Basics of Geomatics - Home - Springer978-1-4020-9014-1/1.pdf · gets at land managers, operating in natural or anthropic environments (engineers, geologists, agronomists, architects,

Basics of Geomatics

Basics of Geomatics

by

Mario A. Gomarasca

National Research Council of Italy, Institute for theElectromagnetic Sensing of the Environment,Milano, Italy

123

Mario A. GomarascaNational Research Council of ItalyInstitute for the ElectromagneticSensing of the EnvironmentVia Bassini, 1520133 [email protected]

ISBN 978-1-4020-9013-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4020-9014-1DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9014-1Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009926868

This is a translation revised and enlarged of the original work in Italian “Elementi di Geomatica”published by Associazione Italiana di Telerilevamento, © 2004.

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or byany means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without writtenpermission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purposeof being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Cover illustration: Images by Luca Di Ionno

English translation by the Author assisted by Sara de Santis and Andrew Lowe

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

This project is for my sons Ilaria Camilla (Ila)and Jacopo Andrea (Jepus)

Foreword

Geomatics is a neologism, the use of which is becoming increasingly widespread,even if it is not still universally accepted. It includes several disciplines and tech-niques for the study of the Earth’s surface and its environments, and computerscience plays a decisive role. A more meaningful and appropriate expression is Geo-spatial Information or GeoInformation.

Geo-spatial Information embeds topography in its more modern forms(measurements with electronic instrumentation, sophisticated techniques of dataanalysis and network compensation, global satellite positioning techniques, laserscanning, etc.), analytical and digital photogrammetry, satellite and airborne remotesensing, numerical cartography, geographical information systems, decision supportsystems, WebGIS, etc.

These specialized fields are intimately interrelated in terms of both the basicscience and the results pursued: rigid separation does not allow us to discover severalcommon aspects and the fundamental importance assumed in a search for solutionsin the complex survey context.

The objective pursued by Mario A. Gomarasca, one that is only apparentlymodest, is to publish an integrated text on the surveying theme, containing simpleand comprehensible concepts relevant to experts in Geo-spatial Information and/orspecifically in one of the disciplines that compose it. At the same time, the book isrigorous and synthetic, describing with precision the main instruments and methodsconnected to the multiple techniques available today.

The book is addressed not to super-specialists, but to a wider group of techniciansand students who may use Geo-spatial Information in their work, or who already useit as part of their daily professional activity or study. More specifically the book tar-gets at land managers, operating in natural or anthropic environments (engineers,geologists, agronomists, architects, urban planners, operating in the field of archi-tectural assets and environment, technicians at land-surveying agencies, etc.), andstudents at both first and master levels, more and more of whom are facing themesin which the disciplines of the survey play a determining role.

Mario A. Gomarasca is a researcher at the National Research Council of Italy,expert in remote sensing applied to agriculture and environment, and more recently,for many years (1997–2003), he has held the prestigious and engaging positionof president of ASITA (Federation of the Scientific Associations for Land and

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Environment Information). In this role, which he performs with enthusiasm andgreat efficiency, he has become a privileged observer of the topics of Geo-spatialInformation, since he coordinates the National Conferences, at which some hun-dreds of scientific papers are presented annually.

The absolute specialist in a single field will not find profound or very specificinnovative elements in his/her particular competence, but the same specialist will beable to add elements from adjacent, interrelated disciplines and techniques.

The readers, whether university student, professional, technician or lay student,will find ready access to the fundamental concepts and up-to-date information on thestate of the art, giving them a wider field of view of the complex, multidisciplinaryproblems related to land surveying and the environment, especially in land planning.

This objective, which I must warn the reader is decidedly other than modest, istotally achieved in this book. To both, the book and its author Mario A. Gomarasca,I wish the best and all the good fortune they deserve.

Turin, Italy Sergio Dequal

Author’s Preface

When I decided to revisit my first book ‘GIS and Remote Sensing for the Manage-ment of the Agricultural and Environment Resources’ (published by AIT in 1997)at the end of November 1999, while waiting for a flight to Niamey, Niger, at theParis Charles De Gaulle airport, with my unforgettable colleague and friend EugenioZilioli, I had in mind to only update the text for the second reprint.

While reading and re-reading, with the growing knowledge that in the meantimewas integrating itself in ASITA, the Italian Federation of the Scientific Associationsfor the Land and Environment Information, of which I had been elected and servingas President since 1998, and with the rising interests of the profession, grew theidea to broaden the content and to develop a more ambitious project involving aninteractive approach to some of the main topics of Geo-spatial Information.

After years of reading, research, study, complex bibliographical consultation andselection, along with thorough and sometime critical reviews from many experts, theItalian version of the book (2004) introduced a panorama to the neophyte and com-pleted the framework for those who already work in the field, in order to integratethe knowledge of Geo-spatial Information.

Considering the large success of the book in Italy and the worldwide interest anddevelopment of geomatics, I decided to undertake the challenge in preparing theEnglish revised and enlarged version of that book.

This book introduces various disciplines and techniques and is offered as a reviewof the subject to stimulate the reader’s interests. Mathematical demonstrations anddeeper explanations have been omitted, but an accurate selected bibliography is pro-vided, chapter by chapter, to assist in finding specific references.

Geo-spatial Information is still a relatively new discipline with fuzzy contours,open to many interpretations; adding my own personal point of view, which couldgenerate approval and criticism, opening, I hope, a scientific and professional con-structive debate.

The book does not lay claim to answering multiple issues that Geomaticsincludes, but it proposes an interdisciplinary integration in order to contribute toface the problems provided by this complex world.

The necessity of defining technical terms occurs in many passages of this book;I tried to impose an order on the labyrinth of definitions and acronyms that areoften used in a general way. At this stage, with no existing universally recognizedontological dictionary and thesaurus, I have selected a nomenclature with the more

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commonly used definitions and which hopefully mediates between sometimes con-trasting positions.

The book is aimed at those who await an introduction and a broadening of thedisciplines and techniques of Geomatics (Geo-spatial Information), with particularattention to public administration, university students, training courses and profes-sionals.

Several people have helped me in preparing the first Italian version of this book,in particular, the Italian Remote Sensing Association (AIT), the Institute for theElectromagnetic Sensing of the Environment in Milan (CNR-IREA) and GiovanniLechi, Polytechnic of Milan have played a fundamental role and I thank all withspecial affection, as well as the Department of Engineering of the Territory, Envi-ronment and Geotechnology of the Polytechnic of Turin, my second professionalfamily.

Substantial support was provided by Rainer Reuter, EARSeL (EuropeanAssociation of the Remote Sensing Laboratories) chairman; Sandro Annoni, JRC,European Commission, Ispra; Antonio Di Gregorio, FAO Africover Plan, Nairobi,Kenya; Jimmy Johnston, National Wetlands Research Center, USGS, Lafayette,USA; Richard Escadafal, CESBIO, Toulouse, F; Ramon Norberto Fernandez,UNDP-GRID, Nairobi, Kenya; Guy Weets, formerly DG Information Society, Euro-pean Commission, Brussels; Daniele Rizzi, Geographical Information System of theCommission (GISCO), Eurostat, European Commission, Brussels; Luciano Surace,Italian Hydrographical Institute of Navy and ASITA president; Giuseppe Scanu,University of Sassari and Italian Cartographic Association (AIC) president; Rug-gero Casacchia, National Research Council of Rome and Italian Remote Sens-ing Association (AIT) president and Mauro Salvemini, University La Sapienzaof Rome, AM/FM Geographical Information System and EUROGI (EuropeanUmbrella Organization for Geographic Information) president.

Moreover, I thank Claudio Prati and Fabio Rocca, Department of Electronicsand Information, Polytechnic of Milan; Italian Space Agency (ASI); EuropeanSpace Agency (ESA); Remote Sensing Europe of Milan; Compagnia GeneraleRipreseaeree of Parma (CGR) Blom ASA Group and Agronomic Institute forOverseas (IAO), Florence, Italy for assistance with documentation and images.

I thank the several reviewers and advisors, fundamentals with their profession-alism and competence. A special acknowledgement goes to Chris J. Johannsen,Professor Emeritus of Agronomy, my tutor during my stay (1988–1989) as visitingscientist at the Laboratory for the Application of Remote Sensing (LARS), PurdueUniversity, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.

Milan, Italy Mario A. Gomarasca

Contents

1 Geomatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Computer Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.2 Data and Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3 Geodesy and Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.4 Photogrammetry (Analogical, Analytical, Digital) . . . . . . . . 71.5 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.6 Global Satellite Positioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.7 Laser Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.8 Geographical Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.9 Decision Support Systems and Expert Systems . . . . . . . . . 111.10 Spatial Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.11 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.12 Ontology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.13 The Geomatics Expert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.14 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Elements of Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192.1 Milestones in the History of Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . 202.2 Earth Shape: Ellipsoid and Geoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.3 Reference Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.4 Ellipsoid and DATUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.5 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362.6 Ellipsoidic (or Geodetic or Geographic) Coordinates . . . . . . 362.7 Cartesian Geocentric Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392.8 Planar Cartographic Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402.9 Cartographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.9.1 Perspective Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422.9.2 Development Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.10 Examples of Cartographic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442.10.1 Mercator Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442.10.2 Gauss Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

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2.10.3 Polar Stereographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472.10.4 Lambert Conical Conformal Projection . . . . . . . . . 472.10.5 Earth Globe Projection: The Planisphere . . . . . . . . 47

2.11 Reference Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472.11.1 Scale Factor or Scale of Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . 482.11.2 Graphical Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482.11.3 Area Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492.11.4 Relative Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.12 Cartography in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502.12.1 Cartography Projection in the World . . . . . . . . . . 502.12.2 International Reference Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2.13 Transformation Among Reference Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 552.14 Map Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2.14.1 Basic and Thematic Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . 552.14.2 Classification According to Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . 582.14.3 Maps from Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.15 Technology and Cartography: Numerical and Digital Cartography 622.15.1 Traditional Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622.15.2 Automatic Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632.15.3 Numerical Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.16 Map Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722.16.1 Elements of the Natural Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . 742.16.2 Elements of the Anthropic Landscape . . . . . . . . . 742.16.3 Generic Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

2.17 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3 Elements of Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793.1 Milestones in the History of Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . 793.2 Milestones in the History of Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . 853.3 General Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863.4 Traditional Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

3.4.1 Stereoscopy and Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893.4.2 Geometrical Basics of Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . 933.4.3 The Real Model: Distortion and Calibration . . . . . . 963.4.4 Instruments and Modality of Acquisition . . . . . . . . 963.4.5 Flight Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013.4.6 Artificial Stereoscopy Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 1023.4.7 Image Orientation and Stereo-plotting . . . . . . . . . 104

3.5 Digital Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083.5.1 Traditional and Digital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093.5.2 Format of Digital Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113.5.3 Digital Images’ Metric Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3.6 Digital Photogrammetry Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133.6.1 Digital Photogrammetric System . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

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3.7 Digital Orthophoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143.8 Oblique Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173.9 Satellite Sensors for Photogrammetric Application . . . . . . . 118

3.9.1 Parametric Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193.9.2 Non-parametric Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119


4 Elements of Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1234.1 Milestones in the History of Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . 1254.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274.3 Optical Passive Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

4.3.1 Sources of Electromagnetic Waves: The Sunand the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

4.3.2 Physical Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1314.3.3 Visible Radiation and Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1384.3.4 Radiometric Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434.3.5 Spectral Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474.3.6 Electromagnetic Radiation–Atmosphere Interaction . . 148

4.4 Active Remote Sensing in the Microwave . . . . . . . . . . . . 1564.4.1 Radar Versus Optical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1634.4.2 Radar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654.4.3 Radar Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171


5 Elements of Informatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855.1 Milestones in the History of Informatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865.2 Architecture of the Computing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

5.2.1 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1895.2.2 Computer Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1905.2.3 Computer Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

5.3 Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2085.3.1 Transmission Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2095.3.2 Network Logical Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2105.3.3 Network Typology and Digital Transmission

(Classification WAN/LAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2125.3.4 Network Topological Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . 2135.3.5 Communication Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

5.4 Network Infrastructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2155.4.1 Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2155.4.2 World Wide Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2155.4.3 WWW Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2175.4.4 Intranet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2185.4.5 Network Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

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5.4.6 Wireless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2185.4.7 Search Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2205.4.8 Groupware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2215.4.9 Web 2.0 or Internet 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2225.4.10 Blog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

5.5 Evolution of Hardware and Software in Geomatics . . . . . . . 2235.5.1 Technology Evolution in Remote Sensed Data . . . . . 2245.5.2 Configuration of a Geomatics System . . . . . . . . . 226


6 Acquisition Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2316.1 Imagery Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

6.1.1 Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) Detector . . . . . . . . 2356.1.2 Acquisition Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

6.2 Instrument Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2406.3 Earth Observation Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

6.3.1 History of the Space Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2476.3.2 Satellite Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

6.4 Earth Observation Space Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2566.4.1 EUMETSAT: Geostationary Meteorological

Satellites Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2576.4.2 NOAA Meteorological Programme . . . . . . . . . . . 2586.4.3 NASA (USA) Space Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . 2596.4.4 ESA (European Union) Space Programme . . . . . . . 2676.4.5 ASI (Italy) Space Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2736.4.6 CNES (France) Space Programme . . . . . . . . . . . 2766.4.7 FSA (Russia) Space Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . 2806.4.8 ISRO (India) Space Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . 2866.4.9 JAXA (Japan) Space Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . 2896.4.10 CSA (Canada) Space Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . 2936.4.11 KARI (South Korea) Space Programme . . . . . . . . 2946.4.12 The China–Brazil Cooperative (CBERS) Space

Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2956.4.13 CONAE (Argentina) Space Programme . . . . . . . . 2966.4.14 International Space Station (ISS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2976.4.15 Radar Missions on the Space Shuttle . . . . . . . . . . 2986.4.16 Commercial Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2996.4.17 Other Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

6.5 Airborne Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3086.5.1 Aerophotogrammetric Digital Cameras . . . . . . . . . 3096.5.2 Hyperspectral Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3166.5.3 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3206.5.4 Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

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6.6 Instruments for In-Field Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3296.6.1 Photographic Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3296.6.2 Digital Photo Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3306.6.3 Terrestrial Laser Scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3326.6.4 Video Cameras and Thermal Cameras . . . . . . . . . 3336.6.5 Radiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333


7 Satellite Positioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3417.1 NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) . . . . . . . . . . 341

7.1.1 The GPS Signal (NAVSTAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3447.1.2 GPS Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3457.1.3 GPS Operative Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3487.1.4 GPS Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3517.1.5 GPS Geodetic Reference System . . . . . . . . . . . . 3557.1.6 Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

7.2 GLONASS Global Positioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3577.2.1 GLONASS Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3577.2.2 GLONASS Versus NAVSTAR GPS . . . . . . . . . . 359

7.3 Galileo Global Positioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3607.3.1 Positioning Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3617.3.2 Technical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3637.3.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365


8 Digital Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3698.1 Image Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3718.2 Pre-processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

8.2.1 Radiometric Pre-processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3728.2.2 Atmospheric Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3798.2.3 Geometric Pre-processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3838.2.4 Correction of the Geometric Distortion . . . . . . . . . 386

8.3 Digital Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3908.3.1 Spectral Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3918.3.2 Qualitative Interpretation of the Images

(Photo-interpretation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4118.4 Quantitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

8.4.1 Multispectral Transformation of the Images(Vegetation Indices) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

8.4.2 Classification Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4548.4.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses of Radar Images 4678.4.4 Crop Backscattered Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

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8.4.5 Soil and Water Backscattered Energy . . . . . . . . . . 4708.4.6 Radar Images Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4708.4.7 Assessment of Classification Accuracy . . . . . . . . . 473


9 Elements of Geographical Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 4819.1 Typology of the Geographical Information Systems . . . . . . . 4829.2 Format of the Geographical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4849.3 GIS Components and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

9.3.1 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4879.3.2 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4879.3.3 Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

9.4 The Organizational Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4909.4.1 Databases and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

9.5 Spatial Data Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4919.5.1 Vector Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4919.5.2 Raster or Grid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

9.6 Integration of Vector and Raster Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4949.7 Methods of Spatial Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

9.7.1 Spatial Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4989.7.2 Attributes Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4989.7.3 Integrated Analysis of Spatial Data and Attributes . . . 499

9.8 Representation Methods of the Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . 5049.8.1 Digital Terrain Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

9.9 GIS Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5209.9.1 GIS Object Oriented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5209.9.2 Decision Support Systems (DSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 5219.9.3 Expert Systems (ES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5229.9.4 Role of the ES in Image Interpretation and Classification 525

9.10 Error, Accuracy, Precision and Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . 5299.10.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5299.10.2 Types of Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5319.10.3 Sources of Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

9.11 Metadata and Data Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5359.12 Geographical Information Systems Distribution on the Web . . 538

9.12.1 Requirements and Purposes of a WebGIS . . . . . . . 5399.12.2 Federated and Distributed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 5409.12.3 Structure of GIS Diffusion Systems on the Web . . . . 5419.12.4 Architecture of a Web-Oriented GIS . . . . . . . . . . 5439.12.5 Applicative Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5459.12.6 Data Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5459.12.7 XML Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5469.12.8 Geography Markup Language (GML) . . . . . . . . . 547

Contents xvii

9.12.9 Instruments for Graphical Representation . . . . . . . 5499.12.10 Graphical Representation of Geographic Elements . . . 549

9.13 Spatial Data Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5509.13.1 GSDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5509.13.2 Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the

European Community – INSPIRE . . . . . . . . . . . 5529.13.3 GEO and GEOSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5539.13.4 Global Monitoring for Environment and

Security, GMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5549.14 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557

10 Land Use/Land Cover Classification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 56110.1 Global Networks in Land Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561

10.1.1 Terminology: Land Cover and Land Use . . . . . . . . 56210.1.2 Land Cover Classification Systems Based on

Pre-defined Classes and Legends . . . . . . . . . . . . 56310.1.3 Land Cover Classification Systems Based on

Diagnostic Independent Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . 58310.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596

Colour Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643

List of Colour Plates

Plate 2.1 (a) Representation of the Earth as a cone projection withmeridian and parallel, elaborated by Claudio Tolomeo(II century DC). (b) The Earth in a Tolomeo map, in Degeographia Latin Code, XV century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

Plate 2.2 The Piri Reis map edited in 1533 is considered probablythe first and for sure the most precise document thatrepresent the Americas in the XVI century . . . . . . . . . . . 601

Plate 2.3 Earth from space by the Apollo 10 (a) and 17 (b)recorded in May 18, 1969 and December 7, 1972; theApollo missions transported the man on the Moon July20, 1969 with Apollo 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602

Plate 3.1 Aerophotogrammetric digital camera ADS40 withpushbroom linear sensor; (a) panchromatic, (b) truecolours, (c) infrared false colours (© CGR, Parma).Relative altitude: 6.240 m. Flight data: 22nd of April2004. Geometric resolution: 65 cm. Swath width: 7,8 km(12000 pixel × 65 cm). Swath length: 25 Km . . . . . . . . . . 603

Plate 3.2 Particular of and image recorded by the aerophotogram-metric digital camera ADS40. (a) colour, (b) infraredfalse colour (© CGR, Parma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604

Plate 4.1 The visible interval (0.38 – 0.75 μm) of theelectromagnetic spectrum passing through a prism issplit in the rainbow colours from the violet (0.40 –0.41 μm) to the red (0.65 – 0.68 μm), as experimentedby Newton in 1666. Max Plank in 1900 has drawn thebases to measure the intensity of each colour of thevisible light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605

Plate 4.2 The electromagnetic spectrum subdivided in itscharacteristics regions, expressed by frequency (�:Hz)and wavelength (λ: μm). The wavelength is the inverseof the frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

Plate 4.3 The region of the visible from 0.4 to 0.7 μm ofwavelength is subdivided in the seven fundamental

xix

xx List of Colour Plates

colours; starting from the shorter λ are the following:violet, blue, cyan, green, yellow, orange, red . . . . . . . . . . 607

Plate 4.4 Sun angle at noon in different seasons. At latitude of40◦ – 45◦ the highest solar energy occurs the 21st ofJune, while 22nd of December there is the minimumavailability of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607

Plate 4.5 (a) additive synthesis of primary colours Blue, Greenand Red projected on a white screen: their synthesisproduce the white colour. The overlap of two primarycolours generates the complementary colours Yellow(Y), Magenta (M) and Cyan (C); (b) subtractivesynthesis, obtained by transparency starting form thewhite light; combining two of the three filters (M+C,Y+C, Y+M) the primary colour Red, Green and Blue arerespectively transmitted. The overlap of the three filtersY M C determines the absorption of the three colours ofthe white light, resulting in the black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608

Plate 4.6 Agriculture texture of some crops generating differentradar backscattering signals; (a) sugar beet, (b) potato,(c) wheat; (d) beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608

Plate 4.7 Interferometric phase in colours and module representedwith the intensity of SAR ERS-1 images. Theinterferometric phase has been obtained as differenceof two ERS-1 and ERS-2 images respectively onSeptember 5 and 6, 1995. The Interferometric frangesreproduce the contour lines; (a) the Etna volcano inSicily with baseline ∼110 m; (b) Vesuvio volcano withbaseline ∼135 m; (c) reference Landsat image (© DEI,Politecnico di Milano) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609

Plate 4.8 Mean velocity of land displacement along the view linein mm/year calculated with the permanent scattererstechnique (PS); (a) 3D representation of the study area;(b) displacement in the time based on the reference scale(© DEI, Politecnico di Milano) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610

Plate 4.9 (a) 3D view of Bosmatto landslide, northern Italy:elaboration with the permanent scatterers technique(PS) of ERS data in the period 1992–2000; in thethree-dimensional image is reported the mean velocityof deformation of the radar bench mark (PS) presentin the study area. The deformation velocity of thePS are saturated in the range –10 (red) +10 (blue)mm/year. On the landslide slope are discernable severalPS. Background image: Orthophoto + DEM 10 m(Tele-Rilevamento Europa, Milan). (b) Historic series of

List of Colour Plates xxi

deformation of the permanent scatterer PS: AD353 (seePlate 4.9a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611

Plate 4.10 L’Aquila, Italy Earthquake April 6, 2009. Co-seismicinterferogram from ENVISAT data. The two imageswere acquired on 01/02/2009 and 12/04/2009. Aco-seismic interferogram is a comparison of tworadar images: one taken before the event and oneafter. The resulting interferogram shows wheresurface deformation caused by the earthquake wasmost significant, as marked by the fringes of colour.The accurate assessment of fault displacement andorientation (seismograms) can provide valuable input toseismologists for modeling the earthquake mechanism.(Courtesly Tele-Rilevamento Europa, Milan) . . . . . . . . . . 612

Plate 6.1 The principle of acquisition of the remote sensingimagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

Plate 6.2 Two images of the same area in true colour, a, and falsecolour, b. In b the vegetation is represented by hue ofred and magenta. The water, with very low reflectionin the red and infrared, has blue-black colour. GradoLagoon, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614

Plate 6.3 Payloads of some satellites orbiting the Earth: Landsat,IRS-1C, ERS-1 twin of ERS-2, Envisat and QuickBird . . . . . 615

Plate 6.4 The configuration of the International Space Station(ISS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

Plate 6.5 The line day/night of the sunset in Europe and AtlanticAfrica recorded from the Space Shuttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617

Plate 6.6 Types of polarization of the radar signal of some activesatellite systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618

Plate 6.7 The sensor SeaWiFS on board the satellite OrbView-2;image of February 27, 1999 covering Italy and theBalkan area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618

Plate 6.8 The digital camera DMC has different sensors: 3 centralelements for the acquisition of panchromatic and/orcolour imagery, 4 lateral elements for the multispectralacquisition (blue, green, red, near infrared). Thesimultaneous acquisition of 4 sub-scenes requires amosaic reconstruction of the entire scene . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Plate 6.9 Two reference colour tables obtained by correction withtwo types of filter; (a) traditional RGB (Red, Green,and Blue); (b) four colour filter RGBE (Red, Green,Blue, and Emerald) that enlarges the available paletteof colours improving the response and the chromaticvariability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620

xxii List of Colour Plates

Plate 7.1 Constellation of the 24 satellites NAVSTAR distributedon 6 orbital planes. The orbits are quasi-polar at20,183 km of altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621

Plate 7.2 European network EUREF of the permanent stationsGPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

Plate 8.1 Landsat 5 TM image of the Gargano, Adriatic Sea, Italy,with kilometric grid of 10 km, UTM 32 N WGS84 . . . . . . . 623

Plate 8.2 Overlap of a digital map and a projected image. TheRoot Mean Squared Error (RMSE) produced in theprocess of ortho-correction can be estimated observingan element both on the map (black lines) and on thedigital image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Plate 8.3 Ortho-projected photogram with original resolution of 1m; the position of each element is defined both by imagecoordinates (path and row) and geographic coordinates(east, north) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

Plate 8.4 Particular of the Plate 8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626Plate 8.5 Structure and photographic process for the development

of negative black/white and colour films (a) and slides(b). IRFC: InfraRed False Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626

Plate 8.6 The fusion of two images by means of thepan-sharpening technique; a panchromatic image(better geometric resolution) is combined with the3 multispectral bands (better spectral resolution) ofthe same scene obtaining a new synthetic image withenhanced geometric and spectral resolutions . . . . . . . . . . 627

Plate 8.7 Landsat ETM + multispectral colour composites; (a)RGB: 321, (b) RGB: 432, (c) RGB: 453, (d) RGB: 741(Iseo Lake, northern Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

Plate 8.8 Colour (a, b) and infrared false colour (c, d)photographic films of coniferous (a) and broadleaf(b). In the reference panel the green colour in thecolour film shot changes in the blue in the infraredfalse colour film (yellow filter on the lens tube) and thevegetation changes from green in magenta (due to thehigh reflectance of the vegetation in the NearIR) . . . . . . . . 629

Plate 8.9 (a) multispectral colour composites of ERS-1 SAR,RGB:April 18, April 25, July 1, 1994; images comparedwith (b) Landsat RGB:453 multispectral colourcomposites April 7, 1994 in a rice cultivated area. Pixelbased (c) and field based (d) classifications of radarimages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630

Plate 9.1 Vector and raster models: (a) natural colour fromaero-photogram or digital multispectral sensor; (b)raster or grid model; (c) vector model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631

List of Colour Plates xxiii

Plate 9.2 The process to obtain a Digital Terrain Model (DTM)from aero-photogrammetry or remote sensing data;from the stereoscopic model (derived from stereo-pairsor stereoscopic optical images) or the interferometricmodel (derived from radar images) are measured thecontour lines or the interferometric fringes and therelative altitude of several points in the image arederived. By interpolation of the points a Digital TerrainModel (DTM) is represented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632

Plate 9.3 In the Geographical Information System the realworld is stratified in several geocoded raster or vectorinformation layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633

Plate 9.4 The 3D cartography is produced merging theinformation of the 2D cartography with the heightsderived from aero-photogrammetric and/or satellite(optical and radar) acquisitions, and laser scanningsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634

Plate 9.5 Model of a mountain landscape obtained combininga DEM, a digital orthophoto and an urban/buildinginformation layer; (a) full scene, (b) detail of the scenein (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635

Plate 9.6 Hyperspectral MIVIS acquisition in true colour of amountain region and the correspondent map, nominallyin scale 1:10,000, combined with the DEM, step 50 m,of the area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636

Plate 9.7 Hyperspectral MIVIS acquisition in true colour ofa mountain region; (a) 45◦ E view of the scene inPlate 9.6, (b) zoom of (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636

Plate 9.8 (a) TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) derived fromscattered points on two-dimensional plane based onDelaunay’s triangulation. If the points have altitudeinformation (z coordinates), generated TIN can be usedfor perspective viewing, (b) TIN with original scatteredpoints overlap, (c) contour lines overlapping the TINof generation. This data structure allows data to bedisplayed as three-dimensional surface, or to be usedfor terrain analysis including contouring and visibilitymapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

Plate 9.9 Contour lines overlapping the TIN of generation (seeFig. 9.29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638

Plate 10.1 Example of ancillary data used for the realization of theCORINE program; (a) topographic map 1:25,000, (b)Land use/land cover map, (c) aerial photogram 1:50,000,(d): satellite image colour composite with overlay of theland use map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638

xxiv List of Colour Plates

Plate 10.2 (a) Map of the CORINE-Land Cover classificationof Italy; (b) Nomenclature in 44 classes of theCORINE-Land cover classification system . . . . . . . . . . . 639

Plate 10.3 The F.A.O Africover Programme produced a digitalgeoreferenced land cover database for 10 Africancountries (8.5 M km2) at 1:200,000 scale (1:100,000for small countries and specific areas), through theinterpretation of Landsat images and applying the LandCover Classification System (LCCS) methodology. Thebasic concepts are: (a) the ability to map very highlevel of details (tailored to the inherent characteristicsof each country) maintaining at the same time aregional harmonization; (b) the data-base startsfrom local/national level to be later assembled atsub-regional/regional level. Aggregated land coverdatabase for Kenya (15,000 polygons; 100 LC classes) . . . . . 640

Plate 10.4 Aggregated land cover database for Sudan (30 000polygons; 110 LC classes). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641

Acronyms

Acronym Definition

AA/D Analog to DigitalAATSR Advanced Along-Track Scanning RadiometerACM Association for Computing MachineryADEO Advanced Earth Observing SatelliteADEOS Advanced Earth Observing System (Japan)ADG Africover Database GatewayADM Atmospheric Dynamics MissionADRG ARC-Digitized Raster GraphicsADS40 Airborne Digital Sensor 40ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber LineAEB Agência Espacial BrasileiraAERONET AErosol RObotic NETwork (NASA)AGI Advanced Global Imager (NASA)AI Artificial IntelligenceAID Africover Interactive DatabaseAIMs Africover Interpretation and Mapping SystemAIMS Airborne Integrated Mapping SystemAIRS Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (NASA EOS)ALI Advanced Land Imager (USA)ALOS Advanced Land Observing Satellite (Japan)ALS Aerial (Airborne) Laser ScanningALTM Airborne Laser Terrain MapperALTMS Airborne Laser Topographic Mapping SystemALU Arithmetic–Logic UnitAM Automated MappingAM/FM Automated Mapping/Facilities ManagementAMI SAR Active Microwave Imager Synthetic Aperture RadarAMPS Automatic Mapping and Planning SystemAMSD Adjusted Mapping Support DataAMSR Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (Japan; NASA EOS)AMSU Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (NASA EOS)ANOVA Analysis of Variance

xxv

xxvi Acronyms

Acronym Definition

AOIPS Atmospheric and Oceanographic Image Processing SystemAPCM Aerial Photography Contract Management SystemAPFO Aerial Photography Field Office (USDA)API Application Program InterfaceAPIS Aerial Photography Information SystemAPMI Aerial Photography Micrographic Index System (USGS)APQF Aerial Photography Quad FileAPR Airborne Profile RecorderAPSR Aerial Photography Summary RecordAPSRS Aerial Photography Summary Record System (USGS)APTS Aerial Profiling of Terrain SystemAQT Association Québecoise de TélédétectionARNS Aeronautical Radio Navigation ServiceARVI Atmospherically Resistant Vegetation IndexAS Applicative SoftwareASAR Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar; Aerial Synthetic Aperture RadarASC Agence Spatiale CanadienneASCAT MetOp’s Advanced SCATterometerASCIE American Standard Code for Information ExchangeASCII American Standard Code for Information InterchangeASI Agenzia Spaziale Italiana Italian Space AgencyASP Active Server Pages; Application Service ProviderASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer

(Japan; NASA EOS)ATBD Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (NASA EOS)ATM Airborne Terrain MapperATMOS Atmospheric and Ocean Observation Series (Japan)ATR1 Automatic Target Recognition Module (Leica)ATSR Along-Track Scanning Radiometer (ESA ERS)ATV Automated Transfer VehicleAVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA)AVI Audio Visual InterleaveAVIRIS Advanced Visible/InfraRed Imaging SpectrometerAVL Automatic Vehicle LocationAVNIR Advanced Visible and Near-Infrared Radiometer (Japan, ADEOS)AWARE A tool for monitoring and forecasting Available WAter REsource in

mountain environmentAWiFS Advanced Wide Field Sensor

BBE Best EffortB/W Black and WhiteBWA Broadband Wireless AccessBARCIS BARCode Information SystemBGS British Geological SurveyBIH Bureau International de l’HeureBIL Band Interleaved by LineBIOS Basic Input/Output SystemBIP Band Interleaved by PixelBIPM Bureau International des Poids et Mesures

Acronyms xxvii

Acronym Definition

BLG Binary Line GeneralizationBMP Bitmapped Image FormatBNSC British National Space Centre (UK)BOREAS Boreal Ecosystem Atmosphere StudyBPI Bits per InchBPS Bits per SecondBRDF Bi-directional Reflection Distribution FunctionBS Base StationBWC Bandwidth CompressionBWE Bandwidth Expansion

CC/A Coarse-Acquisition (code)CAD Computer-Aided Drafting; Computer-Assisted Design;

Computer-Aided DesignCADD Computer-Aided Design and DraftingCADMAP Computer-Aided Drafting, Mapping, and PhotogrammetryCADRG Compressed ADRGCALIPSO Cloud–Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite ObservationsCAM Computer-Aided MappingCAMA Computer-Aided Mass Appraisal System (Montana)CAMEO Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations System (USA)CASI Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager (Canada)CAT Computer-Assisted ThermographyCBERS China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite ProgramC-CAP Coastal Change Analysis ProgramCCD Charge-Coupled DeviceCCD/TDI Charge-Coupled Device/Time Delay IntegrationCCNS Computer Controlled Navigation System (IGI, Germany)CCPR Consultative Committee on Photometry and RadiometryCCRS Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (Canada)CD Change Detection, Compact DiskCDM Canonical Data ModelCDR CorelDraw formatCD-R Compact Disk-RecordableCD-ROM Compact Disk-Read Only MemoryCDS Component Database SystemCDTED Compressed Digital Terrain Elevation DataCD-W Compact Disk re-writableCENT/TC 287 Committee of Normalization, Technical Committee 287CEO European Centre for Earth ObservationCEOS Committee on Earth Observation SatellitesCERES Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy System (NASA EOS)CESBIO Centre d’ Études Spatiales de la Biosphère (France)CGA Colour Graphics AdaptorCGI Common Gateway InterfaceCGM Computer Graphics MetafileCIE Commission Intemationale de l’ÉclairageCIGNET Cooperative International GPS NetworkCILSS Comité inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Sécheresse au Sahel

xxviii Acronyms

Acronym Definition

CIR Color InfraRedCLC CORINE Land CoverCMIS Conical Scanning Microwave Imager/SounderCML Chemical Markup LanguageCMYK Cyan–Magenta–Yellow–BlackCNES Centre National d’Études Spatiales (France)CNR Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy)CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (France)COBOL COmmon Business-Oriented LanguageCONAE Comision National de Actividades EspacialesCORINE Coordination of Information on EnvironmentCOSMO/SkyMed COnstellation of Small satellites for the Mediterranean basin

ObservationCPU Central Processing UnitCRSS Canadian Remote Sensing SocietyCSA Canadian Space AgencyCSCW Computer Supported Cooperative WorkCSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

(Australia)CVA Change Vector AnalysisCZCS Coastal Zone Color Scanner

DD/A Digital to Analog (converter)DAAC Distributed Active Archive CenterDAIS-1 Digital Airborne Imagery SystemDAM Detection and MappingDAT Digital Audio TapeDATIS Digital Airborne Topographic Imaging SystemDB DataBaseDBMS DataBase Management SystemDCF Digital Cartographic FileDDR Data Descriptive RecordDDS Digital Data StorageDDSM Dense Digital Surface ModelDEI Department of Electronics and InformationDEM Digital Elevation Model; Digital Elevation MatrixDEM-G Digital Elevation Model – Graphic (coordinates)DEM-P Digital Elevation Model – Planar (coordinates)DGDF Digital Geospatial Data FilesDGPS Differential Global Positioning System; Differential Global

Positioning SatellitedifSAR Differential SARDIGCAT Digital CatalogueDIGEST Digital Geographic Information Exchange StandardDLL Windows Dynamic Link LibraryDLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Aerospace

Agency)DLT Digital Linear TapeDMA Defense Mapping Agency (USA); Designated Market AreasDMC Disaster Monitoring Constellation

Acronyms xxix

Acronym Definition

DN Digital NumberDoD Department of Defense (USA)DOP Dilution of PrecisionDORIS Decision-Oriented Resource Information System; Doppler

Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by SatelliteDPI Dots per InchDRF Digital Raster FileDSE Data Switching EquipmentDSM Digital Surface ModelDSS Decision Support SystemDTD Document Type DefinitionDTE Data Terminal EquipmentDTED Digital Terrain Elevation Data (U.S. government)DTM Digital Terrain Model (or Modelling)DWF Drawing Web FormatDXF Drawing Interchange File; Digital Exchange Format

EEAE European Agency for the EnvironmentEARSeL European Association of Remote Sensing LaboratoriesEarthCARE Earth Clouds Aerosols and Radiation ExplorerEC European CommissionECSS European Cooperation for Space StandardisationED50 European Datum 1950EDC EROS Data Center (USGS)EE Electrical EngineeringEEA European Environment AgencyEGA Enhanced Graphics AdaptorEGNOS European Geostationary Navigation Overlay ServiceEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentEIONET European Environment Information and Observation NetworkENVISAT Environmental Satellite (ESA)EO Earth ObservationEO-1 Earth Orbiter-1 (NASA)EOF End of FileEORC Earth Observation Research Center (Japan)EOS Earth Observing System, Earth Observation SatellitesEOS AM NASA EOS Morning Crossing (Descending) MissionEOS PM NASA EOS Afternoon Crossing (Ascending) MissionEOSAT Earth Observation Satellite (Company)EOSDIS EOS Data and Information System (NASA)EPA Environmental Protection Agency (USA)EPS EUMETSAT Polar SystemEPS Encapsulated PostScriptERA European Research AreaERDAS Earth Resources Data Analysis SystemEROS Earth Resources Observation Satellite; Earth Resources Observation

SystemERS European Remote-Sensing Satellite (ESA)ERSAR Earth Resources Synthetic Aperture Radar

xxx Acronyms

Acronym Definition

ErtPS Extended Real-Time Polling ServiceERTS Earth Resources Technology SatelliteES Expert SystemESA European Space AgencyESE Earth Science EnterpriseESRIN European Space Research Institute (ESA establishment)ESSA Environmental Science Service AdministrationESSP Earth System Science PathfinderESTB EGNOS System Test BedESTEC European Space Research and Space Technology Centre (ESA)ETC European Topic CentresETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (NASA Landsat)ETRS89 European Terrestrial Reference System 1989EU European UnionEUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological

SatellitesEUREF European Reference Frame

FFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFCC False Colour Composite; Federal Communications Commission (USA)FGDC Federal Geographic Data CommitteeFM Facilities Management; Field ManualFM-1 Flight Model 1 (NASA EOS MODIS)FMC Forward Motion CompensationFMP Field Pack Mobile ProfessionalFORTRAN Formula Translation (computer language)FOV Field of ViewFSA Federal Space Agency (Russia)FTP File Transfer Protocol

GG3OS Global Terrestrial Observing SystemGALILEO Informal name of GNSSGATES Geostationary Advanced Technology Environmental SystemGB Gigabyte; Geologische Bundesanstalt (Austria)GBF Geographic Base FileGBI Green Biomass IndexGCOM Global Climate Observing SystemGCP Ground Control Point(s)GCS Ground Control StationGCT Greenwich Civil TimeGDA Geographic Data Analysis SystemGDC Geographic Data CouncilGDF Geographic Data FileGEMI Global Environment Monitoring MSAVIGEO Geostationary OrbitGEOS Geodynamics Experimental Ocean SatelliteGEOSAT Geodesy Satellite

Acronyms xxxi

Acronym Definition

GeoVIS Geographic Vector Interpretation System (Africover)GERIS Geophysical Environmental Research Imaging SpectrometerGGRF Galileo Geodetic Reference FrameGI GeoInformation; GeoSpatial InformationGIF Graphic Interchange FormatGIS Geographic(al) Information System(s); Geohydrologic Information

System; Global Indexing SystemGISCO Geographic Information System of the European CommissionGISIG Geographical Information Systems International GroupGLAI Green Leaf Area IndexGLCC Global Land Cover CharacteristicGLCN Global Land Cover NetworkGLI Global Imager (Japan, ADEOS)GLOBE Global Change Observing MissionGLONASS Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema, Global Orbiting

Navigation Satellite System (Russia)GLOSS Global Observation Surveillance SystemGLRS Geoscience Laser Ranging SystemGMES Global Monitoring for Environment and SecurityGML Geography Markup LanguageGMS Global Land One-km Base ElevationGMT Greenwich Mean TimeGNS GEOnet Names ServerGNSS Global Navigation Satellite SystemGOCE Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation ExplorerGOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (NASA)GOFC Global Observations of Forest Cover (IGOS)GOLD Global Observation of Land Cover DynamicsGOME Global Ozone Monitoring ExperimentGOMOS Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of StarsGOMS Geostationary Operational Meteorological SatellitesGPL General Public LicenceGPR Ground-Penetrating RadarGPRS General Packet Radio ServiceGPS Global Positioning System(s)GPST Global Positioning System TimeGRASS Geographic Resource Analysis Support SystemGRD Ground Resolved DistanceGRS 80 Geodetic Reference System of 1980GSD Ground Sample DistanceGSDI Global Spatial Data InfrastructureGSDM Global Spatial Data ModelGSDS Global spatial data systemGSFC Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA)GSLV Geosynchronous Satellite Launch VehicleGSM Global System for Mobile Communication – Graphic Standard MetafileGSRC Geological Survey Research CommitteeGSS Geographic Support SystemGST Galileo System Time

xxxii Acronyms

Acronym Definition

GSTB Galileo System Test BedGTOS Global Terrestrial Observing System (FAO)GUI Graphical User InterfaceGVI Green Vegetation Index

HHIPERLAN High-PErformance Radio LANHIRDLS High-Resolution Dynamics Limb SounderHIRIS Hyperspectral InfraRed Imaging SpectrometerHPGN High-Precision Geodetic NetworkHRC High-Resolution CameraHRG High-Resolution Geometry (SPOT)HRPC High-Resolution Panchromatic CameraHRSC-A High-Resolution Stereo Camera-AirborneHRV Haute Résolution dans le Visible (SPOT)HRVIR High Resolution Visible Infrared (scanner)HSI Hue, Saturation, Intensity – Hyperspectral Imaging InstrumentHTML Hypertext (or HyperText) Markup LanguageHTTP HyperText Transfer ProtocolHTV H-II Transfer VehicleHW HardwareHYDICE HYperspectral Digital Imagery Collection ExperimentHYMAP Airborne Hyperspectral Imaging

II&CLC2000 Image and Corine Land Cover 2000I/O Input/OutputIASI Infrared Atmospheric Sounding InterferometerICAO International Civil Aviation OrganisationICC International Colour ConsortiumIDC Internet Data CenterIDE Imbedded Drive ElectronicsIDL Interactive Data Language; Interface Definition LanguageIDS Interdisciplinary ScienceIEC International Electrotechnical CommissionIERS International Earth Rotation ServiceIFAD International Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentIFOV Instantaneous Field of ViewIFSARE Inter-ferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar for ElevationIGADD Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and DevelopmentIGBP International Geosphere–Biosphere ProgrammeIGBP-DIS International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme – Data and

Information SystemIGOS Integrated Global Observing StrategyIGS International GPS ServiceIKAR-N scanning microwave radiometer systemIKAR-P nadir microwave radiometerILAS Improved Limb Atmospheric Spectrometer (Japan)IMG Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse GasesIMO International Maritime Organisation

Acronyms xxxiii

Acronym Definition

IMS Information Management SystemIMU Inertial Measurement UnitINPE Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (Brasil)INRA Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (France)INS Inertial Navigation SystemInSAR Interferometric Synthetic Aperture RadarINSAT Indian National SatelliteINSPIRE Infrastructure of Spatial Information in the European CommunityIP Internet Protocol – Image Point – Integrated Project (CE)IPA Imagery Product Archive (USDMA)IPS Image Processing System; Inertial Positioning SystemIR Imaging Radiometer; Infrared; Information RetrievalIRF Internal Raster File; Internal Raster FormatIRMSS Infrared Multispectral ScannerIRS Internal Revenue Service (USA); Information Retrieval System; Indian

Remote Sensing (Satellite)ISA Israelian Space AgencyISAMS Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric SounderISAS Institute of Space and Astronautical ScienceISO International Standards OrganizationISPRS International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote SensingISRO Indian Space Research OrganisationISS International Space StationITOS Improved Tiros Operational SatelliteITRF International Terrestrial Reference FrameITRS International Terrestrial Rotation ServiceITU International Telecommunication System

JJAVA Joint Academic Virtual ApplicationJAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (ex NASDA)JEM Japan Experiment ModuleJERS Japanese Earth Resources SatelliteJFIF JPEG File Interchange FormatJGW JPEG with World FileJPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group formatJPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory (USA)JRC Joint Research Centre (Italy)JSP Java Server PagesJVM Java Virtual Machine

KKARI Korea Aerospace Research InstituteKB KilobyteKBPS KiloBytes Per SecondKOMPSAT Korean Multipurpose Satellite

LLADAR Laser Detection and RangingLFC Large Format Camera

xxxiv Acronyms

Acronym Definition

LAGEO Laser Geodynamic SatelliteLAI Leaf Area IndexLAMP Low Altitude Mapping PhotogrammetryLAMPS Laser-scan Automated Map Production SystemLAN Local Area NetworkLANDSAT Land SatelliteLARA Aerial Laboratory for Environmental ResearchLASER Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of RadiationLBS Location-Based ServicesLCA Land Cover analysisLCCP National Land Cover Characterization ProjectLCCS Land Cover Classification SystemLCD Liquid-Crystal DisplaysLCDB Land Cover DatabaseLCS Location ServicesLDHF Landsat-7 Data Handling FacilityLEO Low Earth OrbitLGPL General Public Licence LibraryLIDAR Light Detection and RangingLIDQA Landsat Image Data Quality Assessment (NASA)LIS Land Information SystemLISS Linear Imaging Self-scanning SensorLORAN Long Range Navigation (system)LPI Lines per inchLPV Land Product ValidationLRR Laser ReflectorLRS Landsat Recorder SystemLSPIM Land-Surface Processes and Interactions MissionLSS Laser Scanning SystemLUT Look Up TableLWIR Long-Wave Infrared (spectral region)LZW Lempel Ziv Welch

MMacOS Machintosh Operative SystemMADE Multipurpose Africover Database for Environmental resourcesMAGSAT Magnetic Field Satellite (USA)MAIS Modular Airborne Imaging SpectrometerMAP Map Accuracy Programme (Africover)MAPSAT Mapping Satellite (USA)MAS MODIS Airborne Simulator (NASA EOS)MATLAB Matrix LaboratoryMB MegabyteMBLA Multi-Beam Laser AltimeterMCDM Multi-Criteria decision makingMCGA Monochrome/Colour Graphics AdapterMCST MODIS Characterization Support Team (NASA EOS)MD Minimum DistanceMEBS MODIS Emergency Backup System (NASA EOS)MEIS Multispectral Electrooptical Imaging Sensor

Acronyms xxxv

Acronym Definition

MEO Medium Earth OrbitMERES Mineral and Energy Resources Exploration Satellite (Japan)MERIS Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (ESA Envisat)MESSR Multispectral Electronic Self-Scanning RadiometerMETOP METeorology OPerationalMETSAT Meteorological SatelliteMGRS Military Grid Reference SystemMHS Microwave Humidity Sounder (NASA EOS)MHz MegaHertzMIAS Multispectral Image Analysis SystemMIDAS Multispectral Interactive Data Analysis SystemMIME Multipurpose Internet Mail ExtensionMIPAS Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric SoundingMIR Russian orbital stationMIRAS Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis (ESA)MISR Multiangle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer (NASA EOS)MIT Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyMIVIS Multispectral Infrared and Visible Imaging SpectrometerMLA Multi-linear arrayMLL Maximum LikelihoodMLP Multilayer PerceptronMLS Microwave Limb SounderMNS Multi-Navigator SystemMODEM Modulation and De-ModulationMODIS Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (NASA EOS)MODLAND MODIS Land Discipline Group (NASA EOS)MODS Moderate Resolution Imaging SpectrometerMODEM MOdulation and DEModulationMOMS Modular Optoelectric Multispectral ScannerMOPITT Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (Canada; NASA EOS)MP-MP Multipoint–Multipoint SystemsMPRD Modified Proportional Radial DisplacementMrSID Multiresolution Seamless Image DatabaseMS MultiSpectral; Microwave SounderMSAS MTSAT Satellite-Based Augmentation SystemMSAVI Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation IndexMSC Multispectral CameraMSG Meteosat Second Generation (ESA)MSL Mean Sea LevelMSMR Multi-frequency Scanning Microwave RadiometerMSP Microsoft Paint formatMSR Microwave Scanning RadiometerMSS Multispectral Scanner (Landsat)MSU-SK Multispectral Optical ScannerMTF Modulation Transfer FunctionMTPE Mission to Planet Earth (NASA)MTSAT Multi-functional Transport Satellite (Japan)MTU Magnetic Tape UnitMWF Map Window File

xxxvi Acronyms

Acronym Definition

NNAD North American DatumNAL National Aerospace Laboratory of JapanNAPA National Academy of Public AdministrationNARSA National Advanced Remote Sensing Applications ProgramNASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)NASDA National Space Development Agency (Japan)NATO North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNAVSTAR NAVigation Satellite Timing and Ranging Global Positioning SystemNAVTECH Navigation Technologies Corp.NBSM National Bureau of Surveying and Mapping (China)NCC National Cartographic Centre (Iran)NDCS National Digital Cartographic StandardsNDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation IndexNERC Natural Environment Research Council (UK)NESDIS National Space Development Agency of JapanNET National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information ServiceNGDC National Geophysical Data Center (USA); National Geospatial Data

ClearinghouseNGDF National Geospatial Data FilesNGMA National Geoscience Mapping Agency (Australia)NGMBD National Geologic Map Database (USGS)NGWIC National Ground Water Information CenterNICMOS Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object SpectrometerNIMA National Imagery and Mapping Agency (USA)NIR Near Infrared (spectral region)NLAPS National Landsat Archive Production System (USGS)NLCD National Land Cover Dataset (USGS),NLOS Not Line Of SightNMAS National Map Accuracy Standard(s)NMP New Millenium Program (NASA)NNSS Navy Navigational Satellite SystemNOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA)NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

(USA)NRSA National Remote Sensing Agency (India)NRSC National Remote Sensing Centre (UK)NRSCC National Remote Sensing Centre of ChinaNSAU National Space Agency of UkraineNSC Norwegian Space CentreNSCAT NASA ScatterometerNSRS National Spatial Reference System (NOAA)NSP Korean National Space Development PlanNTF National Transfer Format (UK)NTIS National Technical Information Service (USA)NTS National Topographic Series (Canada); National Topographic System

(Canada); Navigation Technology SatelliteNVCS National Vegetation Classification Standard

Acronyms xxxvii

Acronym Definition

OOCM Ocean Colour MonitorOCR Optical Character Recognition; Optical Character ReaderOCTS Ocean Colour and Temperature Scanner (Japan, ADEOS)ODBC Operational Database ConnectivityOEC Optical-Electronic CameraOGC Open Geospatial ConsortiumOLE Object Linking EmbeddingOMI Ozone Monitoring InstrumentORBIMAGE Orbital Imaging CorpORD Object-Relational DataBaseORDBMS Object-Relational DataBase Management SystemORFEO Optical and Radar Federated Earth ObservationOS Operative SystemOSCAR Online Satellite Catalogue and Request System (NOAA)OSMI Ocean Scanning Multispectral ImagerOSTM Ocean Surface Topography Mission

PPAGES Program for the Adjustment of GPS EphemerisPALSAR Phased-Array L-band SAR (Japan)PAN PanchromaticPBM Portable Bitmap (format)PC Personal Computer; Principal ComponentsPCA Principal Components AnalysisP-Code Precise Code; Protected CodePCX PC Paintbrush Export FormatPDA Personal Digital AssistantPE&RS Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing (journal)PFM Proto-Flight Model (NASA)PGM Portable Graymap (format)PHP Personal Home PagePIC Lotus 1-2-3 Picture FormatPixel Picture elementP-MP Point–MultiPoint systemsPNG Portable Network Graphics (format)PNN Probabilistic Neural NetworkPOLDER Polarization and Directionality of the Earth’s Reflectances (CNES,

ADEOS)PP Principal PointPPM Portable Pixelmap (format)PPR Portland Pattern RepositoryPPS Precise Position ServicePR Precipitation Radar (Japan)PRARE Precise Range and Range Rate EquipmentPRF Point Response FunctionPRIRODA Nature Instrument Model on Russian MIR StationPRISM Panchromatic Remote Sensing Instrument for Stereo Mapping (Japan);

Processes Research by an Imaging Space Mission

xxxviii Acronyms

Acronym Definition

PRS Public Regulated ServicePSLV Polar Satellite Launch VehiclePVI Perpendicular Vegetation Index

QQA Quality AssuranceQUASAR QUality Assurance and StAbility Reference

RRA Radar AltimeterRADAR Radio Detecting and RangingRAM Random Access MemoryRAR Real Aperture RadarRASA Russia Aviation-Space AgencyRBV Return Beam VidiconRCSSMRS Regional Center for Services in Surveying, Mapping and Remote

SensingRDBMS Relational Database Management SystemRFM Rational Functional ModelRGB Red–Green–BlueRIN Realty Information NetworkRINEX Receiver Independent Exchange (GPS data format)RIP Raster Image Processing; Raster Image ProcessorRIS Retroreflector in SpaceRMSE Root-Mean-Square ErrorRNSS Radio Navigation Satellite ServiceROA Remotely Operated AircraftROM Read-Only MemoryROSA Radio Occultation for Sounding the AtmosphereROSHYDROMET Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental

MonitoringROSIS Reflective Optics System Imaging SpectrometerRPC Rational Polynomial CoefficientsRPF Raster Product FormatRPV Remotely Piloted VehicleRSA Russian Space Agency RosaviakosmosRSG Remote Sensing Group (UAZ)RSI RADARSAT InternationalRSS Remote Sensing Society (UK)RTCM Radio Technical Commission for Maritime (format)RTF Rich Text FormatRT-GPS Real-Time Differential GPSrtPS Real-Time Polling ServiceRTK Real-Time Kinematics; Right-to-Know NetworkRTP Real-Time Positioning

SS/N Signal-to-Noise RatioSA Selected Availability; Selective AvailabilitySADCC Southern African Development Community

Acronyms xxxix

Acronym Definition

SAN Storage Area NetworkSAR Synthetic Aperture Radar; Search and Rescue ServiceSAVI Soil-Adjusted Vegetation IndexScaLARS Scanning Laser Altitude and Reflectance Sensor (Germany)SCARAB Scanner for the Radiation BudgetSCIAMACHY Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric

CartographySDBMS Spatial DataBase Management SystemSDES Spatial Data Exchange StandardSDI Spatial Data InfrastructureSE Search EngineSEASAT Sea Satellite (USA)SeaWiFS Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View SensorSEVIRI Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (ESA)SFSI Shortwave-Infrared Full Spectrum Imager (Canada)SI Spatial InformationSIASGE Sistema Italo-Argentino de Satélites protects Gestión de EmergenciasSIR Shuttle Imaging Radar; Space Imaging Radar (NASA)SIRS Satellite Infrared SpectrometerSIS Spatial Information SystemSLAR Side-Looking Airborne RadarSMIL Synchronized Multimedia Integration LanguageSMOS Soil Moisture and Ocean SalinitySMTP Simple Mail Transfer ProtocolSNM Square Nautical MilesSNN Structured Neural NetworkSNSB Swedish National Space BoardSoL Safety of Life ServiceSOLSPEC Solar Spectrum (Space Shuttle instrument from Europe)SOM Space Oblique Mercator (projection); Spatial Object ManagerSONAR Sound Navigation and RangingSPIE Society of Photo-optical Instrumentation EngineersSPIN-2 Space Information-2 Meter Data (Russian Space Agency)SPOT Systeme Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre; Systeme Pour

l’Observation de la TerreSPS Standard Position ServiceSQL Standard Query Language; Structured Query LanguageSRMCS Soil Resources Management and Conservation ServiceSROM Spectro-radiometer for Ocean MonitoringSRTM Shuttle Radar Topography MissionSS Subscriber StationSTDN Spacecraft Tracking and Data NetworkSTS Space Transportation SystemSVG Scalable Vector GraphicsS-VGA Super Video Graphics ArraySW SoftwareSWIR Short-Wave InfraRed (TM5 and TM7 spectral region)

TTCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet ProtocolTCT Tasseled Cap Transformation, Kauth–Thomas 1976

xl Acronyms

Acronym Definition

TDRSS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (NASA)TES Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer3S Small Satellite System, Suite de Systeme SPOT, SPOT Successor SystemTIFF Tag Image File FormatTIMS Therms Infrared Multispectral ScannerTIN Triangulated Irregular NetworkTIR Thermal InfraRedTIROS Television Infrared Observing SatelliteTIRS Thermal Infrared ScannerTIS Topographic Information SystemsTLS Terrestrial Laser ScanningTM Thematic Mapper (Landsat) – TelemetryTMI TRMM Microwave Instrument (Japan)TNC The Nature ConservancyTOMS Total Ozone Mapping SpectrometerTOPEX Ocean Topography ExperimentTP Tie PointTPS Thin-Plate SplinesTRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (Japan)TSAVI Transformed Soil Adjusted Vegetation IndexTT&C Tracking, Telemetry and Command

UU-2 A high altitude remote sensing aircraftUARS Upper Atmosphere Research SatelliteUAV Unmanned Aerial VehiclesUGS Unsolicited Grant ServiceUI Urban IndexUID Univariate Image DifferencingUMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications SystemUNEP United Nations Environment ProgramUNOOSA United Nations Office of Outer Space AffairsUN-WFP United Nations-World Food ProgrammeURI Uniform Resource IdentifierURL Uniform Resource LocatorUSDA United States Department of AgricultureUSGS United States Geological Survey (USA)USNVC United States National Vegetation ClassificationUTC Universal Time CoordinatedUTM Universal Transverse MercatorUTP Unshielded Twisted-PairUV UltravioletUVS Unmanned Vehicle System

VVCL Vegetation Canopy LidarVGA Video Graphics Array; Video Graphics AdaptorVGIS Virtual Geographical Information SystemVGT SPOT-4 VEGETATION instrument (France)VHF Very High Frequency

Acronyms xli

Acronym Definition

VHRPC Very High Resolution Panchromatic CameraVHRR Very High Resolution RadiometerVI Vegetation IndexVID Vegetation Index DifferencingVIIRS Visible and Infrared Imaging Radiometer SuiteVIRS Visible Infrared Scanner (Japan)VIS Visible (spectral region)VLDS Very Large Data StoreVML Vector Markup LanguageVNIR Visible and Near-Infrared (spectral region)VoIP Voice over Internet ProtocolVPN Virtual Private NetworksVTIR Visible and Thermal Infrared Radiometer

WW3C World Wide Web ConsortiumWAAS Wide Area Augmentation SystemWAN Wide Area NetworkWAP Wireless Application ProtocolWCRP World Climate Research ProgramWDVI Weighted Difference Vegetation IndexWFI Wide Field ImagerWGCV Working Group on Calibration and Validation (CEOS)WGS 84 World Geodetic System of 1984Wi-Fi Wireless FidelityWiFS Wide Field-of-view SensorWiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave AccessWirelessMAN Wireless Metropolitan Area NetworkWIS West Indian SpaceWLAN Wireless Local Area NetworkWMO World Meteorological OrganizationWWW World Wide Web

XxDLS eXtensible Distance Learning SystemXML eXtensible Mark-up LanguageXSL eXtensible Stylesheet LanguageXSLT eXtensible Stylesheet Language Transformation

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Basics of Geomatics - Home - Springer978-1-4020-9014-1/1.pdf · gets at land managers, operating in natural or anthropic environments (engineers, geologists, agronomists, architects,