Battle of Vienna

This article is about the 1683 battle. For the earlierOttoman siege of 1529, see Siege of Vienna. For the1485 Hungarian siege, see Siege of Vienna (1485). Forthe 1945 battle, see Vienna Offensive.

TheBattle of Vienna (German: Schlacht amKahlen Ber-ge or Kahlenberg; Polish: bitwa pod Wiedniem or odsieczwiedeńska; Modern Turkish: İkinci Viyana Kuşatması,Ottoman Turkish: Beç Ḳalʿası Muḥāṣarası) is a battle thattook place on 12 September 1683[1][11] after the imperialcity of Vienna had been besieged by the Ottoman Empirefor twomonths. The battle was fought by theHoly RomanEmpire of the German Nation in league with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Holy League) against the in-vading Muslim Ottoman Empire and chiefdoms of theOttoman Empire, and took place at Kahlenberg Moun-tain near Vienna. The battle marked the first time Polandand the Holy Roman Empire had cooperated militarilyagainst the Turks, and it is often seen as a turning pointin history, after which “the Ottoman Turks ceased to bea menace to the Christian world”.[12] In the ensuing warthat lasted until 1698, the Turks lost almost all of Hun-gary to the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I.[12]

The battle was won by the combined forces of the HolyRoman Empire of the German Nation and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the latter represented onlyby the forces of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.(The march of the Lithuanian army was delayed, andthey reached Vienna after it had been relieved.)[13] TheViennese garrison was led by Ernst Rüdiger Graf vonStarhemberg, an Austrian subject of Holy Roman Em-peror Leopold I. The overall command was held by thesenior leader, the King of Poland, John III Sobieski, wholed the Polish forces.The opposing military forces were those of OttomanEmpire and those of Ottoman fiefdoms commandedby Grand Vizier Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha.An Ottoman army of approximately 90,000[3]–300,000[6][7][8][9] men began the siege on 14 July 1683.The Turkish forces consisted of 60 ortas of Janissaries(12,000 men paper-strength) with an observation armyof c.70,000[14] men watching the countryside. Thedecisive battle took place on 11 September, after theunited relief army of about 46,000 men had arrived.Historians suggest the battle marked the turning-pointin the Ottoman–Habsburg wars, a 300-year struggle be-tween the Holy Roman and Ottoman Empires. In fact,during the sixteen years following the battle, the Austrian

Habsburgs gradually recovered and dominated south-ern Hungary and Transylvania, which had been largelycleared of Turkish forces. The battle is also noted forincluding the largest known cavalry charge in history.

1 Prelude

Capturing the city of Vienna had long been a strategicaspiration of the Ottoman Empire, because of its in-terlocking control over Danubian (Black Sea to West-ern Europe) southern Europe, and the overland (East-ern Mediterranean to Germany) trade routes. During theyears preceding this second siege (the first had taken placein 1529), under the auspices of grand viziers from the in-fluential Köprülü family, the Ottoman Empire undertookextensive logistical preparations, including the repair andestablishment of roads and bridges leading into the HolyRoman Empire and its logistical centres, as well as theforwarding of ammunition, cannon and other resourcesfrom all over the Ottoman Empire to these centres andinto the Balkans. Since 1679, the plague had been ragingin Vienna.[15]

The Ottoman Empire in 1683

On the political front, the Ottoman Empire had beenproviding military assistance to the Hungarians and tonon-Catholic minorities in Habsburg-occupied portionsof Hungary. There, in the years preceding the siege,widespread unrest had become open rebellion againstLeopold I's pursuit of Counter-Reformation principles

1

2 1 PRELUDE

The Ottoman siege of Vienna

and his desire to crush Protestantism. In 1681, Protes-tants and other anti-Habsburg Kuruc forces, led by ImreThököly, were reinforced with a significant force fromthe Ottomans,[10]:657 who recognized Thököly as King of"Upper Hungary" (the eastern part of today’s Slovakiaand parts of today’s north-eastern Hungary, which hehad earlier taken by force of arms from the Habsburgs).This support included explicitly promising the “King-dom of Vienna” to the Hungarians if it fell into Ottomanhands.[16]:129 Yet before the siege, a state of peace hadexisted for twenty years between the Holy Roman Em-pire and the Ottoman Empire as a result of the Peace ofVasvár.In 1681 and 1682, clashes between the forces of ImreThököly and the Holy Roman Empire (of which the bor-der was then northern Hungary) intensified, and the incur-sions of Habsburg forces into Central Hungary providedthe crucial argument of Grand Vizier KaraMustafa Pashain convincing the Sultan, Mehmet IV and his Divan, toallow the movement of the Ottoman army. Mehmet IVauthorized Kara Mustafa Pasha to operate as far as Győr(the name during the Ottoman period was Yanıkkale, inGerman Raab) and Komárom (in Turkish Komaron, inGerman Komorn) Castles, both in northwestern Hungary,and to besiege them. The Ottoman Army was mobilizedon 21 January 1682, and war was declared on 6 August1682.The logistics of the time meant that it would have beenrisky or impossible to launch an invasion in August orSeptember 1682 (a three-month campaign would havegotten the Ottomans to Vienna just as winter set in).However this 15-month gap between mobilization andthe launch of a full-scale invasion allowed ample timefor Vienna to prepare its defence and for Leopold toassemble troops from the Holy Roman Empire and setup an alliance with Poland, Venice and Pope InnocentXI. Undoubtedly this contributed to the failure of theOttoman campaign. The decisive alliance of the HolyRoman Empire with Poland was concluded in the 1683Treaty of Warsaw, in which Leopold promised support

to Sobieski if the Ottomans attacked Kraków; in return,the Polish Army would come to the relief of Vienna if itwere attacked.[10]:656, 659

Kuruc anti-Habsburg rebels in Hungary

On 31 March 1683, another declaration, sent by GrandVizier Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha on behalf ofMehmet IV, arrived at the Imperial Court in Vienna. Onthe next day, the forward march of Ottoman army ele-ments began from Edirne in Thrace. The Turkish troopsreached Belgrade by early May. They were joined bya Transylvanian army under Prince Mihaly Apafi and aHungarian force under Imre Thököly, laid siege to Győr,and the remaining army of 150,000 moved toward thecity ofVienna.[10]:660 About 40,000Crimean Tatar troopsarrived 40 km east of Vienna on 7 July,[10]:660 twiceas many as the Imperial troops in the area. EmperorLeopold fled Vienna for Passau with his court and 60,000Viennese, while Charles V, Duke of Lorraine withdrewhis force of 20,000 towards Linz.[10]:660 The main Turk-ish army arrived at Vienna on 14 July, now only de-fended by Count Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg's 15,000men.[10]:660

The King of Poland Jan III Sobieski prepared a relief ex-pedition to Vienna during the summer of 1683, so hon-ouring his obligations to the treaty. He left his own na-tion virtually undefended when departing from Krakówon 15 August. Sobieski covered this with a stern warn-ing to Imre Thököly, the leader of Hungary, whom hethreatened with destruction if he tried to take advantageof the situation — which Thököly in fact attempted. JanKazimierz Sapieha the Younger delayed the march of theLithuanian army, devastating the Hungarian Highlands(now Slovakia) instead, and arrived in Vienna only afterit had been relieved.[13]

Immediately, tensions rose between Poland and the vari-ous German states, above all Austria, over the relief of thecity. Payment of troops’ wages and supplies while march-ing was predominant among these. Sobieski demandedthat he should not have to pay for his march to Vienna,since it was by his efforts that the city had been saved; norcould the Viennese neglect the other German troops whohad marched. The Habsburg leadership hurriedly foundas much money as possible to pay for these and arrangeddeals with the Polish to limit their costs.[17]

3

2 Events during the siege

The Ottoman Army surrounds Vienna.

Themain Ottoman army finally laid siege to Vienna on 14July. On the same day, Kara Mustafa sent the traditionaldemand for surrender to the city.[18]

Ernst Rüdiger Graf von Starhemberg, leader of the re-maining 15,000 troops and 8,700 volunteers with 370cannons, refused to capitulate. Only days before, he hadreceived news of the mass slaughter at Perchtoldsdorf,[19]a town south of Vienna where the citizens had handedover the keys of the city after having been given a similarchoice. Siege operations started on 17 July.[10]:660

The Viennese had demolished many of the houses aroundthe city walls and cleared the debris, leaving an emptyplain that would expose the Ottomans to defensive fireif they tried to rush the city.[10]:660 Kara Mustafa Pashasolved that problem by ordering his forces to dig long linesof trenches directly toward the city, to help protect themfrom the defenders as they advanced steadily toward thecity.

Sipahis of the Ottoman Empire at Vienna.

The Ottomans had 130 field guns and 19 medium-calibrecannons, insufficient in the face of the defenders’ 370cannons.[3] Mining tunnels were dug under the massivecity walls to blow them up with substantial quantities ofblack powder.[10]:660 According to Andrew Wheatfield,the outer palisade was around 150 years old and mostlyrotten so the defenders set to work knocking very largetree trunks into the ground to surround the walls. This

seriously disrupted the Ottoman plan adding almost an-other 3 weeks to the time to get past the old palisade. [20]

This combined with the delay in advancing their army af-ter declaring war, eventually allowed a Polish relief forceto arrive in September.[10]:660 Historians have speculatedthat Kara Mustafa wanted to take the city intact with itsriches, and that he declined an all-out attack, not wishingto activate the right of plunder which would accompanyan assault.[21]

The Ottoman siege cut virtually every means of food sup-ply into Vienna.[22] Fatigue became so common that GrafErnst Rüdiger von Starhemberg ordered any soldier foundasleep on watch to be shot. Increasingly desperate, theforces holding Vienna were on their last legs when, in Au-gust, Imperial forces under Charles V, Duke of Lorrainedefeated Imre Thököly of Hungary at Bisamberg, 5 kmnorth-west of Vienna.

Turks before the walls of Vienna

On 6 September, the Poles under Jan III Sobieski crossedthe Danube 30 km north-west of Vienna at Tulln, to unitewith the Imperial troops and the additional forces fromSaxony, Bavaria, Baden, Franconia and Swabia. LouisXIV of France declined to help his Habsburg rival, havingjust annexed Alsace.An alliance between John III Sobieski and the EmperorLeopold I resulted in the addition of the Polish hussarsto the already existing allied army. The command of theforces of European allies was entrusted to the Polish king,who had under his command 70,000-80,000 soldiers fac-ing a Turkish army of 150,000.[10]:661 John III Sobieski’scourage and remarkable aptitude for command were al-ready known in Europe.During early September, the experienced 5,000 Ottomansappers had repeatedly blown up large portions of thewalls between the Burg bastion, the Löbel bastion and theBurg ravelin, creating gaps of about 12m in width. TheViennese tried to counter this by digging their own tun-nels to intercept the depositing of large amounts of gun-powder in subterranean caverns. The Ottomans finallymanaged to occupy the Burg ravelin and the low wall inthat area on 8 September. Anticipating a breach in the

4 4 BATTLE

city walls, the remaining Viennese prepared to fight inthe inner city.

3 Staging the battle

Sobieski at Vienna by Juliusz Kossak.

The relief of Vienna on 12 September 1683

The relief army had to act quickly to save the city and soprevent another long siege. Despite the binational com-position of the army and the short space of only six days,an effective leadership structure was established, centredon the King of Poland and his heavy cavalry (Polish Hus-sars). The Holy League settled the issues of payment byusing all available funds from the government, loans fromseveral wealthy bankers and noblemen and large sums ofmoney from the Pope.[17] Also, the Habsburgs and Polesagreed that the Polish government would pay for its owntroops while still in Poland, but that they would be paidby the Emperor once they had crossed into imperial terri-tory. However, the Emperor had to recognise Sobieski’sclaim to first rights of plunder of the enemy camp in theevent of a victory.[17]

Kara Mustafa Pasha was less effective at ensuring hisforces’ motivation and loyalty, and preparing for the ex-pected relief-army attack. He had entrusted defence ofthe rear to the Khan of Crimea and his cavalry force,which numbered about 30–40,000. There is doubt asto how far the Tatars participated in the final battle be-fore Vienna. Their Khan refused to attack the Pol-ish relief force as it crossed the Danube on pontoon

bridges and refused to attack as they emerged from theWienerwald.[16]:151, 161

The Ottomans could not rely on their Wallachian andMoldavian allies. George Ducas, Prince of Moldavia,was captured, while Șerban Cantacuzino's forces joinedthe retreat after Sobieski’s cavalry charge.[16]:163

The confederated troops signalled their arrival on theKahlenberg above Vienna with bonfires. Before the bat-tle a Mass was celebrated for the King of Poland and hisnobles.

4 Battle

Polish hussars armour, dating to the first half of the 17th century,Polish Army Museum, Warsaw.

The battle started before all units were fully deployed.At 4 AM on 12 September 1683, the Ottomans at-tacked, seeking to interfere with the deployment of theHoly League troops.[10]:661 The Germans were the first tostrike. Charles of Lorraine moved forward with the Im-perial army on the left, with the other Holy Roman Im-perial forces in the centre and, after heavy fighting andmultiple Turkish counter-attacks, took several key po-sitions, especially the fortified villages of Nussdorf andHeiligenstadt. By noon, the Imperial army had alreadyseverely mauled the Turks and had come close to breakthrough.[23] Though shattered, the Ottoman army did notcrumble at that moment.[24]

Mustafa Pasha launched his counter-attacks with mostof his force, but held back some of the elite Janissary

5

King John III Sobieski blessing Polish attack on Turks in Battle ofVienna - Juliusz Kossak painting

Battle of Vienna, painting by Pauwel Casteels.

and Sipahi units for a simultaneous assault on the city.The Ottoman commanders had intended to take Vi-enna before Sobieski arrived, but time ran out. Theirsappers had prepared a large, final detonation underthe Löbelbastei[25] to breach the walls. In total, tenmines were set to explode but they were located anddisarmed.[16]:169

In the early afternoon, a large battle started on the otherside of the battlefield as the Polish infantry advanced onthe Ottoman right flank. Instead of concentrating on thebattle with the relief army, the Ottomans continued theirefforts to force their way into the city.[16]:152 Hence, thePoles could make good progress and by 4 pm, they hadthe village of Gersthof, which would serve as a base for

Polish soldiers 1674-1696

their massive cavalry charge.[5] The Ottomans were in adesperate position, between the Polish forces and the im-perials. Charles of Lorraine and Sobieski both decidedon their own to resume the offensive and finish off theirenemy.[24]

The Imperials resumed the offensive on the left frontat 3:30 PM. At first, they encountered a fierce resis-tance and were stopped. This did not last long, how-ever, and by 5 PM, they had made further gains and takenthe villages of Unterdöbling and Oberdöbling. Theywere now very close to the central Turkish position (the“Turkenschanz”).[24] As they were preparing to storm it,they could see the Polish cavalry in action.It is recorded that the Polish cavalry slowly emerged fromthe forest to the cheers of the onlooking infantry, who hadbeen anticipating their arrival. At 4 PM, the Polish hus-sars first entered into action, battering the Turkish linesand approaching the Turkenschanz which was now threat-ened from three sides (the Poles from the west, the Saxonsand the Bavarians from the northwest and the Austriansfrom the north). At that point, the Turkish Vizier decidedto leave this position and to retreat to his headquarters inthe main camp further south. However, by then, manyOttomans were already leaving the battlefield.[5]

The allies were now ready for the last blow. At about 6PM, the Polish King ordered the cavalry attack in fourgroups, three Polish and one from the Holy Roman Em-pire. Eighteen thousand horsemen charged down thehills, the largest cavalry charge in history.[16]:152 Jan IIISobieski led the charge[10]:661 at the head of 3,000 Pol-ish heavy lancers, the famed "Winged Hussars". TheLipka Tatars who fought on the Polish side wore a sprigof straw in their helmets to distinguish themselves fromthe Tatars fighting on the Ottoman side. The charge eas-ily broke the lines of the Ottomans, who were exhaustedand demoralised and soon started to flee the battlefield.The cavalry headed straight for the Ottoman camps andKara Mustafa’s headquarters, while the remaining Vien-nese garrison sallied out of its defences to join in the

6 5 AFTERMATH

assault.[10]:661

The Ottoman troops were tired and dispirited followingthe failure of both the attempt at sapping and the assaulton the city and the advance of the Holy league infantryon the Turkenschanz .[10]:661 The cavalry charge was onelast deadly blow. Less than three hours after the cav-alry attack, the Christian forces had won the battle andsaved Vienna. The first Christian officer who entered Vi-enna was Margrave Ludwig of Baden, at the head of hisdragoons.[5] At one point during the battle, Kara Mustafapanicked and ordered the execution of 30,000 Christianhostages.[26]

Afterwards Sobieski paraphrased Julius Caesar's famousquotation (Veni, vidi, vici) by saying “Veni, vidi, Deusvicit” – “I came, I saw, God conquered”.[10]:661

5 Aftermath

Return from Vienna by Józef Brandt, Polish army returning withloot of the Ottoman forces.

The Ottomans lost at least 20,000 men during the siegeand between 8,000-15,000 during the battle with So-bieski’s forces.The loot that fell into the hands of the Holy League troopsand the Viennese was large in amount, as King John So-bieski vividly described in a letter to his wife a few daysafter the battle:

Ours are treasures unheard of... tents,sheep, cattle and no small number of camels...it is victory as nobody ever knew before, theenemy now completely ruined, everything lostfor them. They must run for their sheer lives...General Starhemberg hugged and kissed meand called me his saviour.[27]

Starhemberg immediately ordered the repair of Vienna’sseverely damaged fortifications to guard against a possibleOttoman counter-strike. However, this proved unneces-sary.Soon, the Ottomans disposed of their defeated comman-der. On 25 December 1683, Kara Mustafa Pasha was

Chasuble sewn with Turkish tents captured by Polish Army inVienna 1683

executed in Belgrade in the approved manner, by stran-gulation with a silk rope pulled by several men on eachend, by order of the commander of the Janissaries.Despite the victory of the Christian allies, there wasstill tension between the various commanders and theirarmies. For example, Sobieski demanded that the Polishtroops be allowed to have first choice of the spoils of theTurkish camp. The German andAustrian troops were leftwith smaller portions of the loot.[28] Also, the ProtestantSaxons, who had arrived to relieve the city, were appar-ently subjected to verbal abuse by the Catholic populaceof the Viennese countryside. The Saxons left the battleimmediately, without partaking in the sharing of spoilsand refusing to continue pursuit.[28]

Sobieski went on to liberate Grau and northwestern Hun-

7

gary after the Battle of Parkany, but dysentery halted hispursuit of the Turks.[10]:662 Charles V took Belgrade andmost of Serbia in 1686, and established Habsburg con-trol over southern Hungary and most of Transylvania in1687.[10]:663–664

6 Significance

Sobieski Sending Message of Victory to the Pope by Jan Mate-jko

Sobieski meeting Leopold I by Artur Grottger

The victory at Vienna set the stage for the reconqueringof Hungary and (temporarily) some of the Balkan lands inthe following years by Louis of Baden, Maximilian Em-manuel of Bavaria and Prince Eugene of Savoy. The Ot-tomans fought on for another 16 years, losing control ofHungary and Transylvania in the process before finallydesisting. The Holy Roman Empire signed the Treaty ofKarlowitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1699.The battle marked the historic end of the expansion of theOttoman Empire into Europe.The behavior of Louis XIV of France furthered French–German enmity - in the following month, the War of theReunions broke out in the western part of the weakenedHoly Roman Empire.

7 Cultural legacy

7.1 Astronomical legacy

Plaque at the Polish Congregatio Resurrectionis church onKahlenberg

Plaque memorializing the 300th anniversary of successful de-fense against the Ottomans at the gates of Vienna

After the battle of Vienna, the newly identifiedconstellation Scutum (Latin for shield) was originallynamed Scutum Sobiescianum by the astronomer Johannes

8 9 REFERENCES

Hevelius, in honour of king John III Sobieski.[29] Whilethere are some stars named after non-astronomers, thisis the only constellation that was originally named after areal non-astronomer who was still alive when the constel-lation was named, and the name of which is still in use(three other constellations, satisfying the same require-ments, never gained enough popularity to last).

7.2 Religious significance

Because Sobieski had entrusted his kingdom to the pro-tection of the Blessed Virgin (Our Lady of Częstochowa)before the battle, Pope Innocent XI commemorated hisvictory by extending the feast of the Holy Name of Mary,which until then had been celebrated solely in Spain andthe Kingdom of Naples, to the entire Church; it used tobe celebrated on the Sunday within the Octave of theNativity ofMary and was, when Pope St. Pius X intendedto make room for the celebration of the actual Sundays,transferred to 12 September, the day of the victory.The Pope also upgraded the papal coat of arms by addingthe Polish crowned White Eagle. After victory in theBattle of Vienna, the Polish king was also granted bythe Pope the title of “Defender of the Faith” (“DefensorFidei”).[30]

In honour of Sobieski, theAustrians erected a church atopthe Kahlenberg hill north of Vienna.

7.3 Musical legacy

When theOttomans were pushed away fromVienna, theirmilitary bands left their instruments on the field of bat-tle and that is how the Holy Roman Empire (and thusthe other Western countries) acquired cymbals and thetimpani.[31]

TheAustrian composer Johann Joseph Fuxmemorializedthe battle in his Partita Turcaria, which bore the sub-title,“Musical portrait of the siege of Vienna by the Turks in1683”.[32]

It is said that the victors found in the Ottomans’ aban-doned luggage the Tárogató, a double-reed woodwind in-strument that was to become the Hungarian national sym-bol for freedom after Racockzy’s defeat against the Ot-tomans in 1711.[33]

7.4 Culinary legends

Several culinary legends are related to the Battle of Vi-enna.One legend is that the croissant was invented in Vienna,either in 1683 or during the earlier siege in 1529, tocelebrate the defeat of the Ottoman attack on the city,with the shape referring to the crescents on the Ottoman

flags. This version of the origin of the croissant is sup-ported by the fact that croissants in France are a vari-ant of Viennoiserie, and by the French popular belief thatVienna-born Marie Antoinette introduced the pastry toFrance in 1770.Another legend from Vienna has the first bagel as be-ing a gift to King John III Sobieski to commemorate theKing’s victory over the Ottomans. It was fashioned in theform of a stirrup, to commemorate the victorious chargeby the Polish cavalry. The veracity of this legend is un-certain, as there is a reference in 1610 to a bread with asimilar-sounding name, which may or may not have beenthe bagel.After the battle, the Viennese discovered many bags ofcoffee in the abandoned Ottoman encampment. Us-ing this captured stock, Franciszek Jerzy Kulczyckiopened the third coffeehouse in Europe and the first inVienna.[34][35] There is no contemporary historical sourceconnecting Marco d'Aviano, the Capuchin friar and con-fidant of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, with the in-vention of cappuccino.

7.5 Miscellaneous legacy

The train route from Vienna to Warsaw is also named inSobieski’s honour.The Battle of Vienna is commemorated on the Tombof the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription“WIEDEN 12 IX 1683”.

8 See also

• Ottoman wars in Europe

• Great Turkish war

• History of Vienna

9 References[1] [Hitchens, Christopher (3 October 2001). “Why the sui-

cide killers chose September 11”. The Guardian. Re-trieved 17 March 2015.], “It was on September 11, 1683that the conquering armies of Islam were met, held, andthrown back at the gates of Vienna”

[2] Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History:An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 215.

[3] Bruce Alan Masters, Gábor Ágoston: Encyclopedia ofthe Ottoman Empire, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN1438110251, 584.

[4] Austria’s Wars of Emergence, Michael Hochedlinger

[5] The enemy at the gate, Andrew Wheatcroft

9

[6] Harbottle, Thomas (1905),Dictionary of Battles, E.P. Sut-ton & Co, p. 262.

[7] Clare, Israel (1876), The Centennial Universal History: AClear and Concise History of All Nations, with a Full His-tory of the United States to the Close of the First 100 Yearsof Our National Independence., J. C. McCurdy & Co., p.252.

[8] Drane, Augusta (1858), The Knights of st. John: with Thebattle of Lepanto and Siege of Vienna., Burns and Lam-bert, p. 136.

[9] ["American Architect and Building News.” 29.767(1890): 145. Print.]

[10] Tucker, S.C., 2010, A Global Chronology of Conflict,Vol. Two, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC, ISBN9781851096671

[11] Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History:An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 215.

[12] Leitsch, Walter (July 1983). “1683: The Siege of Vi-enna”. History Today 33 (7). Retrieved 19 December2014. The defeat of the Ottoman Army outside the gatesof Vienna 300 years ago is usually regarded as the begin-ning of the decline of the Ottoman Empire. But WalterLeitsch ask whether it was such a turning point in the his-tory of Europe? ... However, it marks a turning point: notonly was further Ottoman advance on Christian territoriesstopped, but in the following war that lasted up to 1698 al-most all of Hungary was reconquered by the army of Em-peror Leopold I. From 1683 the Ottoman Turks ceasedto be a menace to the Christian world. ... The battle ofVienna was a turning point in one further respect: thesuccess was due to the co-operation between the troopsof the Emperor, some Imperial princes and the Poles. ...However the co-operation between the two non-maritimeneighbours of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, the Em-peror and Poland, was something new. ... Walter Leitschis Professor of East European History and Director of theInstitute of East and Southeast European Research at theUniversity of Vienna.

[13] Davies, Norman (1982), God’s Playground, a History ofPoland: The origins to 1795, Columbia University Press,p. 487.

[14] Bruce, George (1981). Harbottle’s Dictionary of Battles.Van Nostrand Reinhold.

[15] Nähere Untersuchung der Pestansteckung, Seite 42, Pas-cal Joseph von Ferro, Joseph Edler von Kurzbek k.k. Hof-buchdrucker, Wien 1787.

[16] Varvounis, M., 2012, Jan Sobieski, Xlibris, ISBN 978-1462880805

[17] Stoye, John. The Siege of Vienna: The Last Great Trialbetween Cross & Crescent. 2011

[18] The original document was destroyed during World WarII. For the German translation, see here

[19] Palmer, Alan, The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Em-pire, p.12, Published by Barnes & Noble Publishing,1992. ISBN 1-56619-847-X

[20] Melvyn Bragg, AndrewWheatcroft, Dr Claire Norton andJeremy Black (historian) (14 May 2009). “The Siege ofVienna”. In Our Time. 17:30 minutes in. BBC Radio 4.

[21] Bates, Brandon J. (2003). “The Beginning of the End:The Failure of the Siege of Vienna of 1683” (PDF).Brigham Young University. Archived from the original(PDF) on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 28 August 2006.

[22] Ripperton, Lisa. “The Siege of Vienna”. The BaldwinProject. Retrieved 28 August 2006.

[23] The enemy at the gate, Wheatcroft

[24] idem

[25] “Duell im Dunkeln” (in German). 2DF. 6 November2005. Retrieved 28 August 2006.

[26] Frank W. Thackeray, John E. Findling (2012). EventsThat Formed the Modern World: From the European Re-naissance through theWar on Terror. ABC-CLIO. p. 267.ISBN 1598849018.

[27] “Letter from King Sobieski to his Wife”. Letters fromKing Sobieski to his wife. University of Gdansk, Depart-ment of Cultural Studies, Faculty of Philology. Retrieved4 August 2011.

[28] Stoye, John (2007). The Siege of Vienna: The Last GreatTrial between Cross & Crescent. Pegasus Books. p. 175.

[29] Grzechnik, Slawek K. “Hussaria – Polish Winged Cav-alry”. Archived from the original on 15 June 2006. Re-trieved 28 August 2006.

[30] http://www.pch24.pl/chca-nam-odebrac-victorie-wiedenska-,17575,i.html

[31] Ukrainian Week

[32] Description of contents of album “Alla Turca”

[33] Henk Jansen’s 1thMUSE history of the Tárogató (2005)

[34] Pendergrast, Mark. Uncommon Grounds, p.10. BasicBooks, 2000. ISBN 0-465-05467-6

[35] Millar, Simon. Vienna 1683, p. 93. Osprey Publishing,2008. ISBN 1-84603-231-8.

10 Additional Reading• Stéphane Gaber, Et Charles V arrêta la marche desTurcs, Presses universitaires de Nancy, 1986, ISBN2-86480-227-9.

• Bruce, George (1981). Harbottle’s Dictionary ofBattles. Van Nostrand Reinhold.

• Cezary Harasimowicz “VICTORIA” Warsaw 2007,novel ISBN 978-83-925589-0-3

• Alan Palmer, The Decline and Fall of the OttomanEmpire, Published by Barnes & Noble Publishing,1992. ISBN 1-56619-847-X.

10 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Miltiades Varvounis, Jan Sobieski. The King WhoSaved Europe, Xlibris, 2012, ISBN 978-1-4628-8081-2.

11 External links• Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Army in 17thcentury from kismeta.com

• The Battle of Vienna at the Wilanów MuseumPalace

• (German) German TV: Türken vor Wien

• (German) Arte TV: Türken vor Wien

11

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text• Battle of Vienna Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna?oldid=676397158 Contributors: Joakim Ziegler, Bryan Derk-

sen, Szopen, BlckKnght, Jsc1973, Roadrunner, Leandrod, Edward, Michael Hardy, John K, Franz Xaver, Pedant17, VeryVerily, Joy,Mackensen, AnonMoos, Italo Svevo, Jason M, Dimadick, Gentgeen, Robbot, The Phoenix, Halibutt, SoLando, Lzur, Tobias Bergemann,Tom harrison, Marcika, Paul Pogonyshev, Everyking, Curps, Joconnor, Varlaam, Kpalion, Mboverload, Matthead, Gugganij, Gdr, Kjetil r,Albrecht, Piotrus, Emax, Gene s, PFHLai, Mrrhum, Neutrality, Quota, Freakofnurture, Reinthal, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, EliasAlucard,Forbsey, SpookyMulder, Bender235, RJHall, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Gershwinrb, CeeGee, NetBot, Polylerus, Pearle, Hashar-Bot~enwiki, John Quiggin, Bart133, Lumberjack steve, Axeman89, Firsfron, Tominatrix, Woohookitty, Merlinme, James Kemp, Ard-fern, BlackSea, BD2412, Behemoth, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Coemgenus, Gryffindor, Helvetius, Hiberniantears, Rillian, Himasaram, Ghepeu,Schaengel89~enwiki, Miskin, FlaBot, KarlFrei, Fulcher, Elmer Clark, RexNL, Witkacy, Str1977, Quuxplusone, MoRsE, Jaraalbe, Bg-white, Banaticus, Oldwindybear, RussBot, Jensboot, Eupator, Kirill Lokshin, Gaius Cornelius, Manxruler, The Ogre, Rupert Clayton,Ejdzej, Howcheng, Renata3, Molobo, EEMIV, Mieciu K, GeoffCapp, Cinik, Denisutku, Curpsbot-unicodify, Appleseed, Nerva~enwiki,DVD R W, Attilios, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Selfworm, Kupsztal, Lajbi, Deon Steyn, Herr Anonymus~enwiki, Peter Isotalo, Pza-von, Hmains, Skizzik, Underneath-it-All, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jeff5102, Baronnet, Kelner~enwiki, Cplakidas, Ajdz, JRPG, Huon,Khoikhoi, Farmer88, Gbinal, S@bre, Ligulembot, Ohconfucius, Tymek, Jos.trem, MayerG, Mathiasrex, Naerhu, JorisvS, Volker89, God-frey Daniel, InedibleHulk, Meco, Twar3Draconis, Andrwsc, Iridescent, Encyclopaedia Editing Dude, CapitalR, Yosy, Phoenixrod, Cour-celles, Daniel5127, Ghaly, Ioannes Pragensis, 11kowrom, Filiep, Bonás, Shotgun pete, Banedon, ThreeBlindMice, Cydebot, Laserbeam-crossfire, Clfaye, Doug Weller, Stillstudying, Lysandros, Oyo321, Aldis90, Kubanczyk, Olahus, Pamino, PottersWood, CamperStrike, Re-ally Evil Pole~enwiki, JAnDbot, Scythian1, Hello32020, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, Alexander Domanda, Lachinhatemi, IcerCRO, The Anomebot2, KConWiki, Cardamon, Cgingold, Gabriel Kielland, MetsBot, 5 Elements Style, JaGa, Baristarim, Chapultepec,WiiVolve, Bocianski.bot, Doodledoo, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Rpclod, J.delanoy, Rrostrom, Tina Cordon, A Nobody,Gabr-el, Plasticup, DarthSmee, Sundar1, Kansas Bear, Serenthia, Alex:D, Grzegorz Artur~enwiki, DemonicInfluence, Hugo999, Vranak,Petre Bolea, AlnoktaBOT, W. B. Wilson, Philip Trueman, Tzahy, TXiKiBoT, Doctor France, Aryaman13, Seb az86556, CenturionZ 1,Glst2, Romuald Wróblewski, Wolfgang glock, SieBot, Hertz1888, Flavius Belisarius, Beorhtric, Cwkmail, Rudi Maxer, Brooksfinnegan,Jdaloner, Lightmouse, Doncsecz~enwiki, Aramgar, Vojvodaen, Squash Racket, Shtephan, ClueBot, Goethicus, Der Golem, Niceguyedc,Xurei, Rockfang, Pernambuko, Nostradamus1, Socrates2008, Baseballbaker23, Junglerot56, Yorkshirian, Central Data Bank, Takabeg,SchreiberBike, Audaciter, Friedlibend und tapfer, Rebel Redcoat, Crowsnest, 2ndcalagus, Atomicdor, Asidemes, Good Olfactory, Lem-chesvej, Luwilt, Addbot, Longhorncross, OmgItsTheSmartGuy, LightSpectra, Peter558, Miltonas, Piner8, Delimata, Sukrucetiner, Con-tributor777, Amateur55, Legobot, Yobot, Shore3, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Tavrian, Alan1683, Gsmgm, Gap9551, Swd, Forever-provence, Indianwhite, RibotBOT, The Interior, Nedim Ardoğa, Winterwater, Mattis, Historylover4, Kebeta, StoneProphet, FrescoBot,

, Tobby72, ClickRick, A.Gayevsky, Jack1755, Türk Süvarisi, Moonraker, Dehma1, RedBot, Tlhslobus, Cliniic, PerV, Tim1357,Orenburg1, TobeBot, Belchman, Paclaw, Gaius Octavius Princeps, PochTeKa, Dinamik-bot, The Catholic Knight, Neferkare, Dontbe-sogullible, Big Axe, Ivanevian, Antidiskriminator, DresdenBell, Bahramm 2, Chiton magnificus, A. Kupicki, Illegitimate Barrister, H3llBot,LVY72, Palosirkka, ClueBot NG, Colapeninsula, Loginnigol, Omnisome, Broden, Alphasinus, Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, DerAdam, Ko-ertefa, BG19bot, Erkistreet, Marcocapelle, The Almightey Drill, Nicola.Manini, Elijah falkner, Wilanow, Dourios, Cormag100, Tomh903,Spital8katz, Choy4311, ChrisGualtieri, PantherBF3, Khazar2, Viennalove, Indiasummer95, DaltonCastle, Mogism, Ογκόλιθος, Kahn-John27, Kcdlp, Ruby Murray, Afootnote13, Inglok, Saladin1991, Pi3.124, HeroOfVarna, Oliszydlowski, HendrikusBV, Pktlaurence, Glo-betrotter1918, Ahriman2014, Áccénté Áígúé, Filedelinkerbot, LukasMatt, Tpsreport84, Spiderjerky, Pyotr88, Prinsgezinde, Cackyigit,Ultronkickass123pacificrim2 and Anonymous: 354

12.2 Images• File:1684_Entsatz_von_Wien_anagoria.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/1684_Entsatz_von_

Wien_anagoria.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: anagoria Original artist: Unknown• File:August_Querfurt_-_The_Turkish_siege_of_Vienna.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/

August_Querfurt_-_The_Turkish_siege_of_Vienna.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='externaltext' href='http://www.sothebys.com/de/auctions/ecatalogue/2012/old-master-paintings-n08869/lot.46.html'>Sotheby’s New York, 6June 2012, N08869, lot 46</a> Original artist: August Querfurt

• File:Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_(after_1400).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_%28after_1400%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:N3MO

• File:Battle_of_Vienna02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Battle_of_Vienna02.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Battle_of_Vienna_1683_11.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Battle_of_Vienna_1683_11.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.google.pl/imgres?q=schlacht+wien+1683&um=1&hl=pl&sa=N&rlz=1C1DVCI_enPL413PL421&tbm=isch&tbnid=uVn1LwoficDOqM:&imgrefurl=http://www.flickr.com/photos/immaculata/page34/&docid=UPNKj66exvhzGM&w=500&h=294&ei=UZJwTqqMEcjP4QSNnsCzCQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=261&page=1&tbnh=129&tbnw=187&start=0&ndsp=26&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:0&tx=127&ty=73&biw=1440&bih=773 Original artist: Anonymous painting

• File:Blason_ville_fr_Villejust_(Essonne).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Blason_ville_fr_Villejust_%28Essonne%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: <a href='//validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><imgalt='W3C' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/88px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png' width='88' height='30' style='vertical-align: top' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/132px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg/176px-Valid_SVG_1.1_%28green%29.svg.png2x' data-file-width='91' data-file-height='31' /></a>iThe source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FBlason_ville_fr_Villejust_%28Essonne%29.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>.

12 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Original artist: User:Spedona• File:Chasuble_sewn_with_Turkish_tents_captured_by_Polish_Army_in_Vienna_1683.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/

wikipedia/commons/5/59/Chasuble_sewn_with_Turkish_tents_captured_by_Polish_Army_in_Vienna_1683.JPG License: CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Image taken by User:Mathiasrex Maciej Szczepańczyk Original artist: own work

• File:Chorągiew_królewska_króla_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Chor%C4%85giew_kr%C3%B3lewska_kr%C3%B3la_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work,based on old painting - <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rolka_Sztokholmska_1.jpg' title='File:Rolka Sztokholmska1.jpg'>Stockholm Roll</a>. Original artist: Olek Remesz (wiki-pl: Orem, commons: Orem)

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Fahne_Kurbayern.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Fahne_Kurbayern.gif License: CC BY 2.5Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Flag_of_Electoral_Saxony.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sir Iain, crancelin by User:Sodacan from File:Arms of Albert of Saxe-Coburgand Gotha.svg.

• File:Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Sir Iain, earlier ver-sion by ThrashedParanoid and Peregrine981.ThrashedParanoid

• File:Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors:http://www.vicmart.com/ext/en/exrw/item=1416 - Ottoman medal from 1850 Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dsmurat' title='User:Dsmurat'>DsMurat</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Dsmurat' title='Usertalk:Dsmurat'>talk</a>

• File:Flagge_Schwaben_Bayern.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flagge_Schwaben_Bayern.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: File:Flagge Schwaben.gif Original artist: Zebra848

• File:Flagge_franken.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flagge_franken.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Thomas Reinel

• File:Gerae-tamga.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gerae-tamga.svg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: File:Gerae-tamga.png Original artist: Hydrox based on work by Alex Tora or Alex K in Ukranian and Japanese wiki

• File:Grottger-Jan_III_Sobieski_i_Leopold_I_pod_Schwechat.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Grottger-Jan_III_Sobieski_i_Leopold_I_pod_Schwechat.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from album “Malarstwo Pol-skie w zbiorach za granicą" by Stefania Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska, Wydawnictwo Kluszczyński, 2003, ISBN 83-88080-85-7 Originalartist: Artur Grottger

• File:Jean_Sobieski_III_repoussant_les_Turcs_au_siège_de_Venne_(Jan_Mateiuko)_-_Sala_Sobieski.JPG Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Jean_Sobieski_III_repoussant_les_Turcs_au_si%C3%A8ge_de_Venne_%28Jan_Mateiuko%29_-_Sala_Sobieski.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: User:Jean-Pol GRANDMONT (2011) Original artist:Jan Matejko (1838-1893)

• File:Juliusz_Kossak_Sobieski_pod_Wiedniem.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Juliusz_Kossak_Sobieski_pod_Wiedniem.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: First uploaded to en-Wikipedia by en:user:Emax as en:Image:Battleof Vienna.jpg: Original artist: Juliusz Kossak

• File:King_John_III_Sobieski_blessing_Polish_attack_on_Turks_in_Vienna_1683.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/King_John_III_Sobieski_blessing_Polish_attack_on_Turks_in_Vienna_1683.PNG License: Public domainContributors: http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Kossak_Jul/Images/Na_Kahlenbergu.jpg Original artist: Juliusz Kossak

• File:Kuruc_labanc_összecsapás.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Kuruc_labanc_%C3%B6sszecsap%C3%A1s.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.landesarchiv-bw.de/web/51040 Original artist: Un-known

• File:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/OttomanEmpireIn1683.png License:Public domain Contributors: Self drawn, mainly based on Robert Mantran (ed.), Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman, Paris: Fayard (1989), alsoen:List of Ottoman Empire dominated territories, Image:Ottoman 1683.png, [1], and [2]. Background map modified from Image:A largeblank world map with oceans marked in blue.svg. Original artist: Atilim Gunes Baydin

• File:POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/POL_Marynarka_Wojenna.svgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Poznaniak

• File:POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/POL_Wojska_Lotnicze.svg License:CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Poznaniak

• File:POL_Wojska_Lądowe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/POL_Wojska_L%C4%85dowe.svgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Poznaniak

• File:Pauwel_Casteels_-_Battle_of_Vienna_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Pauwel_Casteels_-_Battle_of_Vienna_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: GgHiVcXh1exqyQ at GoogleCultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Pauwel Casteels (before 1656 - after 1683) (Flemish) (Painter, Details of artist onGoogle Art Project)

• File:Polish_soldiers_1674-1696.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Polish_soldiers_1674-1696.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=6505&dirids=1 Original artist: JanMatejko

• File:Powrot_z_Wiednia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Powrot_z_Wiednia.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors:Original artist: Józef Brandt

12.3 Content license 13

• File:Sobieskitablica.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Sobieskitablica.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:TB_Angriff.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/TB_Angriff.gif License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Radierung von Romeyn de Hooghe Original artist: ?

• File:Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Badisches Landesmuseum Original artist: Frans Geffels (fl. 1635–1671)

• File:Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpgLicense: Public domainContributors: Image source: http://www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl/Brandt/Brandt_5.htmOriginal artist: Józef Brandt

• File:Zbroje_husarskie.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Zbroje_husarskie.JPG License: CC BY 2.5Contributors: Own work User:Mathiasrex Maciej Szczepańczyk Original artist: Unknown from Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

12.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0