Materials for labBring a digital camera if you have one available

Teaching ObjectivesPlant diversity: Applications and importancePlant form and function: Plant survival and human useLocal and global examples of terrestrial plant types

Student Learning Objectives(1) View the plant diversity at Ho'omaluhia Botanical Garden(2) Know how to access information regarding plant identification(3) Be aware of differences between mosses, ferns, and flowering plants

INTRODUCTIONPlants are the producers in a food web. Solar energy is stored in the chemical bonds of the sugars produced by plant photosynthesis, the biochemical process by which plants utilize light energy from the sun to produce sugar from carbon dioxide and water. Consumers in a food web derive their energy by breaking down these bonds during respiration, which releases the stored energy. Energy flowing within the food web therefore enters it by way of plant photosynthesis.

The importance of plants to the survival of humans and other animals cannot be over-emphasized. Our basic needs of oxygen, food, shelter, and clothing are provided, directly or indirectly, by plants.Because plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen in photosynthesis, they may be a significant factor in reducing the"greenhouse effect", which is caused by human activities that increase the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and gas) are two examples of such activities.

There are about 235,000 species of flowering plants in existence today. Approximately a third of these are native to temperate regions, and the remainder are found in the tropics. A vast number of tropical plants are in danger of extinction in the wild within the next hundred years because the human populations of most tropical countries continue to double every 20 to 25 years, and because the forests are rapidly being cleared for wood and cultivation. More than half of the world's tropical forests have already been cleared, and experts predict that most of

1

Plant BiologyLab

what is left will be gone in less than 50 years. With them will vanish a quarter of all life-forms including, perhaps, a plant that could provide a cure for cancer or help end world hunger.

So little is known of the plants of the tropics that many have not even been given scientific names. Preserved samples of these plants may well be all that are passed on to our descendants in the 21St century and beyond. The useful properties these plants possess can certainly be determined better today, when species are still in existence, than at any point in the future.

This week's lab is designed to introduce you to the incredible diversity within the plant kingdom, to note some of the purposes for which plants have been utilized by humans, and to help you appreciate the forms into which they have been modified and shaped by evolution.

We will look at examples of several types of terrestrial plants: ferns, conifers, and flowering plants. The emphasis will be on form and function, from the perspective of both plant survival and human utility.

PLANT DIVERSITYTerrestrial (land-dwelling) plants can be separated into four major groups based on their anatomy, reproduction, and life cycle. These four groups are mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants.

Mosses are non-flowering terrestrial plants that reproduce by spores. Mosses don't have vascular tissue (analogous to human veins) to distribute water within their bodies. Instead, they absorb water through pores located on all parts of the plant body. Since mosses lack veins, they are small in size and close to the ground where moisture is readily available.

Ferns are non-flowering plants that also reproduce by spores but that have vascular tissue to distribute nutrients and water to all portions of the plant body. Since ferns have veins, they can grow taller than mosses.

Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants that reproduce new plants with seeds. You probably remember from your previous work on seed germination that a seed contains the embryo of a young plant, in addition to nutritive tissue and a protective outer tissue called the seed coat. The largest group of gymnosperms, called conifers, produce their seeds in cones.

Flowering plants, more technically called angiosperms, are the most successful, diverse, and widespread of the land plant groups. Flowering plants range in size from tiny duckweed, a few millimeters in size, to Eucalyptus trees more than 100 meters (328 ft.) in height. There are even flowering plants that have invaded the oceans where they produce flowers underwater.

2

PLANT ORGANSJust as your body has separate organs to carry out special functions (e.g., heart, lungs, stomach), so, too, are plant tissues organized into organs that carry out specific functions.

Plant PartsPlants have three vegetative organs: roots, stems, and leaves.

Leaves are the major photosynthetic organs, which make all the food for the plant. They do this by changing light, water and gases into food. This process is called photosynthesis.Shoot System: Stems and branches support the photosynthetic organs and serve as a conduit for water and nutrients between the roots and leaves. Some plants have stems modified for storage of water or carbohydrates, or for asexual propagation. Roots are generally used to anchor the plant in the soil and to absorb water and nutrients from the soil.Flowers are the reproductive organs of angiosperms. The ovary, or female reproductive organ of a flower, develops into a fruit after fertilization by the male pollen. The seeds produced by the plant are enclosed in the fruits. Most people are familiar with large, colorful flowers such as hibiscus, plumeria, orchids, and lilies.

3

Leaf

Shoot System

Root System

RootsAll roots are responsible for:

anchoring the plant to the ground extracting water and minerals from the soil

In a typical root we can distinguish the following parts:

1. Primary root - the thickest . It grows downwards.2. Secondary roots - arise from the primary root. They are not as thick as the primary one. They go sidewards.3. Root cap - is a kind of protection the roots end with. It is designed to drill the soil and it is able to guide the root growth by perceiving gravity.4. Root hairs - are minute filaments roots are covered with. They absorb water and nutrients from the soil.

4

StemsAll stems are responsible for:

supporting leaves and flowers physically holding the leaves and flowers in the best position for food gathering and reproduction transporting materials using xylem and phloem to areas of plenty to areas of need in

various parts of the plant storing nutrients for future use

bud - an underdeveloped and unelongated stem composed of a short axis with compressed internodes, a meristematic apex, and primordial leaves and/or flowers. terminal bud - a bud at the tip of a stem responsible for terminal growth. axillary bud or lateral bud - buds along side the axis of a stem; they were produced by the terminal bud during growth; once they grow out and form a lateral stem they become terminal buds of the lateral branch. flower bud - a bud containing a floral meristem which develops into flowers; usually larger than vegetative buds. leaf scar - a scar marking the former point of attachment of a leaf or petiole to the stem. internode - the part of the stem between nodes node - part of stem marking the point of attachment of leaves, flowers, fruits, buds and other stems. lenticel - rough areas on stems (and some fruits, ex. apple) composed of loosely packed cells extending from the cortex through the ruptured epidermis; serve as "breathing pores" for gas exchange. Only occur on young stems. growth rings - bud scale scars from the last terminal bud; they denote flushes of growth (usually per year). Can be used to age stems because usually 1 set of growth rings is produced per year on temperate trees in the Temperate Climatic Zone.

5

LeavesAll leaves are responsible for:

absorbing the sun's rays the majority of photosynthetic production (which can take place in any green part of a

plant), taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen and water vapor (breathing) removing waste products from the plant using osmotic pressure to draw water up from the roots

Parts of a leaftip the terminal point of the leaf

blade or lamina the flattened, green, expanded portion of a leaf.

margin edge of a leaf.

midrib the most prominent central vein in a leaf.

lateral veins secondary veins in a leaf.

petiole the leaf stalk (connects blade to stem).

stipules leaf-like appendages (at the base of petiole of some leaves).

6

Basic leaf shapes

Sword-shaped(ensiformis)Long, thin,

pointed

Lance-shaped(lanceolata)Long, wider in the middle

Ovate(ovata)

Oval, with a tapering point

Elliptic(elliptica)

Oval, with a short point

Round(rotundifolia)

Circular

Cordate(cordata)

Heart-shaped

Oblanceolate(oblanceolata)

Top wider than bottom

Spathulate(spathulata)

Spoon-shaped

Rhomboid(rhomboidalis)

Diamond-shaped

Lobed(lobata)

With several points

Spear-shaped(hastata)Pointed,

with barbs

Pinnatisect(pinnatifida)

Cut, but not to the midrib

Pinnate(pinnata)2 rows of

leaflets

Bipinnate(bipinnata)

Each leaflet also pinnate

Tripinnate(tripinnata)

Each leaflet divided into 3

Trifoliate(trifoliata)

Divided into 3 leaflets

Palmate(palmata)

Divided into many lobes

Digitate(digitata)

Divided into 5 lobes

Opposite(oppositifolia)

Leaves opposite one another

Alternate(alternifolia)Arranged alternately

Perfoliate(perfoliata)

Stem through the leaves

Peltate(peltata)

Rounded, stem underneath

Whorled

In circles round the stem

Rosette

Leaves in close rings

7

Fruit and SeedsThe fruit is that part of a plant which is in charge of protecting the seeds and guarantee their dispersal. It becomes as a result of the fertilization inside the carpel, which produce the ripening of the ovary walls that will create the fruit. Some fruits, however, have another origin, deriving from the flower receptacle or some other parts of the flower. We have many kinds of fruits but the most typical fruit shows the following parts:The pericarp is the external part of a fruit. It is all that surrounds the seed. It is divided into:The exocarp is the outer covering. In an apple, for instance, it is what we know as the "skin".The mesocarp is the middle covering. In a peach what we ordinary call the "flesh".The endocarp is the inner covering , in many cases the stiffened part normally covering the seed. In a plum , for example, what we commonly know as the "stone".

8

SeedsThe seed is enclosed inside the endocarp. This is a typical seed. We can see the following parts:

The radicle is the part of the embryo which emerges first. Once outside it develops into a main root, producing root hairs and secondary roots.- The plumule is like a leaf in its early development.- The hypocotyl is the space between the radicle and the plumule. It develops into a stem.

The endosperm is the food supply contained in the seed. This is sometimes included in the cotyledons, which either achieve the function of primary leaves or food storage, even both of them in some cases.

According to the number of cotyledons, we classify plants in two groups: monocotyledons or monocots and dicotyledons or dicots. In the first group we find so important plants as cereals, palms, lilies, tulips or orchids. The members of the second group are more numerous and comprises most of the trees and flowers.

The seed coat or testa - is the outer layer of the seed. The micropyle is a litle pore on the seed coat , through which, apart from entering the sperm, the seed absorbs water to begin germination.

9

FLESHY FRUITSformed from a single flower

Berry

A Berry is a single fleshy fruit without a stone, usually containing a number of seeds.

This is a Kiwi Fruit (Actinidia chinensis). Other fruits of this type are: Banana (Musa), Coffee (Coffea arabica), Currant (Ribes), Pasionfruit (Passiflora), Pepper (Capsicum), Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentus).

Drupe

A Drupe is a single fleshy fruit with a hard stone which contains the single seed.

This is a Cherry (Prunus avium). Other fruits of this type are: Apricot (Prunus armeniaca), Plum (Prunus x domestica), Coconut (Cocos nucifera), Olive (Olea europaea), Peach (Prunus persica), Sloe (Prunus spinosa).

Aggregation of Drupes

An Aggregation of Drupes is a fleshy fruit, made up of many drupes but formed from a single flower, each drupe containing one seed.

This is a Raspberry (Rubus idaeus). Other fruits of this type are: Loganberry (Rubus), Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus).

Pome

A Pome is a fleshy fruit with a thin skin, not formed from the ovary but from another part of the plant. These are sometimes called Accessory Fruits. The seeds are contained in chambers in the centre of the fruit.

This is an Apple (Malus domestica). Other fruits of this type are: Firethorn (Pyracantha), Hawthorn (Crataegus), Medlar (Mespilus germanica), Pear (Pyrus communis), Quince (Cydonia oblonga).

Hesperidium

A Hesperidium is a berry with a tough, aromatic rind.

This is an Orange (Citrus sinensis). Other fruits of this type are all Citrus fruits: Citron (Citrus medica), Grapefruit (Citrus x paradisi), Kumquat (Fortunella), Lemon (Citrus limon), Lime (Citrus aurantifolia).

There are other types of fleshy fruit which some people classify separately. A Hep or Hip is a fleshy fruit containing achenes, as in the Rose (Rosa); a Pepo is a fleshy fruit with a leathery skin, formed from an inferior ovary. This type of fruit is found only in members of the Gourd Family (Cucurbitaceae) - Cucumbers (Cucumis melo), Water Melon (Citrullus lanatus), Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), and Pseudocarp.

10

Pseudocarp

A Pseudocarp is a false fruit, because it does not contain the seeds. The seeds are achenes, on the outside of a fleshy fruit.

This is a Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa).

FLESHY FRUITSformed from a group of flowers

There are a few fruits formed from a group of flowers (inflorescence) rather than just one, but which form only one fruit. These are Sorosis, as in the Mulberry (Morus), Syngonium, as in the Fig (Ficus), and Coenocarpium, as in the Pineapple (Ananas).

DRY DEHISCENT FRUITS

Follicle

A Follicle is a dry dehiscent fruit which splits on one side only. It may contain one or many seeds.

This is the fruit of a Columbine (Aquilegia). Other fruits of this type are: Delphinium (Delphinium), Larkspur (Consolida), Love in a Mist (Nigella damascena), Milkweed (Asclepias), Peony (Paeonia).Legume

A Legume is a dry dehiscent pod that splits on two sides.

This is the fruit of a Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus). Other fruits of this type are all in members of the Pea Family (Leguminosae/Fabaceae): Acacia (Acacia), Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), Flamboyant (Delonix regia), Pea (Pisum sativa), Peanut (Arachis hypogaea), Redbud (Cercis occidentalis), Runner Bean (Phaseolus coccineus), Wisteria (Wisteria).

Lomentum

A Lomentum is a dry dehiscent fruit, a legume constricted between the seeds.

This is the fruit of a Golden Chain Tree (Laburnum anagyroides). Other fruits of this type are: Sophora (Sophora), Tick Trefoil (Desmodium).

Silique

A Silique is a dry dehiscent fruit. It is long and thin, splits down the two long sides, and has a papery membrane (the septum) between the two halves.

This is the fruit of a Wallflower (Erysimum cheiri). Other fruits of this type are all in members of the Cabbage Family (Brassicaceae): Aubrieta (Aubrieta x cultorum), Cabbage (Brassica olearacea), Honesty (Lunaria annua), Radish (Raphanus sativus).

A silique which is less than twice as long as broad is called a Silicula.Capsule

A Capsule is the most common fruit type. A Capsule is a dry fruit which splits open to

11

release the seeds.

These plants all have fruit capsules: Cotton (Gossypium), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus), Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), Jimson Weed (Datura), Mahogany (Afzelia), Witch Hazel (Hamamelis).

There are several types of Capsule, depending on how the fruit splits.

Valvate Capsule

A Valvate Capsule is a dry dehiscent fruit in which the tips of the seed capsule split.

This is the fruit of a Campion (Silene). Other fruits of this type are: Jacob's Ladder (Polemonium), Pink (Dianthus), Primrose (Primula).

Porose Capsule

A Porose Capsule is a dry dehiscent fruit, opening with pores or holes around the top.

This is the fruit of a Poppy (Papaver). Other fruits of this type are: Blue Poppy (Meconopsis), Prickly Poppy (Argemone).

Loculicidal Capsule

A Loculicidal Capsule is a dry dehiscent fruit, splitting along the locule (midrib of each ovary).

This is the fruit of Stinking Gladwyn (Iris foetidissima). Other fruits of this type: Evening Primrose (Oenothera), Valotta (Cyrtanthus elatus), and members of the Violet and Lily Families.

 

Circumscissile Capsule

A Circumscissile Capsule is a dry dehiscent fruit, opening by splitting through the centre of the fruit, so that the top of the capsule lifts off like a lid. An example of this type of fruit is Pimpernel (Anagallis)

A Septicidal Capsule splits along the septa (joints of the ovary) as in the Foxglove (Digitalis).

DRY INDEHISCENT FRUITSAchene

An Achene is a single-seeded dry indehiscent fruit in which the seedcoat is not part of the fruit coat.

This is the fruit of a Sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Other fruits of this type are: Buttercup (Ranunculus), Clematis (Clematis), Coreopsis (Coreopsis), Dahlia (Dahlia), English Marigold (Calendula), Zinnia (Zinnia).

12

Cypsela

A Cypsela is a single-seeded dry indehiscent fruit that develops from a one part inferior ovary (on the stalk side of the flower). They are sometimes included with Achenes.

This is the fruit of a Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Other fruits of this type are found in the same plant family, the Daisy Family (Asteraceae).

Nut

A Nut is a large single hardened achene.

This is a Chestnut (Castanea sativa). Other fruits of this type are: Acorn (Quercus), Hazel (Corylus avellana), Hickory (Carya).

Nutlet

This is not a classification that seems to be recognised everywhere, but the Mint Family (Lamiaceae) is a very large plant family, and has a particular type of seed which is not quite any of the normal ones, so I thought it should be included somewhere.

The fruits of this family are single-seeded achene-like nutlets, which are held at the bottom of the calyx.

This is the fruit of a Salvia (Salvia). All members of the Mint Family (Lamiaceae) have this type of fruit.

Caryopsis

A Caryopsis is a simple dry indehiscent fruit, like an achene, but with the seedcoat fused with the fruit coat.

This is the fruit of Sweetcorn (Zea). Other fruits of this type are all members of the Grass Family (Poaceae): Barley (Hordeum), Oats (Avena), Rice (Oryza), Rye (Secale), Wheat (Triticum).

Samara

A Samara is an independent dry indehiscent fruit which has part of the fruit wall extended to form a wing (i.e. not a winged seed inside another type of seed pod).

This is the fruit of a Maple (Acer). This is a Schizocarpic Samara, because the fruit splits into its separate Samaras. Other fruits of this type are: Ash (Fraxinus) - also Schizocarpic, Elm (Ulmus).

13

Flower Parts14

Flower Parts TermsFlower part Part function

Petal Petals are used to attract insects into the flower, they may have guidelines on them and be scented.

Stigma Is covered in a sticky substance that the pollen grains will adhere to.

Style The style raises the stigma away from the Ovary to decrease the likelihood of pollen contamination. It varies in length.

Ovary This protects the ovule and once fertilization has taken place it will become the fruit.

Ovule The Ovule is like the egg in animals and once fertilization has taken place will become the seed.

Receptacle This is the flower's attachment to the stalk and in some cases becomes part of the fruit after fertilization e.g. strawberry.

Flower stalk Gives support to the flower and elevates the flower for the insects.

Nectary This is where a sugary solution called nectar is held to attract insects.

Sepal Sepals protect the flower whilst the flower is developing from a bud.

Filament This is the stalk of the Anther.Anther The Anthers contain pollen sacs. The sacs release

pollen on to the outside of the anthers that brush against insects on entering the flowers. The pollen once deposited on the insect is transferred to the stigma of another flower or the same flower. The ovule is then able to be fertilized.

Please note: The stigma, style, ovary, and ovule are often known collectively as the carpel or female parts of the flower.

The filament and the Anthers are collectively known as the Stamen or the male parts of the plant.

15

Flower Types Imperfect Flower

A flower that has either all male parts or all female parts, but not both in the same flower. Examples: cucumbers, pumpkin, and melons.

Perfect FlowerA flower that has both the male parts and female parts in the same flower. Examples: roses, lilies, and dandelion.

16

Monocot vs Dicot Number of cotyledons -- The number of cotyledons found in the embryo is the actual basis for distinguishing the two classes of angiosperms, and is the source of the names Monocotyledonae ("one cotyledon") and Dicotyledonae ("two cotyledons"). The cotyledons are the "seed leaves" produced by the embryo. They serve to absorb nutrients packaged in the seed, until the seedling is able to produce its first true leaves and begin photosynthesis. Pollen structure -- The first angiosperms had pollen with a single furrow or pore through the outer layer (monosulcate). This feature is retained in the monocots, but most dicots are descended from a plant which developed three furrows or pores in its pollen (triporate). Number of flower parts -- If you count the number of petals, stamens, or other floral parts, you will find that monocot flowers tend to have a number of parts that is divisible by three, usually three or six. Dicot flowers on the other hand, tend to have parts in multiples of four or five (four, five, ten, etc.). This character is not always reliable, however, and is not easy to use in some flowers with reduced or numerous parts. Leaf veins -- In monocots, there are usually a number of major leaf veins which run parallel the length of the leaf; in dicots, there are usually numerous auxillary veins which reticulate between the major ones. As with the number of floral parts, this character is not always reliable, as there are many monocots with reticulate venation, notably the aroids and Dioscoreales. Stem vascular arrangement -- Vascular tissue occurs in long strands called vascular bundles. These bundles are arranged within the stem of dicots to form a cylinder, appearing as a ring of spots when you cut across the stem. In monocots, these bundles appear scattered through the stem, with more of the bundles located toward the stem periphery than in the center. This arrangement is unique to monocots and some of their closest relatives among the dicots. Root development -- In most dicots (and in most seed plants) the root develops from the lower end of the embryo, from a region known as the radicle. The radicle gives rise to an apical meristem which continues to produce root tissue for much of the plant's life. By contrast, the radicle aborts in monocots, and new roots arise adventitiously from nodes in the stem. These roots may be called prop roots when they are clustered near the bottom of the stem. Secondary growth -- Most seed plants increase their diameter through secondary growth, producing wood and bark. Monocots (and some dicots) have lost this ability, and so do not produce wood. Some monocots can produce a substitute however, as in the palms and agaves.

17

Common questions about the classes.Q: Are pine trees monocots or dicots? A: Pines are conifers, and are neither monocots nor dicots. Only flowering plants are considered to be members of these two classes. This question is similar to asking whether a chicken is a monocot or a dicot; it is neither. Q: Do all dicots produce flowers? A: Yes, sort of. All dicots and monocots are flowering plants, and so are descended from flower-producing plants. However, the flowers are not always large and showy the way we expect flowers to be. Oaks, maples, and sycamore are all dicot trees, but they do not produce obvious flowers. Grasses and cattails are monocots whose flowers are often overlooked because they do not have sepals or petals. There are also some flowering plants which flower only rarely. Duckweeds are tiny flowering plants which reproduce and spread primarily by vegetative growth; they grow by cellular division, and the resulting cluster will then break apart. Q: If monocots don't have wood, then what supports palm trees? A: Palms rely on overlapping leaf bases, thickened enlarged cells, and prop roots to stay up. This strategy is also used by cycads and tree ferns.

18

Gymnosperm Life Cycle

19

Angiosperm Life cycle

Development of Male Gametophyte Development of Female Gametophyte

20

21

Ho'omaluhia Field Trip

A WORD OF CAUTION: Plants contain a wide range of substances used by humans as food, medicines, dyes, etc., but leaves, fruits, seeds, and thorns may cause skin irritations, sneezing, external or internal discomfort, eye inflammation, or puncture wounds. A basic rule when observing plants is to never put any unfamiliar plant or plant part in your mouth, and use caution in touching any unfamiliar plant you encounter.

Assignment 1Travel to Ho'omaluhia on your own or with a fellow student. Location information on Ho'omaluhia can be found at: http://www1.honolulu.gov/parks/hbg/hmbg.htm

Identify 20 leaf shapes (Table 1). Draw an outline and vein patterns in your field book Identify plant parts Identify flower parts. Draw in field book. Is it perfect or imperfect? Go to the grocery store or China Town and identify 20 types of fruits or

seeds (Table 2). Take a picture of you at the grocery store. You can show me it on your cell phone next week.

Due next week

22

Compare Ferns, Gymnosperms & Angiosperms FERNSFerns do not form flowers or seeds; instead they producereproductive bodies called spores. When the spores are maturethey are released and are spread by the wind. The spores germinatewhen they land on sufficiently moist soil.

Laua'e Fern or Maile-Scented Fern (Phymatosorus grossus) Fernleaves are called fronds. Turn a frond over carefully and observe the underside. Notice the patches of dots. These are the reproductive structures of a fern; they are called sporangia. Spores are produced in the sporangia by a process called meiosis. During meiosis, the number of chromosomes (the nuclear structures containing DNA) in a dividing cell is reduced by half. These spores then germinate to produce a tiny, heart-shaped plant that lays close to the moist ground. Following fertilization within this tiny plant, the embryo has the potential to grow into a new fern plant. The maile-scented fern is native to the Hawaiian Islands and to many other islands in the Pacific Ocean. Squash a little bit of the frond and smell it; it smells like maile, a native vine that is frequently used for making lei.

Exercise: Examine a fern frond and make a sketch to show the pattern of spores that you see.

GYMNOSPERMSGymnosperm means "naked seed". Unlike the seeds of floweringplants, which are enclosed in a protective fruit, the seeds of gymnosperms are more exposed and unprotected. Many types of gymnosperms produce their seeds in cones, and these types are referred to as "conifers". Pine, spruce, cedar, and fir trees are examples of conifers. There are no gymnosperms native to Hawai'i. All the conifers that you see growing in Hawai'i have been introduced from elsewhere. There is an angiosperm on campus that resembles a conifer, Casuarina (Australian pine Fig 1). The leaves look like needles, but if you look closely, they are segmented. Try not to confuse it with a conifer.

23

Fig. 1 Australian pine

Q1. In terms of evolution, which do you think came first: the gymnosperms or the angiosperms?

ANGIOSPERMS

Noni (Morinda citrifolia) Noni is a Polynesian introduction, brought to Hawai'i on sailing canoes by early Polynesian settlers. Although most people would consider the ripe fruit to be foul-smelling and tasting, it was one of the most important medicinal plants used by early Hawaiian healers. It was used in the treatment of heart troubles, high blood pressure, and diabetes, as well as a poultice and an insecticide. Red and yellow pigments were derived from the bark and roots, respectively, for use in dying bark cloth (kapa). As traditional medical techniques are enjoying a modern resurgence of interest, noni juice and other noni-derived products can increasingly be found in health food stores or ordered off the Web.Q2. Some plants can be very poisonous even in small quantities. Imagine that you are an ancient healer exploring the properties of a plant you are unfamiliar with. How might you begin to determine if it has healing qualities or is poisonous?

Breadfruit tree (Artocarpus altilis, `ulu). One of the most infamous stories in maritime history has its origins in the breadfruit tree. In 1787, H.M.S. (His Majesty's Ship) Bounty sailed from England to Tahiti to gather breadfruit plants for transport to the West Indies in the Caribbean Sea as a source of food for slaves. Bounty lingered in Tahiti for five months and the crew " formed attachments with some of the native females, which had considerable influence upon their conduct". Finally departing Tahiti, Bounty was seized by acting lieutenant Fletcher Christian, beginning the most notorious mutiny in sea annals. Putting 16 crewmen ashore on Tahiti, Christian and 8 shipmates, along with Polynesian women and men, sailed to uninhabited Pitcairn Island, where they burned Bounty to escape detection. During the mutiny Captain William Bligh and 18 loyal shipmates were set adrift in an open boat. They rowed and sailed 3,618 nautical miles and reached a Dutch settlement in Timor (in present-day Indonesia) in 41 days, an unparalleled feat of open-boat navigation. In November 1790 the long arm of the British Admiralty sent H.M.S. Pandora to Tahiti to capture the mutineers and bring them to punishment. Fourteen surviving mutineers who were foolish enough to have remained on Tahiti were taken prisoner. After a fruitless search for Bounty, Pandora headed home for England but struck a reef and sank off the northeast coast of Australia. The survivors made their way in 4 small boats to the Dutch settlement at Timor 1,100 miles away, only a third of the distance sailed by Captain Bligh to the same landfall. Of the 14 mutineers taken prisoner, 4 perished in the shipwreck. The remaining 10 eventually stood court-martial in

24

England; 6 were condemned and, of these, 3 were hanged. Murderous warfare flared on tiny Pitcairn between Polynesians and Englishmen soon after their arrival, bringing violent death to all but 2 mutineers. When the next ship touched Pitcairn in 1808, only one mutineer was still alive, patriarch to a flock of women and children. The burned remains of the Bounty were discovered off Pitcairn Island in 1957, and the wreck of the Pandora was found in 110 feet of water in 1977. Breadfruit was eventually brought to the West Indies by another British expedition, but the slaves did not like it and it never became an important food source.

Exercise: In addition to serving many practical purposes in Hawai'i (wood for surfboards, bark cloth, food), the breadfruit leaf and fruit are a popular decorative motif, such as in Hawaiian quilting.

Q3. Sketch a breadfruit leaf realistic or stylized.

25

Fruit Type Worksheet (Table 1)Name: Location:Time: Date:Fruit Name Type of Fruit

26

Name:Ho'omaluhia Botanical Garden Leaf Shape ID Worksheet (Table 2)

Location:Time:Date:

At Ho'omaluhia Botanical Garden, investigate leaf shapes. Draw an outline of its shape and vein structure. The ID # should match the drawing in your field book.ID # Leaf Shape Monocot/Dicot (M/D)

27