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BASIC
GRAMMAR
MASTER OF PLANT
PROTECTION
Ms KESKES ATTIFA
BASIC GRAMMAR
2
There are two main types of nouns: common nouns and proper nouns.
1. Common nouns
Words for people, places and things are called common nouns.
These common nouns are words for things:
Ruler Hammer bicycle Truth fridge Ladder
Chair Saw truck Courage Computer spade
book Lawnmower train Loyalty printer sofa
These common nouns are words for animals. Notice that special names for young
animals are included.
Animal Its young Animal Its young
Hours Foal Fox Cub
Sheep lamp Kangaroo Joey
Frog tadpole Chicken Hen
These common nouns are words for places.
school post office police station Mosque Temple
supermarket airport theater Church Farm
factory gym Stadium Nursery Synagogue
These common nouns are words for people who do certain things.
sailor writer magician farmer Friend
technician gardener artist athlete Mate
lawyer clerk photographer pilot
2. Proper nouns
The names of particular people, places and things are proper nouns. They always begin
with a capital letter.
These people’s names are proper nouns.
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Mom Grandpa Dr. Lee Rania Nelson
Mandela
Dad Aunt Diana Mr. Professor Hafsi
Granny Uncle David Ms. Hall
The names of the days of the week and the months of the year are proper nouns.
The names of special days and celebrations are also proper nouns.
Eg: Saturday, Sunday, Monday…
January, February, December…
Mother’s Day Ramadan Day Christmas Independence Day
Thanksgiving Valentine’s Day Labor day New Year’s Day Halloween Veterans' Day
The names of famous places, buildings and monuments are proper nouns.
the Golden Gate the Sphinx the Sydney Opera House
Statue of Liberty the Taj Mahal the Great Wall of China
the Grand Canyon Big Ben the Empire State Building
The names of people who live in a particular country are also proper nouns.
country people country People
Afghanistan Afghans Korea Koreans
the Philippines Filipinos Thailand Thais
Vietnam the Vietnamese Switzerland The Swiss
China the Chinese Germany Germans
Exercises:
I/ Underline the common nouns and circle the proper nouns in these sentences.
1. I told Uncle John about my accident.
2. Kim and Stephanie wore masks on Halloween.
3. The lawnmower is broken.
4. We’re going to the movies tomorrow.
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5. The lion is playing with one of its cubs.
6. My sister’s favorite soccer player is David Beckham.
7. I’m watching a videotape about the Sahara Desert.
8. The tourists visited Rome and saw the Colosseum.
9. Does this bus go to the stadium?
10. We’re reading a story about a boy called Harry Potter.
II/ Read the following passage containing common nouns and proper nouns. Put a C under a
common noun and a P under a proper noun.
Mr. Peters lives in Maine in a big house by the sea. He has three cats and a dog. He likes to
travel to different countries. Last Christmas, he went to Paris and saw the Eiffel Tower. He
enjoyed eating French food in nice restaurants.
III/ Underline all the nouns in the following sentences. Are they common or proper nouns?
1. Do you like cheese?
2. They stood next to the Niagara Falls.
3. May I borrow your umbrella?
4. The ambulance was driving very fast.
5. Carl did not agree with them.
6. She loves to visit Disneyland.
7. Would you like some more water?
8. The fog was very thick.
9. May I invite Tom to join us?
10. My car is very old.
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Nouns can be singular or plural.
1. Singular Nouns when you are talking about just one thing or person, use a singular
noun. For example:
a tent a park an idea
a taxi a lady an exercise
a house a doctor an oven
2. Plural Nouns Use a plural noun when you are talking about two or more people, places
or things.
Just add s to make most nouns plural
Singular Plural singular Plural
a computer
a chair
a train
a player
a teacher
computers
chairs
trains
players
teachers
a mountain
a river
an envelope
an insect
an oven
mountains
rivers
envelopes
insects
ovens
Nouns that end in s, ss, ch, sh or x, are made plural by adding es.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
bus
glass
dress
branch
buses
glasses
dresses
branches
sandwich
witch
brush
flash
sandwiches
witches
brushes
flashes
Most nouns that end in y are made plural by changing the y to i and adding es.
Singular plural Singular Plural
baby
family
story
fairy
puppy
babies
families
stories
fairies
puppies
housefly
library
city
lily
party
houseflies
libraries
cities
lilies
parties
Nouns that have a vowel before the y are made plural by simply adding s at the end.
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Singular plural Singular Plural
key
monkey
donkey
toy
keys
monkeys
donkeys
toys
runway
chimney
trolley
valley
runways
chimneys
trolleys
valleys
Many nouns that end in f are made plural by changing the f to v and adding es. But
some nouns that end in f are made plural simply by adding s.
Singular plural Singular Plural
half
leaf
shelf
wolf
halves
leaves
shelves
wolves
chief
roof
handkerchief
cliff
chiefs
roofs
handkerchiefs
cliffs
Some nouns that end in f can be made plural in two ways. Most nouns that end in fe
are made plural by changing the f to v and adding s.
Singular plural Singular Plural
scarf
hoof
dwarf
wharf
scarfs or scarves
hoofs or hooves
dwarfs or dwarves
wharfs or wharves
knife
wife
life
midwife
knives
wives
lives
midwives
Most nouns that end in o are made plural by adding s. But other nouns that end in o
are made plural by adding es.
Singular plural Singular Plural
video
hippo
zoo
kangaroo
videos
hippos
zoos
kangaroos
tomato
potato
hero
tomatoes
potatoes
heroes
Some nouns change spelling from the singular form to the plural. The plural form of
some nouns is the same as the singular form.
Singular plural Singular Plural
woman
person
mouse
tooth
foot
goose
women
people
mice
teeth
feet
geese
sheep
deer
aircraft
salmon
sheep (not sheeps)
deer (not deers)
aircraft (not aircrafts)
salmon (not salmons)
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Some nouns are always plural. Some nouns are usually plural.
Always plural Usually plural
Trousers/ glasses
shorts /spectacles
jeans/goggles
pants /scissors
shoes /chopsticks
sandals/ gloves
slippers /clogs
boots /socks
Exercises:
I/Read the following passage. Notice that the plural nouns are missing. Write the correct
plural form of the singular nouns in parentheses. The first one has been done for you.
Three ladies (lady) in pink_____ (dress) took their _____ (baby) for a walk in the zoo. They
saw four____ (giraffe), three_____ (hippo), two ______ (kangaroo) and an elephant. They
walked for so long that their______ (foot) became sore, so they sat down on a bench for a rest
near some_____ (monkey). The_____ (monkey) were playing with cardboard_____ (box) and
throwing_____ (stick) at each other. After a while, the_____ (lady) looked at their_____
(watch) and decided it was time to go home.
II/ Complete the sentences with the nouns in brackets. Use the plural.
1. How many ____ does your cat catch? (Mouse)
2. They usually keep their winter clothes in _______(box)
3. We saw some _____on our way to the beach. (Deer)
4. She bought two ____in our online shop. (Scarf)
5. Our uncle often tells us funny ____ (story)
6. We often have _____for dinner on Fridays. (Fish)
7. My sister likes ice cream with_______ (blueberry)
8. Our dog has never had any _________ (louse)
9. The girls bought three ________in the mall. (Dress)
10. How many ______ work in your office? (Person)
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Use the possessive form of a noun to show ownership.
To make the possessive form, put an apostrophe and an s (’s) after a singular noun.
This is my bed and that is Peter’s bed.
We all like Dad’s cooking.
It is my job to collect everybody’s plate after the meal.
The flies are buzzing around the horse’s tail.
This is Susan and Jenny’s room.
This is Tom’s hat and that is Tom’s father’s hat.
After plural nouns that don’t end in s, use an apostrophe and an s (’s) to make the possessive
form.
The children’s room is always messy.
Some people’s houses are bigger than ours.
Rats’ tails are longer than mice’s tails.
Men’s voices are deeper than women’s voices.
After plural nouns that end in s, just add an apostrophe s’.
The pupils’ desks are arranged in rows.
The boys’ bedroom is bigger than the girls’ bedroom.
The strong winds destroyed all the farmers’ crops.
Mice’s tails are shorter than rats’ tails.
Notes:
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How do you make the possessive form when two names linked by and are the
owners? Put an’s after the second name only.
_Katy and Mike’s house is very big. (= the house that belongs to both Katy and Mike)
_Joe and Sarah’s dad works at the shoe factory. (= He is Joe’s dad and he is also Sarah’s
dad.)
Sometimes two possessive forms with ’s appear together, one after the other:
_This is John’s brother’s ball. (= The ball belongs to John’s brother.)
_Paul’s teacher’s house has a swimming pool. (= the house that belongs to Paul’s teacher).
When a name ends in s, you can make the possessive form in either of two ways: add
an apostrophe and an s ’s , or add just an apostrophe ’ . For example:
This is James’s house. Or this is James’ house.
Which is Charles’s bike? Or which is Charles’ bike?
Exercises:
I/Read the following passage. The possessive nouns are missing. Write the correct
possessive form of the nouns in parentheses. The first one has been done for you.
Peter is spending the day at Tom’s (Tom) house. Peter likes Tom’s family. He especially
likes____ (Tom’s mom) cooking! The boys play lots of games together.
_____ (Tom) sister doesn’t like______ (Tom and Peter) games. She is playing by herself.
Sometimes the_____ (boys) games become so noisy that Mom tells them to go and play in the
garden. _______ (Tom) dog is in the garden, lying in the sunshine. Tom wants to play with
the dog, but Peter is afraid of the ______ (dog) big teeth and sharp claws.
At 7 o’clock, _____ (Peter) dad arrives in his car to take Peter home. Tom says he
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likes_______ (Peter’s dad) new car.______ (Peter) dad says that he’ll take Tom for a ride in it
sometime.
II/ Join the sentences below by using possessive forms. Study the boxes above
1. The student has a pen. The pen is on the table.
The student’s pen is on the table.
2. The man has a car. The car is in the garage.
____________________________________________________________________
3. My friends had a party. The party was fun.
____________________________________________________________________
4. The women have kids. The kids are playing.
____________________________________________________________________
5. India has a population. The population is very large.
____________________________________________________________________
6. The children have a mother. The mother is over there.
____________________________________________________________________
7. My sisters have friends. The friends are interesting.
____________________________________________________________________
8. The teachers had a meeting. The meeting was last week.
____________________________________________________________________
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Verbs have forms called tenses that tell you when the action happens.
If the action happens regularly, sometimes or never, use the simple present tense.
We always wash our hands before meals.
Joe sometimes lends me his bike.
Dad jogs in the park every day.
We often go to the movies on Saturday.
Mr. Ross takes a train to work.
The simple present tense is also used to state facts.
The sun rises every morning.
Penguins live in the Antarctica.
Dogs love playing in water.
The earth goes around the sun.
Australia is an island.
Use the simple present tense to tell the events of a story that is happening now.
I arrive at school. I see another girl crying. I ask her why she is sad. She says she
hasn’t got any friends to play with. I tell her that she can play with me.
Use the simple present tense to talk about things that will happen in the future.
My little sister starts school tomorrow.
The new supermarket opens this Friday.
Next week I go on holiday to Japan.
We fly to London on Sunday.
The train leaves in five minutes.
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My family moves to a new house next month.
Exercises:
I/ Complete the following sentences by writing am, is or are in the blank spaces.
The ______ weather beautiful today.
All the children_________ on the playground.
Boys! You_____ always late for class.
_____You on the basketball team, too?
Nobody in my class ________ interested in football.
This computer more expensive than that one?
Sally _______ my best friend.
Mom and Dad _______downstairs watching television.
Asma and Selma ____ in the computer room.
The Eiffel Tower _______the tallest monument in Paris.
II/ Read the following passage. Fill in the blank spaces with: is, are, isn’t or aren’t.
I like playing in our park because there __________some great things to play on.
There________ a big chute to slide on and a huge sandbox to play in. there _____also
some swings. Dogs are not allowed in the park so there______ no dogs to bother us.
There _______also a lot of space for us to run around. It sometimes gets hot because
there ______many trees to give shade, but there ______ a fountain where we can drink
water. It’s the best place in the town for children. There _______another place as good
as the park.
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Use the simple past tense to talk about things that happened in the past. The simple past
tense is usually made by adding ed to the verb.
I opened the door and looked inside.
The plane landed ten minutes ago.
My cousin visited us last summer
We walked to school yesterday.
She laughed when I told her the joke.
If a verb ends in e, just add d to make the simple past tense.
Who closed all the windows?
We lived in that house when I was a baby.
She smiled when she saw me.
We raced each other on our bikes.
If a verb ends in y, change the y to i before adding ed.
I carried my mom’s shopping bag. My brother cried when he fell off his bike.
We hurried to the station to catch the train.
Dad tried to help me with my homework.
With some short verbs that end in a consonant, you must double the consonant before
adding ed.
I climbed over the fence and ripped my shirt.
The stranger grabbed my arm.
The dog wagged its tail when it saw the biscuits.
He slammed the door and walked off angrily.
Exercises:
I/ Complete the sentences with the simple past tense of the verbs in parentheses.
The boys______ (whisper) secrets to each other.
Uncle Salim _______ (hurry) to catch his bus.
We ______ (return) our books to the library.
She _____ (kiss) the frog and it_____ (change) into a prince.
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Someone _____ (tap) me on the shoulder.
The baby________ (cry) when we took her toy away.
Amine ________ (pin) the badge onto his jacket.
Two doctors _______ (rush) into the room.
This is the house that we ________ (live) in when I was younger.
Granddad _______ (lower) himself into the chair.
II/Write Was or Were in the blank spaces in the following passage.
It _____ a beautiful summer’s day and there ______not a cloud in the sky. Mom, Dad and I_______ all in the garden. Dad_______ in the vegetable garden planting some seeds and
Mom and I________ busy with other jobs. The sun______ hot and soon I______ feeling
very tired. Mom and Dad_____ not tired at all. They went on working for a long time.
I_______ glad when it time to go inside and have a drink.
III/ Draw a circle around the correct past tense verb in each sentence below.
1. I (losed / lost) my watch in the park.
2. Ahmed (hurt / hurted) his knee when he (falled / fell).
3. I kicked the ball hard and it (breaked / broke) a window.
4. My new shoes (cost / costed) a lot of money.
5. I (getted / got) this book from the library.
6. We had a garage where we (keeped / kept) our car.
7. Ali (shew / showed) me the cut on his knee.
8. The glass (falled / fell) off the table and (breaked / broke).
9. We (selled / sold) our old car and (buyed / bought) a new one.
10. The bell (ringed / rang) and we all (goed / went) into school.
11. The dog (catched / caught) the ball in its mouth.
12. The man (kneeled / knelt) down to talk to the little boy.
13. I (meeted / met) my friend in the park.
14. Our cat (runned / ran) onto the road in front of a car.
15. Soumia (writed / wrote) a letter to her best friend.3
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To show future action use the verbs shall and will with another verb that describes the action.
You can use either shall or will with the pronouns I and we.
Use will with the pronouns you, he, she, it and they.
Will is also used with singular nouns like ‘my dad’ and with plural nouns like ‘all the
boys in my class’.
I shall do my homework after dinner.
I will miss you when you leave.
We shall take the dog for a walk later.
We will visit Grandma this weekend.
He will be home later.
She will help us cook the food for the party.
It will soon be dark outside.
I think it will be sunny tomorrow.
I expect they will give you a present.
Mom will be very pleased with you.
Your plant will die without water.
The school will soon need a lot of repairs.
Rania and I shall be glad when the exams are over.
Nacer and Karim will be late for school if they don’t hurry.
To make the negative form, use will and shall with not. The contraction for will not is won’t.
I will not help you unless you help me fist.
It won’t be very sunny again until next summer.
You won’t like this food. It’s horrible!
We shall not go to the party without you.
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To talk about facts in the future or plans that will not change, use the simple present
tense.
Tomorrow is Sunday.
Summer vacation ends on Friday.
The new library opens next week.
We fly to Tamanrasset on Wednesday.
You can also talk about plans for the future and other future happenings by using be going
to and another verb. Remember to:
Use am and was with the pronoun I.
Use is and was with the pronouns he, she and it, and with singular nouns like ‘my
mom’ and ‘the teacher’.
Use are and were with the pronouns we, you and they, and with plural nouns like ‘my
friends’ and ‘Anis and Sonia’.
I am going to visit my cousin tomorrow.
I am going to see the new Star Wars movie next week.
My friend Imen is going to move to Chicago next year.
Dad is going to buy me a skateboard.
Aunt Safia is going to have another baby soon.
It is going to be windy tomorrow.
I hope someone is going to fix the television soon.
You are going to help me, aren’t you?
My friends are going to teach me how to play chess.
Mom and Dad are going to buy a new computer.
Your books are going to fall off the shelf if you’re not careful.
Are you going to read your book now?
BASIC GRAMMAR
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Exercises:
I/Decide whether shall and will are used correctly in each sentence. Put a checkmark √ for a
correct use and an X for an incorrect use.
1. My dad will be home later.
2. I will never forget my days at school.
3. Mimi and Safa shall come with us.
4. The weather report says that it shall be sunny again tomorrow.
5. We will miss my cousins when they leave.
6. Rania and I shall feel happier when the exams are over.
7. It will be late when we arrive in London.
8. I shall stay awake all night and watch for Santa Claus.
9. My grandparents shall enjoy coming to our house for Christmas.
10. The winter holidays shall give us all a good rest.
II/ Read the pairs of subjects and verbs below. Then write sentences about future events using
the correct form of be going to. For example, for the first sentence you could write:
My friend Sarah is going to sleep at my house tonight.
My friend Sara(sleep)_____________________________________________________
We (ride) _______________________________________________________________
The dog (catch) __________________________________________________________
Uncle Khaled (come) ______________________________________________________
It (rain) _________________________________________________________________
We (eat)_________________________________________________________________
Jamal and I (have)_________________________________________________________
The teachers (read)_________________________________________________________
My brother (buy)__________________________________________________________
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Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are used before infinitives to add a different meaning. For
example, you use auxiliary verbs to say:
That someone is able to do something,
that someone is allowed to do something, or
That someone has to do something.
The helping verbs are: can, could, would, should, ought to, will, shall, may, might and
must.
1. Can and Could
Use can and could to say that someone is able to do something.
She can draw really good pictures.
Ahmed can run faster than Oussama.
Can you ride a bike?
Can you help me with my homework?
She could already read before she started school.
Our teacher said we could go home early.
I ran as fast as I could.
Sarah could not come to the party because she was ill.
You may also use can and could to say that someone is allowed to do something.
My mom says you can come to our house for dinner.
Dad says I can’t walk to school on my own.
You can’t go in there without a ticket.
Mom said I could have ice cream after my dinner.
The big sign on the gate said PRIVATE, so we couldn’t go in
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Can and could are also used for asking for information or help, for offering something, and
for suggesting something.
Can you tell me if this train goes to Oran?
Could you show me where the accident happened?
Could you open that window, please?
You can borrow my pen, if you like.
Your sister could come with us, if she wanted to.
I could lend you my football.
We can go to the library instead.
You could ask your dad to help us.
Samir can borrow his brother’s skates.
2. Will and Would
Use will and would when you are asking someone to do something.
Will you please stop making that noise?
Would you pass me that book, please?
Please, will you close the door?
You can also use will and would to offer something or to suggest something.
Will I hold this end of the rope?
Will I carry the bag for you?
Would you like another drink?
Which cake would you like?
3. Shall and Should
You can use shall and should to ask for advice, offer something and suggest something.
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Should I bring waterproof clothes?
Shall I go by car, or will it be better to
Should I phone the police?
Shall I help you with that heavy bag?
Shall we go home now?
You should try that new French restaurant.
Exercises:
I/Circle the correct auxiliary modal verb in each sentence.
1. My dog and I (would, will) go for walks when she was younger.
2. I (will, would) buy new shoes if I had enough money.
3. I am feeling tired. I think I (would, will) go to sleep now.
4. I (will, would) like more milk when you get a chance.
5. I don’t think we (will, would) ever win the game. 6. If you get in trouble, I (won’t, wouldn’t) help you. 7. When we were in sixth grade, we (will, would) usually play kick ball at recess.
8. (Will, would) you like steak or chicken?
9. If I was a famous tennis player, I (won’t, wouldn’t) like to lose. 10. I am hungry. I (will, would) get something to eat.
II/ Fill in the blanks below to complete the sentences. Use Can Could.
1. I __________ go to the party last night because I was sick.
2. A: ___________ Noel cook Italian food? B: Yes, he ___________.
3. My sister ___________ swim last year, but now she ___________.
4. They ___________ go shopping yesterday because the store was closed.
5. A: ___________ you read when you were four years old? B: Yes, I __________.
6. Maria ___________ ride a bicycle. She rides it to school every day.
7. I’m very tired, so I ___________ go out to the park to play.
8. A: ___________ you see the moon last night? B: No, I ___________.
9. When ___________ I talk to you about the company report?
10. Most dinosaurs walked on land, but some ___________ fly or even swim.
11. Excuse me, I ___________ hear you right now. The music is too loud.
12. I ___________ drive a truck when I was only sixteen years old.
13. Ayoub hit the tree because he ___________ stop his car.
14. How many burgers ___________ you eat at one time?
15. I ___________ read without my reading glasses. Where are they?
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III/ Circle the correct auxiliary modal verb in each sentence.
1. Mom thinks you (should, shall) clean your room.
2. Trains (shall, should) go faster.
3. This weekend (should, shall) be the best weekend ever!
4. I (should, shall) be a writer when I get older.
5. Police (shan’t, shouldn’t) be allowed to drive so fast.
6. Our team (should, shall) have tried harder.
7. After you are finished washing my car, you (shall, should) get me something to eat.
8. (Shall, Should) we be ready by ten?
9. If we want to make money, we (should, shall) get a job.
10. The world (should, shall) be peaceful.
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4. Ought to
You use ought to to make strong suggestions and talk about someone’s duty.
You look tired. You ought to go to bed early tonight.
I ought to get more physical exercise.
We ought to lock the door when we leave home.
You ought to turn off the computer when you’re not using it.
You ought to know how to spell your own name.
The teacher ought to make his classes more interesting.
5. Must
Use must to talk about things that you have to do.
I must mail this letter today.
You must speak louder. I can’t hear you.
Children must not play with matches.
Go to bed now. Oh, must I?
Why must I do my homework tonight?
6. May and Might
Use may to ask if you are allowed to do something and to tell someone that they are allowed
to do something.
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“May I go out to play now?” “Yes, you may.”
May I borrow your pen?
Please may I see your ticket?
Jamel may leave now, but Soumia may not.
May Maria come with us to the movies?
Use may and might to talk about things that are possible or likely.
Take an umbrella. It might rain.
I may not have time to go swimming tonight.
We might go to the party later.
If you’re not careful, you may hurt yourself.
“Are you going to the concert?” “I don’t know. I might or I might not.”
Exercises:
I/ Complete the sentences using must or mustn’t with a verb from the list below. The first
one has been done for you.
Go. Eat. Stop. Believe. Tell. Steal. Be. Read. Park. Listen.
1. You must at the curb and look before you cross the street.
2. Children ______ to the teacher if they want to learn.
3. You _________ everything your friends tell you.
4. You ______the question carefully before you write the answer.
5. If you want to be healthy, you _________ a lot of fruits and vegetables.
6. You______ out on your own at night.
7. We _______ because it is wrong.
8. Drivers _________ their cars in the middle of the road.
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9. If you want people to be nice to you, you _______ nasty to them.
10. You ________ always _________ the truth.
II/ Circle the correct auxiliary modal verb in each sentence.
1) When I grow up, I (may, might) become an engineer.
2) There is a small chance that we (may, might) go to the beach this weekend.
3) There is a good change that we (might, may) have to postpone the meeting.
4) Billy and I (may, might) cook dinner tonight.
5) The airplane (might, may) crash.
6) You never know, I (may, might) become president one day.
7) (May, Might) I have a piece of bread please?
8) It (might, may) snow tonight, but I doubt it.
9) If Yasmine studied harder, she (might, may) have gotten a better grade on the test.
10) I (might, May) not be coming to your party tonight. I told my mother that I would stay
home and make cookies with her already. I’m sorry.
Farhat Abbas University of
Setif, Algeria
Ms Keskes Attifa
2019/2020
Scientific English
2
The parts of plants and their Functions
A plant is a living organism that produces food for
themselves, and acts as a primary food source for all
life forms on earth. Plants are also the only source of
oxygen for the maintenance of ecological balance in
nature.
Broadly, plants have two organ systems: the root
system and the shoot system. The root system covers
the underground parts of a plant, which includes the
roots, tubers, and rhizomes, whereas the shoot system
covers the parts found above the ground, which
consists of the leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits.
1. Roots of a plant are the lower section of the plant attached to the stem at its base.
They are an essential part of the plant's survival, tasked with the responsibility of anchoring
the plant to the ground and also seeking out moisture and nutrients to be delivered to the plant
and enable it to grow. They are also responsible of producing plant growth hormones.
2. The Stem is the central part of the plant. It is the midsection between the roots and the
leaves or flowers, and its main function is to carry moisture and nutrients from the roots to the
rest of the plant. There are different types of cells within the stem that perform their own
functions. The xylem cells transport water from root to leaf, while the phloem cells transport
food in the form of nutrients.
3. Leaves: consist of three basic parts: the petiole, leaf base, and lamina or leaf blade.
For photosynthesis to take place, the leaves make use of sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, and
chlorophyll. Most leaves tend to be green, thanks to the presence of chlorophyll. As
chlorophyll is essential to perform photosynthesis, these leaves will typically require higher
levels of sunlight in order to thrive. Leaves all perform the same basic function of
transforming water and nutrients into food the plants can utilize.
4. Flowers are the most colorful and attractive part found in a plant, a flower contains
four main parts: Sepals: green parts of a flower found below the petals that protect flower
buds from injury.
Petals: colorful parts of a flower found above the sepals that help in pollination.
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Stamen: consists of an anther and a filament. They are the male parts of a plant producing
male sex cells or spermatia.
Carpel: consists of stigma, style, and ovary. They are the female parts of a plant producing
female sex cells or ovules.
5. Fruits are the most edible part of the plant; they protect the growing seeds and help in
their dispersal.
Thus different part of a plant has specific functions towards its reproduction, growth, and
development. They all work in combination with each other and provide distinct advantages
to a plant.
Questions:
1. Which part of the plant attracts pollinators?
Ans: Petals of a flower attract pollinators in a plant.
2. What are the reproductive parts of a flowering plant?
Ans: Stamen and carpel are the two reproductive parts of the plant.
3. Which part of the plant prepares food for it to survive (photosynthesis)?
Ans: The leaves of a plant are responsible for making its food.
4. Which part of a plant produces pollen grains?
Ans: Stamen is the pollen-producing part of a flowering plant.
5. What part of the plant supports the leaves and flowers?
Ans: The stem keeps the leaves and flowers attached to the plant, supporting and
sending them nourishment to grow and function properly.
6. What are the edible parts of a plant?
Ans: Humans mostly eat fruit (banana, tomato, etc.), seed (wheat, maize, etc.), leaves
(spinach, cabbage, etc.), roots (carrots, beets, etc.), flowers (broccoli), and stems (ginger)
of plants.
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The life cycle of plant
Plants have a life cycle, just like humans and other animals. The plant life cycle describes
the stages the plant goes through from the beginning of its life until the end when the process
starts all over again.
Seeds: The life cycle of a plant begins with a seed. Some non-flowering plants, such as ferns,
begin with spores. You are probably familiar with seeds and may have even eaten a few, such
as sunflower or pumpkins seeds.
A seed has a protective coating called the shell. The shell contains everything needed to start
a new plant. Inside the seed coating is an embryo, which will become the new plant, and the
endosperm, which provides the nutrients for the embryo.
Seeds are dispersed, or spread, in a variety of ways. Some are blown by the wind. Others float
on water. Still, others are carried by birds, bees, other insects, or on the fur of animals. Some
are even eaten by animals and spread through their waste. And, of course, humans plant seeds
for their fruit or to make their lawns attractive.
Once a seed reaches its destination, the next stage of the life cycle begins.
Germination: Seeds need four things to grow: oxygen, moisture, sunlight, and the right
temperature. When the proper conditions are met for the seed, it will begin to sprout. The
roots push their way through the seed coating and begin growing into the soil. This process is
called germination.
Seedlings: A small, fragile young plant called a seedling will then poke its way out of the
ground and start growing towards the sunlight. The seedling gets many of the nutrients it
needs to grow from the soil through its roots.
Adult Plant: Photosynthesis helps the seedling grow into a mature plant. The mature plant
produces flowers, which ensure that the life cycle continues.
Pollination: The process of getting the pollen from the stamen of one plant to the stigma of
another is called pollination. Pollen may be carried by the wind, but it is often transported
from one flower to another by insects. Some types of bats even help with the pollination
process.
Bees, butterflies, and other insects (or bats) are attracted to flowers by the colorful petals. The
insects drink the nectar (a sweet liquid) that flowering plants produce. While the insect crawls
around the plant drinking the nectar, it gets pollen on its legs and body. When the insect flies
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to another plant to drink more nectar, some of the pollen from the first plant is deposited onto
the second plant.
Then, the plant's fertilized seeds are dispersed by wind, water, or animals, and the whole
process begins again.
Questions:
1. What are the five stages of plant’s life cycle?
2. What do we call the moment a seed begins to grow?
3. Write a list of 5 edibles seeds.
4. What do seeds need to germinate?
5. What do seed contain?
6. Bees are flying insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their role in
pollination; so what do you know about them?
7. Translate the following words: Moisture, Nectar, Seed, Bees, Butterflies, Pumpkins,
Seedling; Bats.
8. Give the definition of the following words:
Sprout, Spread, Disperse, Ferns, Spore; Crawl.
9. Describe the following picture in a few sentences.
The life cycle of pepper
6
The origin and composition of soil
Soil is the loose upper layer of the Earth's surface where plants grow. Soil consists of a mix of
organic material (decayed plants and animals) and broken bits of rocks and minerals.
Soil is formed over a long period of time by a number of factors. It can take up to 1000 years
for just an inch of soil to form. Besides time, other factors that help soil to form include:
Living organisms - This includes organisms such as plants, fungi, animals,
and bacteria.
Topography - This is the relief or slope of the surface of land where the soil is
forming.
Climate - The overall climate and weather where the soil is forming.
Parent material - The parent material is the minerals and rocks that are slowly
disintegrating to form the soil.
At first you may think of soil as just dirt. Something you want to get rid of. However, soil
plays a very important role in supporting life on Earth.
Plants - Many plants need soil to grow. Plants use soil not only for nutrients, but also
as a way to anchor themselves into the ground using their roots.
Atmosphere - Soil impacts our atmosphere releasing gasses such as carbon dioxide
into the air.
Living organisms - Many animals, fungi, and bacteria rely on soil as a place to live.
Nutrient cycles - Soil plays an important role in cycling nutrients including the carbon
and nitrogen cycles.
Water - The soil helps to filter and clean our water.
Soil is often described using several characteristics including texture, structure, density,
temperature, color, consistency, and porosity. One of the most important properties of soil is
the texture. Texture is a measure of whether the soil is more like sand, silt, or clay. The more
like sand a soil is the less water it can hold. On the other hand, the more like clay a soil is, the
more water it can hold.
Soil is made up of many layers. These layers are often called horizons. Depending on the type
of soil there may be several layers. There are three main horizons (called A, B, and C) which
are present in all soil.
1. O – (humus or organic) Mostly organic matter such as decomposing leaves. The O
horizon is thin in some soils, thick in others, and not present at all in others.
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2. A - (Topsoil) Mostly minerals from parent material with organic matter incorporated.
A good material for plants and other organisms to live.
3. E – (Eluviated) Leached of clay, minerals,
and organic matter, leaving a concentration
of sand and silt particles of quartz or other
resistant materials – missing in some soils
but often found in older soils and forest
soils.
4. B – (Subsoil) Rich in minerals that leached
(moved down) from the A or E horizons and
accumulated here.
5. C – (Parent material) the deposit at Earth’s
surface from which the soil developed.
6. R – (bedrock) A mass of rock such as
granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone or
sandstone that forms the parent material for
some soils – if the bedrock is close enough
to the surface to weather. This is not soil and is located under the C horizon.
Questions:
1. What is soil made of?
2. What is another name for the layers of soil?
3. What is the solid mass of rock below soil called?
4. What layer is considered the 'B' layer of soil?
5. What layer is the primary layer of soil where plants and animals live?
6. What layer is also called the humus layer and is made up of plant remains like leaves and
twigs?
7. What layer is called the 'C' horizon and is made up mostly of rocks?
8. How does soil help in supporting life on Earth?
9. True or False: Soil can be over-farmed to where crops can no longer grow in it.
10. How is soil formed?
11. Why is soil important?
12. What are the mains Properties of Soil?
8
Manure and fertilizers
We know that plants need certain essentials to
grow and nurture. Water and sunlight are the
obvious ones. However, plants also need certain
nutrients (like nitrate, magnesium, etc) which it
absorbs from the soil. But say your soil is lacking
in certain minerals that these plants require for
growth. Then these minerals and nutrients must be added to the soil to make it fertile. So we
add manure and fertilizers which compensate for the infertility of the soil.
Manure: is a natural fertilizer. To make manure, decomposition of plants and animal waste is
done by farmers. The product of this decomposition is a material rich in organic matter which
we call manure. Manure does not have a high content of nutrients. Instead, it gives fertility to
the soil by adding humus (an organic component of the soil). This improves the soil’s
physical properties, with better retention of moisture and more aeration.
And since manure is made entirely of organic materials it does not contribute to any form of
pollution. In fact, it reduces waste on the farm, by decomposing waste materials to make
manure.
Fertilizers: are natural or synthetic materials that we add to the soil to provide the plants with
the nutrients they need. They can be organic or inorganic in nature. They work by providing
plants and crops with nutrients they need to grow to their fullest and at a faster rate than
attained via a natural process. Chemical-based fertilizers also act as an insecticide, protecting
plants from pests and insects.
Fertilizers are economically very beneficial to farmers. They expedite plant growth and are
not very expensive to procure. Fertilizers also increase the yield from a farm. The plants also
have a superior appearance i.e. they appear greener and healthier when we use fertilizers.
However, fertilizers can also have a harmful effect on the environment. They contain
synthetic chemicals that are not biodegradable. They can cause both soil and water pollution.
Over time fertilizers also make the soil acidic in nature causing soil degradation. So between
9
manure and fertilizers, fertilizers are a better source of nutrients for the plant, manure is a
better alternative as far as the environment is concerned.
Though manure and fertilizers add to the fertility of the soil, they are different from each
other. Manures are obtained from natural sources whereas fertilizers are synthetically
manufactured in the factories. Manures are eco-friendly whereas fertilizers harm the useful
microbes present in the soil and also decrease the soil fertility if used for a longer time.
Questions:
1. What is fertilizer?
2. What is manure?
3. Which is better, fertilizer or manure?
4. Can manure be used in organic farming?
5. What is organic fertilizer?
6. How are manure and fertilizers similar?
7. How are manure and fertilizers different?
10
Pesticides
Pesticides are chemical substances that are meant to kill pests. In general, a pesticide is a
chemical or a biological agent such as a virus, bacterium, antimicrobial, or disinfectant that
deters, incapacitates, kills, pests. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined
pesticide as:
any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, or controlling any
pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals,
causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage,
transport, or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal
feedstuffs, or substances that may be administered to animals for the control of insects,
arachnids, or other pests in or on their bodies.
The use of pesticides is so common that the term pesticide is often treated as synonymous
with plant protection product. It is commonly used to eliminate or control a variety of
agricultural pests that can damage crops and livestock and reduce farm productivity. The most
commonly applied pesticides are insecticides to kill insects, herbicides to kill weeds,
rodenticides to kill rodents, and fungicides to control fungi, mold, and mildew.
These pesticides are grouped according to the types of pests which they kill:
1. Insecticides – insects
2. Herbicides – plants
3. Rodenticides – rodents (rats & mice)
4. Bactericides – bacteria
5. Fungicides – fungi
6. Larvicides – larvae
Pesticides may be natural or synthetic. They may even be living, pest-destroying organisms
such as Bacillus thuringiensis. Many household products also contain pesticides. They can
include toilet bowl cleaner, disinfectant, cleanser, mildew remover, and ant and roach spray.
Herbicides are pesticides used to control weeds on lawns and along roadways, in parks and
other public areas. And, thanks to fungicides, food today is virtually free of mold and other
types of fungi. (Some fungi produce the most potent carcinogens yet discovered.)
The major advantage of pesticides is that they can save farmers, by protecting crops from
insects and other pests. However, there are some other primary benefits of it.
Pesticides have been linked with human health hazards, from short-term impacts such as
headaches and nausea to chronic impacts like cancer, reproductive harm. The toxic chemicals
11
in these are designed to deliberately released into the environment. Though each pesticide is
meant to kill a certain pest, a very large percentage of pesticides reach a destination other than
their target. Instead, they enter the air, water, sediments, and even end up in our food.
The use of these also decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. If there are no chemicals in
the soil there is a higher soil quality, and this allows for higher water retention, which is
necessary for plants to grow.
Because most pesticides are designed to be toxic to their target pest -- and because any
substance can be harmful if used improperly -- pesticide use is strictly controlled. Cal/EPA's
Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR) regulates all aspects of pesticide sales and use,
recognizing the need to control pests, while protecting public health and the environment and
fostering reduced-risk pest management strategies. The Department's strict oversight includes
product evaluation and registration, local use enforcement, environmental monitoring, and
residue testing of fresh produce.
Questions:
1. What are Pesticides?
2. What are the most commonly types of Pesticides?
3. Give 5 examples of pesticides that you may know.
4. What are the benefits of Pesticides?
5. What are the harmful effects of Pesticides
6. Translate the following word into French and Arabic: Disease, Headaches, Nausea,
sediments, fostering, monitoring, synthetic; commodity.
7. What is your opinion on the use of pesticides in Algeria? and why?
12
The control of weeds and plant diseases
A plant is often termed a "weed" when it has one or
more of the following characteristics:
Little or no recognized value (as in
medicinal, material, nutritional or energy)
Rapid growth and/or ease of
germination
Competitive with crops for space, light,
water and nutrients
Weed control attempts to stop weeds form competing with desired flora and fauna, this
includes domesticated plants and livestock, and in natural settings, it includes stopping non
local species competing with native, local, species, especially so in reserves and heritage
areas.
Weed control is important in agriculture. Many strategies have been developed in order to
contain these plants. Virtually all weed control methods may be classified into one or more of
five main categories. The 5 general categories of weed control are:
Preventative weed control refers to any control method that aims to prevent weeds from
being established in a cultivated crop, a pasture, or a greenhouse.
Cultural weed control refers to any technique that involves maintaining field conditions
such that weeds are less likely to become established and/or increase in number.
Mechanical weed control refers to any technique that involves the use of farm equipment
to control weeds. The two mechanical control techniques most often used are tillage and
mowing.
Biological weed control refers to any technique that involves the use of natural enemies of
weed plants to control the germination of weed seeds or the spread of established plants.
Chemical weed control refers to any technique that involves the application of a chemical
(herbicide) to weeds or soil to control the germination or growth of the weed species. In
economic terms, chemical control of weeds is a very large industry and there are scores of
examples of chemical weed control products.
13
All species of plants, wild and cultivated alike; are subject to disease. Although each
species is susceptible to characteristic diseases, these are, in each case, relatively few in
numbers. The occurrence and prevalence of plant diseases vary from season to season,
depending on the presence of the pathogen, environmental conditions, and the crops and
varieties grown. Some plant varieties are particularly subject to outbreaks of diseases; others
are more resistant to them.
Plant diseases are a normal part of nature and one of many ecological factors that help keep
the hundreds of thousands of living plants and animals in balance with one another. In
general, a plant becomes diseased when it is continuously disturbed by some causal agent that
disrupts the plant’s normal structure, growth, function, or other activities.
Plant diseases can be broadly classified according to the nature of their primary causal
agent, either infectious or noninfectious. Infectious plant diseases are caused by a pathogenic
organism such as a fungus, bacterium, virus or parasite. An infectious agent is capable of
reproducing within or on its host and spreading from one susceptible host to another.
Noninfectious plant diseases are caused by unfavourable growing conditions, including
extremes of temperature, disadvantageous relationships between moisture and oxygen, toxic
substances in the soil or atmosphere, and an excess or deficiency of an essential mineral.
Questions:
1. Give a small definition of these words: weed, weed control, pathogen, causal agent;
domesticated plants.
2. What are the main types of weed control?
3. Give some example to each type of weed control (Eg: Cultural weed control → crop
rotation)
4. Why is weed control so important in agriculture?
5. Translate the following words into French or Arabic: deficiency, susceptible, disrupt,
outbreak, involve, enemies, competitive; field.
6. Write a small paragraph about a famous weed that you already studied in other courses.
14
Market gardening
A market garden is the relatively small-scale
production of fruits, vegetables and flowers as
cash crops, frequently sold directly to consumers
and restaurants. ... A market garden is a business
that provides a wide range and steady supply of
fresh produce through the local growing season.
Market gardening comprises a whole repertoire of
methods and tools selected according to the crops
being grown and their cycle. Each tool enables a particular task to be carried out more
accurately, more easily and more profitably. With the arrival of industrial cultivation,
mechanical techniques and the use of multi-purpose machines have gradually replaced manual
techniques.
Nowadays, market garden crops are grown in different environments depending on the
season, for example in a vegetable plot, in a greenhouse or in a field. Such areas are
expanding in response to increasing demand from consumers.
Growing cycles are often characterized by similar stages.
Tillage, or the preparation of the soil, consists in turning the earth to aerate it and remove the
residue of previous harvests.
Sowing is the process of planting seeds: They are placed in the ground either randomly (by
throwing them) or more evenly (by spacing seeds separately at given intervals).
Seeds are then covered with soil and watered to help them germinate. When seeds are grown
in small individual pots or in a germination bed (the nursery), the small shoots (the seedlings)
are then planted in the ground. This action is called pricking out.
At each stage of the cycle, the plants are treated with fertilizers and pesticides and watered
regularly. This favours growth and supply of nutrients, and helps prevent damage from
disease, insects and pests.
Other operations may be carried out depending on the type of crop. Pinching out or pruning of
buds or stems helps control the volume and quality of production.
As plants grow, staking (with a stick for example) provides support for certain edible plants,
such as the tomato, eggplant or bell pepper.
15
The harvest ends the cycle. Once vegetables have reached the desired level of ripeness, they
are picked either by hand or a machine, which gathers them using a system of picks or hooks,
leaving the soil to rest before a new cycle.
Each task requires a tool: Hand tools for preparing the soil include the spade, used to till, turn
over and separate the soil. Hoes clean and aerate the soil, while a weeder removes weeds and
a hoe-fork loosens the soil to ensure the seeds can develop well. Other tools include cold
frames, hot beds and seed trays, used to accelerate germination and seedling growth. Hods are
used during the harvest.
With industrial cultivation, machines have replaced individual hand tools by performing
multiple operations, such as tilling, sowing, weeding and watering, often simultaneously.
Finally, harvesters gather in the plants once the cycle has finished.
Questions:
1. What are the operations frequently used in market garden?
2. What are the most basic market garden’s tools?
3. Name some other tools that you may know.
4. Write a small definition of market garden.
5. Translate the following words into French and Arabic: spade, hoe-fork, ripeness, cold
frames, hot beds, seed trays, hods, harvest, staking, tillage, sowing, pricking out,
pinching out, scale, crops.
6. Have you ever tried growing a plant in your garden or in your university? Tell us
about your experience.
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Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture where animals are reared, bred and raised for
meat, fiber, eggs, milk and other food products. A large number of farmers depend upon
animal husbandry for their livelihood.
Animals provide us with a variety of food products which have high nutrient values.
Therefore, they require a lot of care and attention.
The care, breeding, management, etc of animals are particularly monitored under the
department of animal husbandry. Animal husbandry is a large scale business. The animals are
bred, cared, reared and sheltered in a farm or a region which are specially built for them.
There are four major types of animal husbandry practiced in the world today:
Dairy Farming: is the agricultural technique concerned with the long term production of
milk which is then processed to obtain dairy products such as curd, cheese, yoghurt, butter,
cream, etc. It involves the management of dairy animals such as cows, buffaloes, sheep, goat,
etc.
Poultry Farming: is concerned with raising and breeding of birds for commercial purposes.
Birds like ducks, chickens, geese, pigeons, turkeys, etc. are domesticated for eggs and meat.
Fish Farming: or Pisciculture is the process of raising fish in closed tanks or ponds for
commercial purposes. There is an increasing demand for fish and fish protein. Fish species
such as salmon, catfish, cod, and tilapia are raised in fish farms.
Bee Farming: or apiculture is the practice of maintaining bee colonies by humans in man-
made hives. Honey bees are reared on a large scale. The bees are domesticated for honey,
wax, and to pollinate flowers. They are also to other beekeepers for the same purposes. The
place where bees are kept is known as an apiary or a bee yard.
Animal husbandry is beneficial to human beings in the following ways:
Dairy Products: Animals such as cows, goats, sheep, etc. are the major source of milk and
milk products such as yoghurt, cheese, butter, etc.
Meat: Animals such as cows, buffaloes, and goats are reared for their meat. Their meat is a
rich source of dietary protein.
Land Management: The livestock is sometimes grazed to control the growth of weeds on
agricultural land. The dry shrubs in the areas that are prone to wild fire are eaten by goat and
sheep, which reduces the risk of fire.
17
Fiber: Animals also produce fibers or textiles such as wool and leather. For Eg: sheep are
reared for wool whereas leather can be obtained from camel.
Manure: The excreta, blood and bones of animals are used as manure. The manure is spread
on the fields to increase the crop yields and crop production. It is also used as fuel for fires
and as plaster for walls and floor.
Labor: Animals are a source of non-human labor. They are used for ploughing fields,
transporting goods and military functions. For Eg: horses, yaks and donkeys are used for such
purposes.
Questions:
1. What is the role of Animal Husbandry in Human Welfare?
2. What is Animal Husbandry? Write a small definition on your own.
3. What are the four major types of Animal Husbandry in the world?
4. What are the advantages of Animal Husbandry?
5. Why is Animal Husbandry beneficial to human beings?
6. Write the list of all the animals mentioned in the text and translate their names into
French and Arabic.
7. Translate the following words into French and Arabic: Manure, to plough, Excreta,
livestock, to gaze, curd, dietary, to rear, to breed, poultry, Animal Husbandry.
