsexplanations.

2.lawandtHEcivilizingmission

19th

CenturyColombiaischaracterizedbyitsmanywarsandpowerstruggles.Atraditionalinterpretationwouldshowthisperiodasastruggleforeconomicpowerbetweenurbanrulersandrichlandowners,andasastrugglethatledto


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thecentralizationofthestate.Thisapproachwouldshowthesefightsascombatsbetweenelites,leavingasidetherolethatothersectorsofsocietyplayedinthecreationoftheColombiannationandstate.Atthesametime,suchanapproachwouldnottakeintoaccountthespecialrelationsthatexistedbetweentheelitesandthegrossofthepopulation.Theserelationswereofdominationandcontrol,

butthisisnotenoughtoexplainthespecialconfigurationofthestateandtheroleplayedbythelawinthisprocess.AsSalvatoreandAguirrehaveshown,apurelyFoucauldianorMarxistapproachdoesnottakeintoaccountthefactthattheworkingclassandthelowerclasseswereinaprocessofconsolidationandthattheEuropeanexperiencecannotexplaintheparticularhistoryofLatinAmerica13. In thissectionI want toattempt adifferentapproach, onewhichtakesintoaccounttheprocessofconstitutionofidentitiesinColombiaandalsoconnectscriminallawwiththecivilizingprocessthattoolplaceinColombiaduringthe19thcentury.

Thewarsofthe19thcenturycanbebestunderstoodaswarsforcivilization.AftertheWarsofIndependence,Colombianelitesfacedtheconstructionofanewnation.TheywerenotpartoftheSpanishEmpireanymoreandtheywereclaiminganewidentity, thatofAmericans14.ButtobeAmericancouldmeanmanythings.InthediscourseofpoliticianslikeDomingoFaustinoSarmiento,theAmericannationhadtobewhiteandmorealongthelinesoftheUnitedStates.SarmientoisimportantbecausehisideasaboutwhiteningthenationwerefollowedinColombiabyoneofhisdisciples:FlorentinoGonzalez,whotranslatedthemintoconstitutionallaw(JaimeDuarteFrench:1971).In thelaw,thisideawastranslatedintoafearofthepeoplethepopularsectorandaneedtoconstitute

theiridentitiesinawaythatwasfunctionaltocapitalismandcivilization(Rojas:2002,xxvii).

IntheprocessofcivilizingthenationandmodelingitaswhiteandofEuropeandescent, stories of travelwere centralforColombianelites (Quijano,Anibal:2000).SomemembersoftheelitestraveledtoEuropeandlearnedhowtobecosmopolitanandwhite.Theywrotetheirimpressionsinbooksthatcirculatedwidelyamongst theregionalelitesandbecamemodelsofbehaviorforthem.Thesebookspresentedthecivilizingprocessintwoways:ontheonehand,the

elitesconsideredthemselvestobedifferentfromthelowerclasses,becausetheyhaddifferentphysicalfeaturesandlightskin.Butatthesametime,theyrealizedthattheywerenotEuropeans,andthereforethattheywereuncivilized.Thisdoublenegationcharacterizedmosttravelaccounts.ElitestraveledphysicallyorsymbolicallytoEuropeandlearnedthedoublenegationandhowtooperatewithinit15.SimonBolivarexpressedthisdoublenegationinthefollowingway:

13 RicardoD.SalvatoreandCarlosAguirre:1996;DarioMelossi&MassimoPavarini:1981;CarlosFranco:1981;AnibalQuijano:1981.

14 Aboutthedilemmasoflawsee,JorgeEsquirol:1997.15 ThisdoublenegationisverysimilartotheexperienceofthesubalternexplainedbyDuboisandhisconceptofdoubleconsciousness.However,eliteshadtheopportunitytoshapetheirimage.Theyactassubalterns/oppressorsatthesametime.Cfr.W.E.B.Dubois:1939).


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Neither Indians nor Europeans, but a race between the original natives

and the Spanish usurpers; in short, being by birth Americans, and our

rights those of Europe, we are obliged to dispute and combat for these rights

against the original natives, and to persevere and maintain ourselves

there in opposition to our invaders, so we find ourselves placed in a most

extraordinary embarrassing dilemma16

.

Lawyers, asmembersof theelite, becamecentralagents in the process ofcivilization.Giventheirfundamentalrelationtothewrittenword,theybecameimportantelementsintheexerciseofpower.Thewordycharacteroflawyers,ina letteredcity,explainswhylawyersbecamepoliticiansandalsothecloseconnectionbetweenlawyersandthestate.FlorentinoGonzalez,alawyerhimself,epitomizes this ideaof the law as partof the civilizingproject.Gonzalez, aCreole,isoneoftheeducatedfewwhoareworkingtoattainthelevelofprogressperceivedinEurope;theyaretheonlyoneswiththepowertocivilizethecountry

(FlorentinoGonzalez:1981;AngelRama:1984).FollowingBentham,hisproposalwasbasedontherationalityoftheindividualagainstthesolidarityofthetraditionalindigenouspeoples.Independenceisnotbasedonavengefulmorality,butonanethicsofprogress.InalettertoJoseMariaTorresCaicedo,FlorentinoGonzalezexpressescandidlytheracistcharacteroftheColombiannationheandtheelitesweretryingtobuild:

Barbarians do not aspire to be equals to the civilized men, putting

themselves at their level with science and property given to them by work

and studyWe have nothing in common with the Indians or the Africans,

who have barbarian tendencies and instincts that are against civilization.

Civilization has nothing to expect from them; on the contrary, they have

to fear everything from civilization17.

Lawbooksbecamepartofthosetravelstorieswementionedearlier.LawyerstraveledtoEuropetostudylaw,towitnesstheworkingsofastate,andtounderstandhowpoliticalpowerworkedinacivilizedcountry.Giventhecolonialhistory,itisnotsurprisingthattheychoseSpainastheplacewheretheywantedtodeveloptheirstudies.InSpanishuniversities,butalsoinItalianandGerman

duetotheculturaldependencyofSpain,theselawyersstudiedlaw.Thekindoftravelbooktheywroteisnotliketheoneswrittenbytheliteratibutingeneraltheysharedthesamefeatures:theytalkedaboutsplendidvenues,theycelebratedtheEuropeanculture,andfinallytheyreferredtotheoutdatedstateofourlaws.Bytreatinglawbooksastravelstories,theydidnottalkabouttherealworldofcrimeandcriminallaw,butwerespeakingtothecivilizedtoteachthemhowtodealwiththosebarbariansstillexistinginthenation,insum,toteachthemhowtowhitentheColombiannation.

16 SimonBolivarasinRojas(2002):1.17 Gonzalez,1863asinNestorDiazVidela:1994.


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ThefirsttreatyofcriminallawwritteninColombiawasbyJoseVicenteConcha,aconservativelawyerwhotraveledtoSpainandwhopublishedhisbookforconsumptioninLatinAmericabytheendofthe19thcentury.ItisimportanttonotethatConchawrotehisbookinSpanishandhaditpublishedinFrance,notonlyduetothelackofpublishinghousesinColombia,butalsoonaccountofhis

desireofreachingallLatinAmerica18

.ThetreatyisbasedonthemostadvancedtheoriesoflawdevelopedinEurope,whichappearedtoConchatobeclosetoperfection.HebasedhisworkonthestudiesofFrancescoCarraraandPellegrinoRossi,twoItalianlawyerswhodevelopedatheoryoflawbasedontherationalityoftheindividualandonaneconomictheoryoflaw.Totheseauthors,crimewasjustaviolationofthelawandpunishmentwasadeterrentagainstcrime.Thatis,theirtheoryofcriminalwasbasedonananalysisofcostsandbenefits.Whatisimportantaboutthesetheoriesishowtheyassumedthatcriminalswereequaltothemajorityofsociety.Theydidnotconstituteadifferentclassorrace;theywererationalindividualsbreakingthesocialcontract(FrancescoCarrara:1984

andAlessandroBaratta:1986).

Oneofthequestionsthatcomesupiswhytheelitedecidedtoapplytheoriesthatassumedequaltreatment foreveryone.However, thisadoptiondoesnotseemsostrangeifweanalyzetheprocessofstatebuildinghavingplacein19 thcenturyColombia.Aswementionedearlier,afterIndependencein1819,elitesbegan fighting forpower.These fights tookplace indifferentprovinces likeCauca,CundinamarcaandAntioquia.Localelitesfoughtforlocalpower.Sincecentralpowerwasnotatstake,andthefightwasbetweenequals,constitutionsassumedthatrebelswerenotcriminalsbutcombatants19.Thatis,criminallaw

wasnotsupposedtobeaninstrumenttocontrolindigenouspeoplesorafro-descendants,becausetheydidntevenexistbeforethelaw.Indigenouspeopleswerecontrolledandconstitutedaspeasantswithotherinstrumentsthatdidnotinvolve thecriminalizationof theiridentities.ItwastheroleoftheChurchtotake careof indigenouspeoplesand tomake sureof theiroccidentalization.Withtheintroductionofliberalisminthemid1800s,indigenouspeopleswereconstitutedasindividualsandthereforeasequalsbeforethelaw.Thistimethekindofcontrolwasnotcriminallaw,buttheinformalstructureofthehacienda(LorenzoMuelasHurtado:2005).

Bytheendof19thcentury,criminallawispartofthecivilizingmissionbutitisnotinchargeofcivilizingthebarbarians.IndigenouspeoplesarenotmentionedbecausetheirstatuswasregulatedbyLaw89of1890,alawthatdividedindigenouspersonsbetween civilized, semi-civilizedandsavages20.Forthecivilizedand

18 JosVicenteConcha.Tratado de Derecho Penal.19 TheThousandDaysWar,forinstance,hadthecharacterofasortofinternationalwarbetweenequals.Whitecombatantsweretreatedasequals,indigenouspeoplesinCaucaweretreatedasguerrillerosandthereforeasoutsidethefieldofthelaw.SeeAryCamposChicangana.Montoneras:

2003.20 Theimportanceofwarsinthedefenseof rightsof indigenouspeoplesis explainedbyAryR.CampoChicangana.Op.cit.


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semi-civilizedthelawhadaregimeofcontrolbasedontheirconfinementintheareasassignedtothembytheGovernment,alsoknownasResguardos,butwheretheirautonomywasessentiallylimited.Forthelatter,thelawhadtheChristianmission,whereindigenouspeoplesweresubjecttotheabsolutepoweroftheCatholicChurch.VictorBonilla,analyzingthemissionsintheAmazon,showed

howtheseCatholicmissionsconsideredthemselvesservantsofGod,mastersofmen(VictorD.Bonilla:1972).

TravelstorieswereimportantintheprocessofcivilizationoftheColombiannation.TheywereusedtoshowthegoalColombianelitesneededtoachieve.Lawyers,asliterati,becamecentralagentsinthisprocess,becausetheyhadliteracyandthetoolsusedinEuropetocivilizethecountryfromthestate.UptothatpointConchasbookwasusedasatravelstoryusedbylawyersandjudgesintheirunderstandingofcriminallaw.Inthe1920s,Indigenouspeoplesandpeasantsbecamevisibleduetotheirstrugglesforrightsandland.TheSocialistpartywas

createdandManuelQuintinLamewasfightingfortheindigenouspeoplesofCaucaandTolima21.In1925theelitestriedtopassareformtotheCJStoadaptittothetransformationsinthecultureanddoctrineoflawprevalentinEurope.CarrarasandFerrisconceptionoflawwasoutdatedandthisisonereasonwhythereformdraftedbyConchadidnotcomeintoforce,despitetheapprovalofCongress.Butanotherreasonthatisimportanttoconsideristheutility,orlackofit,ofConchasdoctrineforthecivilizingmissionandtheprocessofconstitutionofagentsasworkersandlowerclass.Theroleoflaw1890hadproventobeweak,indigenousandpeasantswererevoltingagainstthesystem,workerswereorganizingandprotestingagainstthestateofaffairs,insum,thecivilizingmission

hadbackfiredbecauseithadgiventoolstoworkers,peasants,andindigenouspeoplestomakeclaimsagainstthestate.QuintinLame,forinstance,usedthelawasaninstrumentinhisstruggles,orasoneoftheleadersoftheColombianindigenousmovementhasputit:theyusedthelawtocontrolus;weusedittoliberateourselves22.

Uptothispointlawyersweretheonesinchargeofpromotingthereformandgivingscientificadvicetopoliticiansintopicsrelatedtocriminallawandjudicialreform.NationalUniversityofColombiaandExternadoUniversity,twoinstitutions

thatatthetimecouldbeconsideredliberal,werepromotingatransformationofthecriminaljusticesystem.SomeoftheprofessorsofthesetwoinstitutionstraveledtoEuropeandbroughtwiththemnewtheoriesthatweretobeusedinthereformoftheCJSin1936.JorgeElicerGaitn,CarlosLozanoyLozano,andJorgeGutirrezAnzolawerelawyersconnectedtoboththegovernmentandtheseUniversitiesthatbroughttravelstoriesintheformofacriminallawbook.Inthesestories,theyshowedtheadvancesofcriminallawinItalyandhowlawwasusefultocontrolthedangerousclasses.

21 GonzaloSnchez:1976;MnicaEspinosaArango:2004;MedfiloMedina:1989.22 MonicaEspinosa.Of visions and sorrows: Manuel Quintn Lames Indian thought and the violences

of Colombia.Supran.27andInterviewwithJoseVicenteGarcia.DirectoroftheIndigenousRegionalOrganizationofValledelCauca,ORIVAC.Cali,July7th2005.


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In1936areformtothesystemwasapprovedandaconceptionofthecriminalmanasbiologicallydifferentandinneedoftreatmentwasintroduced 23.NationalUniversityofColombiacreatedtheInstituteofCriminology,appointedtostudythecausesofcrimeanddifferentaspectsofthecriminalmanfromapositivistpointofview.Gaitn,recognizedbyEnricoFerri,theItalianfounderoftheCriminological

PositivismSchool,asoneofhismostbrilliantstudents24

,didnotwriteanybookoncriminallawbutheusedthetheoriesinhispracticeasalawyer(JorgeElicerGaitn:1983).Hisclosingargumentswerepublishedandwidelyreadamongstthepopulationofyounglawstudents.CarlosLozanoyLozanowouldpublishhisownbookin1950,sometimebeforehisdeath(CarlosLozanoyLozano:1950).WiththedeathsofGaitnandLozanoyLozano,thetorchincriminallawstudieswaspassedontotheExternadoofColombiaUniversity,duetothefactthatlawyerseducatedinthisinstitutionhadaccesstothenecessaryresourcesandnetworkstotraveltoEuropeanuniversities.

Colombianprofessorsoflawwerenotfulltimeprofessors,butmostlypractitionersthatusedtheteachingof lawaspartoftheirsymboliccapital,or judgeswhowereconnectedto theUniversityaspartofthosesamenetworkstoadvancetheircareers(BernardoGaitnMahecha:1961).AlfonsoReyesEchandawasamixtureofboth.HewasonceapractitionerandtheChairoftheCriminalLawDepartmentintheExternadoUniversity.AfterhavingbeentoItalyandGermany,hecamebacktoColombiatoteachandpracticelaw.HebroughthisowntravelbookandintroducedGermanlawanddoctrineinColombia.HisbookDerechoPenal,publishedintheearly1960s,introducedtheoriesthatunderstoodthecrimeproblemasa technicalone,oneinwhichcriminalsweresanctionedfollowing

certainprocedures(AlfonsoReyesEchanda:1964).HealsowroteCriminologybooksthatwereusedbythePoliceandbymembersofotherlawenforcementagencies.HisbooksandtheUniversitypositionedthemselvesastheepitomeofcriminallawinColombiaforabout40years,andthefigureofReyesEchandawascentralinthatpositioning,untilhisdeathinthemassacreofthePalaceofJusticein1985.However,heleftthedooropenforGermanlawinColombia25.Colombian lawyershave traveledsincethentoGermany,Italy,andSpain, tolearnGermanlawanddoctrineandtotranslatetheworksofGermanauthorsinordertokeepupwiththedoctrineinthiscountry.Inthe1970s,forinstance,

Colombianlawyersgotinvolvedinthediscussionabouttwotheoriesofcriminal

23 Lombroso analyzed first thecriminalman andlaterthecriminalwoman.In anycase, thefunctionsoftheCJSweredifferentdependingonthegenderoftheviolatorofthelaw.Cfr.CesareLombroso:1971.

24 Giventhelackofprestigeinotherregions,itissafetosaythathewasbrilliantbecausehefollowedhisdoctrines.

25 The2001reformwaspromotedbyAttorneyGeneralAlfonsoGmez,whostudiedinGermany,andhisadvisorswereeducateddirectlyorindirectlyinGermanCriminallaw.ItisinterestingtonotethatthedisputeswereaboutwhichGermanschooloflawincorporateinCriminalLaw:GuntherJakobsdoctrinepromotedbylawyerslikeEduardoMontealegreandhisteamofadvisers

intheProcuradura(sortofOmbusdmanoffice)orClausRoxinstheory,promotedbylawyerslikeFernandoVelasquez,CarlosArturoGmezandtheteamofadviserintheAttorneyGeneralsoffice.


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law,atechnicaldiscussionthatemergedinthe1950stocovertheparticipationofthoselawyersinvolvedintheNaziregime26.Thereformpassedin2001wastheresultoftheinfluenceoflawyersfromthisUniversity,anditwasbasedontheneedtoupdateColombianlawsanddoctrines,inordertoremainfullparticipantsofthecommunityofcivilizedcountries.Thisapproachtocriminallawcame

underattackintheearly1990s,butthistimetheattackdidntcomefromotherlawyers,butfromtheeconomistseducatedintheUnitedStates.Thisattackcouldonlybepossiblewithinaframeworkofdevelopmentpolicies,wherelawmadesenseasaninstrumenttopromotethem.Inthenextsectionwewillseehowthemovementforlawanddevelopmentsetthebasesthatallowedeconomiststomakemeaningfulstatementsinthesphereoflaw.

3.tHEprojEctofdEvElopmEntandtHErolEoftHElaw

ThefirstwaveofLawandDevelopmentwasassociatedtotheideaofnational

developmentanditwas connected to institutions likeUSAIDand the FordFoundation.InthediscussionsaboutdevelopmentinLatinAmericainthe1960stherearefewreferencestotheroleofthestateandnonetotheroleofcriminallawintheprojectofdevelopment(CesarRodriguez:2001).DespitethefactthatPrebischsideasaboutdevelopmentinvolveanimportantroleforthestate,criminallawwasnotconsideredaspartofthisprocess.ForPrebisch,thestateprotectsprivate initiativeand thedevelopmentofthe forcesofthemarket.Accordingtohim,theroleofthestateistochannelsocialresourcestotheprivatesector,correcttheforcesofthemarket,developinfrastructureforfurthergrowth,andmediatebetweendomesticentrepreneursandinternationalaid 27.Aswesee,in

CepalsandPrebischsthought,theroleofthestateisjustoneofhelpinganationaleconomyandthemarkettodevelop.Criminallawisnotmentionedbecauseithasnoroleindevelopment,excepttheexpectedoneofstabilizingthestateandbringingaboutorderinsociety.Atthesametime,criminallawwasseenaspartofthesecuringofuniversalvalues,andtostatethatitcouldbeusedasatoolforeconomicdevelopmentwouldleadtotheideathatcriminallawdoesnotprotectuniversalvalues,butparticularinterests.

SponsoredbyUSAIDandtheFordFoundation,therewasanattemptintheUnitedStatestoinvolvethelawintheprocessofdevelopment.However,asinLatinAmericanthought,thelawcametoolatefortheprojectofdevelopment.Law

26 EdmundMezgerandHansWelzelhadparticipatedin theNaziregime,especiallyMezgerwhodraftedsomeofHitlerslaws.Aftertheendofthewar,andasawaytodivertattentionfromhisNazipart,bothauthorswereinvolvedinapolemicaboutthenatureofhumanaction.Apolemicthatlasteduntilthe1970swhenGermanCongresspassedthenewGermanCriminalCodewithastructureofcriminallawthatwasmorealongthelinesofWelzelstheory.Inthe1970sthepolemicwasimportedtoArgentina,wherelawyersgotinvolvedinitasawaytoavoiddiscussingthepoliticalsituationofthecountryandthefactofthedictatorship.RobertoBergallihasshownthat

inArgentinathemorecriticalthesituation,themoreabstractthediscussionsincriminallaw.SeeFranciscoMuozConde:2003;EmilioGarcaMndez:1985;RobertoBergalli:1984).

27 RaulPrebisch:1982andVictorBernaletal:1980.SeealsoAmyL.Chua:1998.


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ProfessorsfromtheUniversitiesofHarvard,Yale,Stanford,andWisconsin,wereinvolvedinaprojectthatstudiedtheLatinAmericanlegalsystemandconcludeditwasunderdevelopedandforthatreasonseemsinneedoffurtherance.Lawwasseenatthetimeasaninstrumentofsocialchange,butmostspecificallyasaninstrumentofsocialengineering.Theaimofjudicialandlegalreforms,according

tothescholarsinvolvedinthismovement,wastoadjustthelegalsystemtothesocialandeconomicchangesthathadalreadytakenplace.Itisimportanttonoticethatlawyerscamelatetothereformandtheywereseenassecondaryagentsintheprocessofreform.Traditionallawyershavethoughtotherwise:inthereformstotheCJStheyavoidedusingsocialscience,eventhoughtheysometimesbasedtheirreformsontheirunderstandingofsocialscience.Forinstance,thereformof1966wastheresultofhowColombianLawyersunderstoodDurkheimstheoryofsolidarity.

ToDavidTrubek,oneoftheleadingscholarsofthemovement,lawand

developmentseesmodernlawasessentialtothecreationandmaintenanceofmarkets,andtheemphasisisonpredictabilityasasetofuniversalrulesuniformlyapplied(DavidTrubek:1972).Giventhatunderdevelopedcountrieslackedamodernlegalsystem,theyhadtoadoptmodernrulesthatledtofreedomanddevelopment,andtheyhadtodosobyimportingforeignmeaningAmericancodes.Domesticlegalpracticescametobeseenastraditionalorcustomary,andforthatreasonasnon-rationalandnonprogressive.Giventhatmostoftheworkinthetransformationofthestatewasdonebyeconomists,lawyerswereleftwithjustthetransformationoflegaleducation,becauseunderdevelopedcountrieshadaformalisticandtraditionalwayofteachinglaw.However,Trubek,usingMax

Webersconceptionoflaw,writesthatmodernlawdoesnotproduceeconomicdevelopmentorpoliticaldevelopment;itjusthelpstofreethestructureofthemarketandsupportacentralizedbureaucraticstate28.

Localhistorieswerepresentedasinferiorandinneedofadoptingasuperiormodel.ToRobertSeidman,thirdworldcountriesarebasedonatraditionofduallaw.Accordingtohim,thefactthatthereisapluralsocietyandparallellegalsystemsshowsthecoloniallegacyofthesecountriesandtheneedtotransformthem.Tohim,bydefinitioncustomarylawcannotleadtodevelopment,thereforewe

needtoeliminateparallelsystemsoflawandunifytheeconomyandthelegalsystem29.Asaresultofthiswaveoflawanddevelopment,theFordFoundationsupportedtransformationsofthelegalsysteminthreecountries:Brazil,Chile,andColombia.InBrazilthetransformationwasinstrumentalinhelpingdiscredittheformallegalsystemandtheprotectionsofformallaw,yieldingtoformsofauthoritarianismthatinterpretedlawasaneutralinstrumentofpolitics.InChile

28 Trubek.Supran.38at15.29 RobertB.Seidman:1972,At315.SeealsoKennethL.KarstandKeithS.Rosen:1975.Thisanalysis

remindsusofthediscussionaboutfeudalismandcapitalisminLatinAmerica,andtheideathatthedualeconomyofthesenationswasthecauseofunderdevelopment.Cfr.RodolfoStavenhagenetal:1980.


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itledtosuperficialtransformationsandinColombiatheprojectwasatotalfailure(JamesGardner:1980).

However,theprojectofLawandDevelopmentleftanimportantlegacythatwasgoingtobecomeimportantinthe1990s.AsImentionedearlier,inthe1960sthe

modelofCEPALturnedtoeconomistsforthetransformationofthestate.Criminallawhadnotrole,butlegaleducationwasvital.TheFordFoundationsupportedreformsinlegaleducationinNationalandLosAndesUniversities.Despitethefailureoftheprogram,studentsinLosAndesUniversitywereeducatedunderthemodelofAmericanuniversities.ColombianlawschoolstaughtAmericanlawandthewayofteachinglawintheUnitedStatesbecamethewayofteachinglawinthisUniversity.LawstudentswentlatertoHarvard,Wisconsin,Yale,andotherAmericanuniversitiestobetrainedinthemodelofAmericanlaw.TheygottheirJDsintheUnitedStatesandreturnedtoColombiatobecomeprofessorsandtodoscholarlyworkfollowingtheAmericanmodel.

Theselawyersweretrainedintheuseoflawasaninstrumentofsocialchange.Theylearnedtheimportanceofsocialandlegalengineeringintheprocessofdevelopment.Thisknowledge,tiedwiththeneoinstitutionalismmodeldevelopedbytheWorldBank,became importantforthereformsthatarebeingappliedtoday.TheselawyerscametoColombiawithatravelbook:theAmericanlawbook.Inthe1980sand1990s,lawyersinColombiabegantopublishtheworksofprofessorsofConstitutional law like RonaldDworkin, BruceAckerman,DuncanKennedy,andothers,andbegan toimport theAmericandiscussionsaboutconstitutionallaw,despiteofthemanydifferencesbetweentheColombian

andAmericanlegalsystems.Buteconomistgotinvolvedinthestudyofthelawtoo.FollowingtheanalysesofGaryBecker,economistslikeMauricioRubioandSergioClavijobegantoanalyze the relationshipbetween lawandeconomicsandbegantointroduceamodelofefficiencytounderstandtheroleoflaw.Likethegapstudiesofthe1960sinthefieldoflawandsociety, theseeconomistsanalyzedthebestwaytoimplementthelawandthebestwaytohaveanefficientlegalsystem.

Onthesideofcriminallaw,lawyerskepttheirpowerandwereleadingthe

transformationsoftheCJSusinglegaldoctrinesproducedinEurope,especiallySpain,Italy,andGermany.Withthe1991Constitution,theirrolebecamelessrelevantbecausetheywereunabletospeakinanonnormativelanguage.Thetimeforeconomistswascoming.Inthefollowingsectionswewillseehowdevelopmentwas transformedandhowlaw,development, andcriminal lawbecamepartnersinthereformoftheCJS.

4.fromnationaldEvElopmEnttonEolibEraldEvElopmEnt

TheideasofCEPALandtheideaofdevelopmentwereunderstrongattackin

the1970s.Fromthesideofdependencytheoryitwasshownthattheideaofdevelopmentinvolvedseveralcontradictions.FernandoCardososhowedthatitwaspossibletoachievedevelopmentinconditionsofpoliticaldependency,that


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is,heseparatedpoliticaldependencyandeconomicunderdevelopment30.RuyMauroMariniandGunderFrankfocusedontheideathatunderdevelopmentanddevelopmentweretwosidesofthesamecoin,andrejectedtheideathatLatinAmericawasfeudalandthatthisfeudalismwasanobstacletodevelopment31.Furthermore,theyshowedthatunderdevelopmentwastheresultofdevelopment.

Prebischhimselfwrotein1982acritiquetothemodelofCEPALandshowedtheneedtocreateanewmodelabletoachievethemuchdesireddevelopmentoftheLatinAmericancountries(RaulPrebisch:1950andRaulPrebisch:1982).

Bytheendofthe1980sandtheearlier1990stheideaofdevelopmentassuchwascriticized:scholarslikeArturoEscobar,PhilipMcMichaelandothersshowedhowdevelopmentwasaprojectoradiscursiveconstruct(ArturoEscobar:1995;PhilipMcMichael:2000).

However,withtheWashingtonConsensusandthewritingsofFrancisFukuyama,

theideawasthatthestatewasanobstacletodevelopmentandthatitneededtobetransformed.Thatis,democracyneedednotonlyliberalizationofpoliticsbutalsotheliberalizationofmarkets.Afteralongprocessofmea culpa,scholarsinthefieldoflawanddevelopmentgatheredaroundtheideaofarighttodevelopment(HansOttoSano:2000).Thisdidntleadtoanewinternationalorder,butitbroughtaboutanewpushtothelawanddevelopmentmovement.Nowstableenvironmentsforforeigninvestmentwithefficientprotectionofpropertyrightsandtheprotectionoftheglobalruleoflawtofacilitateinternationaltransactionsbecamethecentralelementsadvocatedbyscholarsinthefieldoflawanddevelopment32.Thisnewconceptionoflawanddevelopmentledtoanoptimisticviewofhumanrights

andeconomicgrowth,whichwastiedtothewaveofdemocratizationthatsweptacrossLatinAmericainthe1980s.Accordingtosupportersofthistrend,someoftheobstaclesfordevelopmentwerethelackofaccesstojustice;corruption;theinstabilityofpropertyrights;andtheinefficiencyofthelegalsystemtoprotecttherightsofthepeople.Inthissecondwave,thefocusisnotthetransformationoflegaleducationbuttheideathatthestatemattersandthereforethatthereformneedstocovermorethantheroleoflawyersassocialengineers.

In1995,scholarsdiscussedtheroleofthelawintheprocessofdevelopment.

Thegoalwastoembarkonprogramsoflegaltechnicalassistanceandsothererosetheneedfortechnicianswhowereabletousethelawinthebestwayinordertopromotedevelopment,nowunderstoodasfacilitatingmarkettransactionsbydefiningproperty rights, guaranteeing theenforcement ofcontractsandmaintaininglawandorder(JulioFaundez:1997).Todoso,themodelgoesbacktothestate,butthistimetoensurethatthereisaninstitutionaldesignthatguaranteesthenoninterventionofthestateineconomicmatters.

30 FernandoCardosoyEnzoFaletto:1969.31 RuyMauroMarini.DialcticadelaDependencia.EnRodolfoStavenhagen.Supran.41.and

AndreGunderFrank.Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America(NewYork:MonthlyReviewStudies,1969).

32 Rodrigez.Supra n. 53at14.


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Inthenewwaveoflawanddevelopmentitappearsasifthemainroleofthereformwasjusttheruleoflaw.Inthenewmodel,reformersclaimtoredesignthestateinordertopushforareformofthestatethatprotectsdemocracyandtheruleoflaw(DeborahJ.Yashar:1999).AftertheSummitoftheWorldBank,thecriminaljusticesystembegantobeseenaspartoftheprocessofdevelopmentandneo

institutionalismbecamethewaytounderstandtheoreticallythereforms.JosephThome,commentingonthesecondwaveoflawanddevelopment,assertedthatlawreformwasbasedonthreepremises:developmentrequiresalegalframeworkresemblingthatoftheUnitedStates;thismodelestablishesclearandpredictablerules;andthismodelcanbeeasilytransferred.HoweverThomeaddsthatthesethreepremiseshavebeenprovenfalse.Inspiteofthat,thesearethepremisesthatwereatthebaseofthe2005reformtotheCJSinColombia.

TheWorldBankbegantobeconcernedwithjudicialreformandtheroleoflawindevelopment.NowthereformwasnotonlypushedfromUSAIDandtheFord

Foundation,butfromtheInteramericanDevelopmentBank,theWorldBank,andaseriesofmultinationalcompaniesinchargeofgivingtechnicalsupportinthedevelopmentprocessandlegalreform.Thejudicialsystemwasimportanttoachievethegoalsofneoliberalreform.Intheproceedingsofthe1995ConferenceonJudicialReform,theWorldBankstates:

The World Banks interests in judicial reform stems from its concern

about the sustainability of the development efforts it supports in borrowing

countries. Many of the programs of the Bank and other development

institutions and governments finance are at risk because of the lack of

enforcement of the rule of law, a basic principle for sustainable social and

economic development33.

Institutionsneededtoberedesignedandthestateneededtogetinvolvedtoensurerightsandstability.TheWorldBankpromotedatransformationofLatinAmericanjudicialsystemsandanewdesignoftheirinstitution.Themodelofthenewinstitutionalismwascentralinthisprocess34.

MarchsandOlsonsseminalarticlecoinedthetermnewinstitutionalismfor

thestudiesthatwerebeingmadebyscholarsconcernedwiththeimportanceofinstitutions.Aftercriticizingoldstudiesfortheiranalysisofinstitutionsunderthelabelsofcontextuals,reductionists,utilitarians,functionalists,andinstrumentalists,MarchandOlsonwritethatthenewinstitutionalistsunderstandinstitutionsinamoreautonomousway.Onecentralelementintheiranalysisiswhattheycall

33 MalcolmRowat,WaleedH.Malik,andMariaDakolias,1995,Atvii.34 LuisSalas.FromLawandDevelopmenttoRuleofLaw.NewandOldIssuesinJusticeReforminLatinAmerica.InPilarDomingoandRachelScieder:2003;LinnHammergren:2002;LawyersCommitteeforHumanRights.Building on Quicksand. The Collapse of World Banks Reform in

Peru.(NewYork:LawyersCommitteeforHumanRights,2000);MiguelSchor.TheruleofLawanddemocraticconsolidationinLatinAmerica.PaperPresentedatthe2003meetingoftheLawandSocietyAssociation(infilewithauthors).


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thelogicofappropriateness.Againsttherationalchoicetheorists,theyholdthatchoicesarenotmadeinavoid,andagainststructuralfunctionaliststheyholdthatbehaviorisnotjusttheresultofroles.Institutionsshapeindividualbehavior,theylimitit,orientit,butnevercompletelydetermineit.Atthesametimetheyemphasizetheimportanceofhistoryintheanalysisofinstitutions,becausepast

decisionswilldeterminepresentones.Withregardtotheconceptofinstitutions,theyincludenotonlyformalones,butalsorules,rituals,informalnorms,etc. 35.In1985,EvansSkocpolandReuschmeyereditedabookinwhichtheyshowedhowthestatehadreturnedtobethemainobjectofanalysis.Asaresultofthisbook,therewasawaveofanalysisinwhichthestatewasstudiedbothasanindependentvariableandasaffectingsociety,forinstance,fortheconstructionofadurabledemocracy36.

The re-emergenceof the state andwhatOlsenandMarchcoinedasnewinstitutionalismwasnotaunifiedandhomogenousacademicendeavor.AsHall

andTaylor,Peters,Koelbe,Campbell,andKatohaveshown,newinstitutionalismdeveloped indifferentkinds ofnotnecessarily connected scholarship,withdifferentapproachestotheroleofinstitutions37.Thiswascalledthefirstwaveofnewinstitutionalism,theoneinwhichthedifferentapproachesdevelopedtheirownparadigmsinaseparateway.Accordingtothesescholars,wearewitnessingnowthesecondwaveofnewinstitutionalism,inwhichthedifferentparadigmsareputtogethertoconstituteaunifiedtheory.

Lawyerswerenottrainedinthenuancesofthisnewinstitutionalism.Itwasnowthejoboftheeconomiststoreformtheinstitutionsbuttodosotheyhadtolegitimize

themselvesinthefieldofcriminallaw38.Traditionallawyersfocusedonthestateasaformalinstitutionandsawthelawjustasaninstrumenttoregulatepeoplesbehavior;forthatreason,theirroleinthereformofthesystemwasincreasinglylosingitsimportance.Butatthesametime,theWorldBankbecameinvolvedinthereformsofinstitutions,becauseitbegantoconnectdevelopmentandthereformtothecriminaljusticesystem.

Asaresultofthe1995SummitoftheWorldBank,thelegalsystemwasincludedinthesocialagendaofdonorinstitutions.AccordingtotheWorldBank,third

worldcountriesareinneedoftransformingtheirlegalsystemsinordertopromoteeconomicdevelopment.However,thistimethelegalsystemisnotusedasinPrebischorasinthefirstwaveoflawanddevelopment,butasaninstrumenttoguaranteemarkettransactionsandtoprotectpropertyrights.Behindthisisthe

35 JamesMarchandJohanP.Olsen:1984,734-749.36 PeterEvans,ThedaSckocpol,DieterRueschmeyer:1985.37 PeterHalland RosemaryTaylor:1996,936-957;B.GuyPeters.Political Institutions.Old andNew.InRobertGoodlinandHansDieterKlingemann:1998;ThomasA.Koelbe:1995,231-243;JohnL.Campbell.Introduction.InJohnCampbellandOveK.Pedersen: 2001;JunkoKato:1996,

553-582.38 LinnHammergren.The Judicial Career in Latin America. An overview of Theory and Experience.WorldBank.


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ideaofthebestpractice,thatis,theWorldBanklooksforthebestpracticeinthematteroftheCJSanditimposesthistransformationontherecipientcountries.

Neoliberalreformisnowconnectingthecriminaljusticesystemtotheideaofdevelopmentinordertopreventandattackcorruptionandinthatwayhelpthe

recipientcountriesdeveloptheireconomies,thatis,opentheirmarketstofacilitateforeigninvestment.InColombia,thetransformationhadbeendoneoriginallythroughtheAIDanditsfightagainstthedrugtrade.Infact,afterthereformeffectedin1991,wheretheoldColombianconstitutionwaschangedbyanewone,newelementswereestablishedintheColombianlegalsystem.The1991Constitutionestablishednewsocialrights,aremedyforhumanrightsviolationsbasedontheMexicanamparo, aConstitutionalCourt,amongothers.Atthesametime,theConstitutionestablishedanewofficeinchargeoftheinvestigationofcrimes.TheAttorneyGeneralsofficeispartofthejudicialbranchanditisinchargeofinvestigatingandindictingthosewhoareresponsibleforcrimes.The

institutiongoesmorealongthelinesoftheSpanishmodel,showingtheinfluenceoftheSpanishdesignintheCJS.

However,withthemountingimportanceofinstitutionsintheWorldBank,thestresshasbeenputnotjustinthelawbutnowmoreimportantlyintheroleofinstitutionstoshapethedecisionsofagentsinthesystem.Giventhisanalysis,theWorldBankhasbecomeanimportantinstitutioninthetransformationofthejudicialsysteminLatinAmerica.Butthisisadesignthatinvolvesnotonlytheparticipationofnationalinstitutions,likeUSAID,butmoreinstitutionsofglobalgovernance,liketheWorldBank,theIMF,andtheUNPD39.

Tothe2005reformers,lawwasanimportantelementfordevelopment,becauseitcanguaranteepropertyrightsandacompetitiveenvironmentforforeigninvestors.Accordingtothe2005reformers,theideaistomakethecountryascompetitiveaspossible,andthismeanstheliberalizationoftheeconomy,thereductionoftheregulatorypowerofthestate,andtheeliminationoflaborrights 40.Butoneofthemainproblemsthesereformersseeintheeconomyistheexistenceoftransactioncoststhatmakethesystemlesscompetitive,andoneofthemiscorruption41.Thisconceptionisseenintheideaoftransparencyandhowthe

stateisminimizedinordertopreventitsinterventioninthemarket,unlessitistohelpit(EdgarReveiz:1997).

5.EconomistsEntErtHEfiEldofcriminallaw

InJune1991ColombiapassedanewConstitution,whichwasgoingtocompletelyreshapethestructureofthestate.ThereformwastheresultofthepoliciesbroughtbyColombianpresidentCsarGaviria,aneconomistfromLosAndesUniversity,

39 MalcomRowatetal:1995andPeterMurrell:2001.40 YvesDezalayandBrianGarth:2002andYvesDezalayandBrianGarth:2002.41 EdgardoBuscagliaetal:1997andPilarDomingoetal:2001.


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educatedintheUnitedStatesandwhobroughttothegovernmentlawyersandeconomistswhowerewillingtoredesigntheinstitutionsoftheColombianstateandtoimplementamodelofdevelopmentthatopenedColombianmarketstotheworldandmadethecountrymoreattractiveforforeigninvestors.OneofthetransformationsintheConstitutionwasthecreationoftheAttorneyGenerals

officeandtheCounciloftheJudiciary.Althoughthesemeasurescanbeseenasdemocratic,theywerealsopartoftheprocessofredesigningthestatefortheimplementationofneoliberalpoliciesinColombia,aprojectthatGaviriaproudlylabeledasapertura (opening).

Asaresultofthesepolicies,businesspeople,politicians,andtheownersofthemostimportantColombiannewspapercreatedtheCorporacinExcelenciaenlaJusticia(ExcelenceinJusticeCorporation),athinktankdedicatedtoanalyzethelegalsystemanddesignpoliciesforthegovernmenttoimprovetheefficiencyofthesystem.Thisthinktankhasbeenpublishingajournaldedicatedtostudythe

relationshipbetweenlawanddevelopment.Inthisjournal,Justicia y Desarrollo,lawyersandeconomisthavepublishedtheirarticlesontheefficiencyofthesystemofjusticeandonhowtoimproveit,andtodosotheyhavebeenusingaperspectivebasedonlawandeconomics.

AmongtheeconomistswhohavebeenpublishinginseveraljournalsaboutthistopicareArmandoMontenegroandMauricioRubio,professorsofeconomicsatLosAndesUniversityandeducatedintheUnitedStates.InthepagesofJusticia ySociedadandCoyuntura Econmica,economistselaboratedadiscourseinwhichthecriminaljusticesystembegantobeseennotasaninstrumenttosolveconflicts

betweentheparties,butasaninstrumenttocontrolcriminality,corruption,andtoeliminatethecostoftransactionsforforeigncompanies.

ThisjournalhaspublishedseveralstudiesrelatingtheeconomytotheCJS.Inthesestudiestheneedtohaveareliablejusticesysteminordertoallowthesystemtofunctionproperlyisstressed.Todoso,itisproposedthattherightstopropertybegrantedandprotectedefficientlybytheCJS.Giventhatcrimeandcorruptioncreatetransactioncostsfortheinvestors,theauthorsofthearticlespublishedinthesejournalsadvocateforamoreefficientCJS.Inapolldonein

2000,entrepreneursansweredthattheinefficiencyofthejudicialsystemandtheinstabilityoftherightstopropertywerethemaincausesfortransactioncostsandthemaindifferencebetweenaregionandanotherintermsofbeingattractivetoinvestmentandindustrialdevelopment42.InthesameissueofJusticia y Desarrollo,ananalysisoftheobstaclesforforeigninvestmentispresented,whereitisclaimedthatforeigncompaniesprefertohavetheirbusinessinplaceswherephysicalandrightssafetyareguaranteed.Oneoftheobstaclestoforeigninvestment,accordingtothestudy,istheinefficiencyofthejudicialsystem43.

42 FundacindeInvestigacionesEconmicasLatinoamericanas.Laseguridadjurdicaysuimpacto

sobrelasinversiones.Justicia y Desarrollo Vol. 3 No. 13(September,2000).43 ProgramaConvertir-DNP.ObstculosyoportunidadesparalaInversinExtranjeraenColombia.

Justicia y Desarrollo Vol. 3 No. 13(September,2000).


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ArmandoMontenegroandCarlosPosadaanalyzedthecrimerateinColombiaintheyear1995.Intheirarticle,PosadaandMontenegrotakeBeckersrationalchoicetheoryastheirtheorytoexplaincrime.Thisneoclassicalapproachwillshowthatcrimeistheresultofarationalchoicetakenbythepersonwhodecidestobreakthelaw.Althoughthisapproachhasbeencriticizedbecauseit

doesnottakeintoaccountthestructureofsocietyandassumesthatindividualsbreakthelawjustbecausetheywantto,theauthorsdonotmakeanattempttoevaluateanycriticalapproachtocrime.Intheirarticletheyshowthatthemodelofdevelopmentisunrelatedtotheideaofcrimeandthereforethatitisnottheprocessofindustrializationortheprocessofopeningofthemarkets thatareresponsiblefortheincreaseinthecrimerate.Sincetheirapproachisbasedontherelationshipbetweencostsandbenefits,theyconcludebysayingthatitisnotthelackofsocialservicesbuttheabsenceofcoststocommittingacrimethemainreasonswhythecrimeratehasincreasedinColombiainthe1990s44.

MauricioRubio,anothereconomisteducatedatLosAndesUniversityandHarvard,analyzesthecoststhatcrimecausestothestate.Inhisanalysis,Rubioemphasizestheimportanceofaninstitutionalredesignandhowitisthelackingstructureofthestatethemainreasonwhycrimehasgoneupandpeoplesolvetheirconflictsprivately(MauricioRubio:1999).Inhisbookheshowshowcrimeaffectstheefficiencyoftheeconomyandhowcrimecanbecomeanobstacletoeconomicdevelopment,thatistosay,openmarkets.

Oneresultoftheseeconomicanalysesofcriminallawistheemphasisplacedonefficiency.However,economistshavedefinedefficiencyintermsthattheycan

measurewitheconometricanalysis.Giventhattheefficiencyandefficacyofthesystemcannotbedefinedwithouttakingintoaccounttheroleofthestateandthelawasaninstrumentofcontrolandcreationofidentities,Colombianeconomistshavehadahardtimedefiningthisterm.Rubioandotherscameupwiththeideathatefficiencymeanstimeinprison;therefore,ifapersoninvestigatedforacrimeisnotsentencedtoprisontime,theywouldconsiderthatthereisimpunityinthesystem.Followingthismodel,MauricioCardenas,statedinanarticlewrittenin1996thatcrimeratehasincreasedandoverwhelmedtheabilityofthesystemtodealwithit.Headdsthattheinefficiencyofthesystemamountsto98%of

impunity,becauseonly5%ofthecasesaredealtwithbytheCJSandamongthoseonly2%endinprisontime.Thesystemisasinefficient,accordingtoCardenas,asitusedtobeinthe1980s,butthebudgethasdoubledsincethe1991Constitution(MauricioCrdenas:1996).

TheCJSispresentedinthesestudiesasaninefficientinstrumentandconsequentlyasanobstacletothedevelopmentofthecountry.Atthesametime,thepoliticalimplicationsofcrimeandjustice,studiedandanalyzedinEuropeancriminological

44 ArmandoMontenegroandCarlos EstebanPosada. Criminalidad enColombia.CoyunturaEconmicaVol.25No.1(1995).SeealsoAAVV:1995andJaimeGranadosPena.SenecesitaunareformaalaFiscaliaGeneraldelaNacion?Justicia y Desarrollo Ao IV Vol 16. (June,2001).


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discourse,andthenormativequestionsthatwereaskedbylawyersintheEuropeancriminallawdesign,areleftasidebyeconomists,andinsteadquestionsaboutefficiencybegintobeasked.Inthisway,theCJSisbeingconstructeddiscursivelyasatechnicalinstrumentthatcanbeanalyzedonlybytechnocratsandthereforeaspacewheretraditionallawyershavenoplace.

Economistshavebeenwritingabouttheneedtotreattheeconomyandthemodelofdevelopmentasatechnicalmatterandnotasonethatinvolvesanykindofpoliticaldiscussion.SalomonKalmanovitz,professorattheEconomicsDepartmentatbothNationalandLosAndesUniversity,andmemberoftheBoardofDirectorsoftheCentralBankinColombiaasortofColombianAllanGreenspanhaswrittenthattheConstitutionalCourtwhendecidingabouteconomicissuesshouldhavetheadviseoftechnocratseconomistswithPhDwhocananalyzetheseissuesguaranteeingtheirpoliticalneutrality45.

conclusion:EntErEconomicExitpolitics

TeivoTeivaneninhisbookonneoliberalreforminPerushowstheprocessbywhicheconomicsbecamethelanguageofstatereform,sothatanyreformbecamea-politicaland therefore inevitable. IntheColombian reform tothe state, thediscourseaboutredesignofinstitutionshasbecomeoneaboutglobalizationandtheneedtoadaptthesystemtotherequirementsofglobalization,openmarketsandaglobaleconomy.Ifthecountrywantstosucceed,itwillhavetoadapttothesetransformationsinboththeeconomicandthelaw.

ThelanguageofeconomicsdidnotemergesuddenlyinColombia.Sincethefirstwaveoflawanddevelopment,inwhichlawyerswerenothingmorethantechnicianstryingtodeterminethebestwaytoeducatelawyersforsocialchange,economists havedominated the fieldofdevelopment.However, the1950sand1960smodelofdevelopmentdidnotpaymuchattentiontothestateandinstitutions.Itiswiththerevivalofthestateinthe1980sthattheideathatinstitutionsmattertookagaintheleadinthediscoursesaboutdevelopmentanditpermeatedthelanguageoflawyersandsocialscientists.

ThesecondwaveoflawanddevelopmentwaslinkedtothetransitiontodemocracyinLatinAmericaandtherevivalofinstitutionalanalysisinthesocialsciences.Atthesametime,itwasconnectedwiththelostofEuropeanculturalhegemonyincriminallawandthetransitiontoamodelbasedontheAmericansystemofjustice.InGaviriasadministrationeconomistswerefocusedonaredesignofthestate,tryingtoadaptthestatetoaneoliberalmodelofdevelopment,oneinwhichthestatehastoreduceitssizeandincreaseitsattractivenessforforeigninvestment.Since1991economistsandlawyerseducatedinthemodeloflawanddevelopmentbegantodevelopadiscourseinwhichtheideaofefficiencybecamecentraland

45 SalomonKalmanovitz:1999andSalomonKalmanovitz.LosfallosdelJuezConstitucional:elcasodelaCapitalizacindeIntereses.Justicia y Desarrollo vol. 3 No. 2.


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oneinwhichnormativestatementsabouttheCJSwerelosingtheircredentials.IndifferentarticleswrittenbyeconomistsfromLosAndesUniversity,theCJSwasincludedinaneoliberalmodelofdevelopment,highlightingitsimportanceforforeigninvestmentinthecountry.Asaresult,thediscourseaboutcriminallawbecameoneaboutefficiency,transparency,corruptionanddevelopment.

Oncethisdiscoursewaselaborated,lawyersparticularlythosefromExternadoUniversitylosttheirabilitytouttermeaningfulstatementsabouttheCJSandthereforetoberelevantaspolicymakersinthereformtotheCJS.InthereformtothecriminaljusticesysteminColombia,wewitnessedaprocesswherebylawyerseitherhadtogetinvolvedindiscussionsaboutefficiencyandimpunity,lackingtheelementstosayinterestingthings,orhadtolosetheirroleaspolicymakersandcrucialagentsinthesystem.ThisisnottosaythatlawyersdisappearedfromtheCJS,theystillexistasworkersofthesystem,buttheyworkinasystemwheretheirabilitytocontributetoitisdecreasingrapidly.ThereformtotheCJSisthe

resultofthisbattleforculturalhegemony,andattheendeconomistsandbusinesslawyersaretheonestakingthefruitsofvictory.


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Documents

Benavides F.S. a Global Zero Tolerance