Basel Convention PCB, PCT and PBB Technical Guidelines (2002)archive.basel.int/techmatters/pcbguid_sep2002.doc · Web viewThese compounds are highly lipid soluble, and consequently

BASEL CONVENTION

PCB, PCT AND PBB TECHNICAL GUIDELINES

2nd DRAFT

Prepared for

Environment CanadaToxics Pollution Prevention Directorate

By

Headwater Environmental Services Corporation

September 2002

H e a d w a t e r E n v i r o n m e n t a l S e r v i c e s C o r p o r a t i o n

2 6 8 1 J e r s e y v i l l e R d . , J e r s e y v i l l e , O n t a r i o , C a n a d a , L 0 R 1 R 0 T e l 9 0 5 - 6 4 8 - 9 5 4 6

Basel Convention PCB, PCT, PBB Guidelines Draft 2 September, 2002

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................... I

1. INTRODUCTION (PREAMBLE).................................................................................4

2. DESCRIPTION, PRODUCTION, USE AND WASTES..............................................6

2.1 chemical and physical properties.................................................................................................6

2.1.1 PCBs...................................................................................................................................62.1.2 PCTs...................................................................................................................................62.1.3 PBBs...................................................................................................................................6

2.2 Production..................................................................................................................................6

2.2.1 PCBs...................................................................................................................................62.2.2 PCTs...................................................................................................................................72.2.3 PBBs...................................................................................................................................8

2.3 Uses...........................................................................................................................................8

2.3.1 PCBs.......................................................................................................................................82.3.2 PCTs...................................................................................................................................92.3.3 PBBs...................................................................................................................................9

2.4 Wastes........................................................................................................................................9

3. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HAZARDS......................................................10

3.1 Pathways to the Environment....................................................................................................10

3.2 Environmental Impacts.............................................................................................................11

3.3 Human Health Impacts.............................................................................................................11

4 OPPORTUNITIES FOR WASTE AVOIDANCE, MINIMIZATION AND RECOVERY................................................................................................................. 12

4.1 Global ESM Implementation....................................................................................................13

4.2 Local and Regional ESM..........................................................................................................14

5.0 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION........................................................................................15

6.0 INVENTORIES AND CONTROL PROGRAMMES................................................16

6.1 Development of National Inventories........................................................................................16

6.2. Permanent Phase-Out And Prohibition On Future Use..............................................................18

7.0 INTERIM MEASURES............................................................................................... 19


I


7.1 Health And Safety Of Personnel...............................................................................................19

7.2 Storage.....................................................................................................................................20

7.3 Handling and Transport............................................................................................................22

7.3.1 Maintenance of In-Service PCBs....................................................................................227.3.2 Preparation of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs for Storage, Transport or Destruction...................237.3.3 Transport of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs...............................................................................24

7.4 Emergency Response................................................................................................................25

8.0 DESTRUCTION AND DISPOSAL.............................................................................26

8.1 PCB, PCT and PBB Waste Management Priorities...................................................................27

8.2 Destruction And Disposal Criteria.............................................................................................28

8.2.1 Hazardous Material Criteria...............................................................................................288.2.2 Control Criteria.................................................................................................................288.2.3 Contaminated Sites Criteria...............................................................................................288.2.4 Treatment Criteria..............................................................................................................29

8.3 Disposal...................................................................................................................................29

8.3.1 Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities (With Landfill)..........................................................308.3.2 Industrial or Municipal Waste Disposal (Landfill)..............................................................308.3.3 On-site Disposal/Containment...........................................................................................308.3.4 Immobilization by Fixation or Solidification......................................................................30

8.4 Destruction Technologies and Techniques (Including Irreversible Transformation) for Oils, Sludges and Solids................................................................................................................33

8.4.1 Pre-treatment Methods (Processing Methods).....................................................................338.4.2 Treatment Methods............................................................................................................34

8.4.2.1 High-Temperature Incineration.......................................................................................348.4.2.2 Chemical Treatment.......................................................................................................358.4.2.3 Thermal Desorption........................................................................................................358.4.2.4 Thermal Reduction.........................................................................................................368.4.2.5 Vitrification...................................................................................................................368.4.2.6 Catalytic Oxidation........................................................................................................368.4.2.7 Biological Treatment......................................................................................................36

8.4 Technologies for Clean-up of Contaminated Sites.....................................................................41

8.4.1 Soil Vapour Extraction/Air Sparging..................................................................................418.4.2 Pumping and Treating........................................................................................................418.4.3 Free Product Collection.....................................................................................................418.4.4 Permeable Reactive Barriers..............................................................................................418.4.5 Filtration...........................................................................................................................428.4.6 Micro-Filtration or Membrane Processes............................................................................428.4.7 Settling..............................................................................................................................42


II


8.4.8 Adsorption.........................................................................................................................428.4.9 Advanced Oxidation (Ultraviolet Light).............................................................................428.4.10 Air Stripping and Steam Stripping.....................................................................................43

REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................... 44


III


1. INTRODUCTION (PREAMBLE)

To assist member countries the Basel Convention approved the preparation of the first edition of the “Technical Guidelines on Wastes Comprising or Containing PCBs, PCTs and PBBs”. These guidelines, published in 1992, contain background information on PCB, PCT, and PBB chemical properties, production and use, the types of wastes that exist that must be dealt with, the environmental and human health effects of these chemicals, measures for waste avoidance and minimization, storage methods, recovery technologies, and treatment and disposal technologies.

Since the first edition of the guidelines were developed (1992), many countries have established firm phase-out dates for PCBs and some countries have established a goal of “virtual elimination” of certain Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) including PCBs, PCTs and PBBs either in the total environment or in certain ecosystems. Several new international agreements or guidelines have been introduced that directly or indirectly conflict with the Basel PCB guidelines. New technologies have been developed to destroy PCBs and other hazardous wastes and the economics of PCB management and destruction have changed. This current document, the second edition of the Guidelines, incorporates all of these new initiatives, techniques and methodologies into a comprehensive set of guidelines that addresses the principles of ESM as outlined in the original Basel Convention (1988), the Basel statement of ESM principles (1992), the adoption of Annex VIII of the Basel Convention which classifies PCBs, PCTs and PBBs as hazardous under Article 1.1(a) of the Convention (1998), the Stockholm Convention (2001), the Aarhus Convention (1998), the UN Long-Range Transport of Atmospheric Pollutants (LRTAP) Protocol (1998) and the Rotterdam Convention (1998).

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) and polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) are similar in chemical structure and similar in chemical and toxicological properties. They are grouped together for this guideline document because of their similarities and the similarities in the means to manage, dispose and destroy them. They have been designated (in this guidance manual, and in the case of PCBs by the Stockholm Convention) as chemicals that should be phased-out permanently because they are extremely resistant to degradation both in service and in the environment and because they have been linked to human and animal health damage.

The updated guidelines (this document) contain several significant changes and additions to the former guidelines (1992). The main differences are:

Recognition of the Basel Environmentally Sound Management principles.

Recognition of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and the Stockholm Convention ESM Core Performance Elements (draft list of Core Performance Elements) at time of publication of this document).

Recognition of the Rotterdam Convention on prior informed consent for the transboundary shipment of hazardous chemicals and pesticides

Recognition of the LRTAP Protocol

4


Recognition of the Aarhus Convention on access to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters.

Updated toxicity information.

Updated environmental standards.

Inclusion of phase-out policy for PCBs, PCTs and PBBs.

Recognition of the large amount of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs already in the environment and inclusion of criteria and techniques for their management (e.g. remediating contaminated soil, sediment and groundwater).

Inclusion of health and safety measures for workers.

While these guidelines are published under the banner of the Basel Convention they should be seen to be an instrument of the Stockholm Convention as well. Both the Basel Convention (Decisions V/8 and V26) and the Stockholm Convention (Article 6 and Conference of Plenipotentiaries Resolution 5) have declared that the two Conventions cooperate to the highest degree and that decisions and actions be integrated to satisfy both Conventions.

5


2. DESCRIPTION, PRODUCTION, USE AND WASTES

2.1 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

2.1.1 PCBs

Polychlorinated biphenyls, commonly known as chlorobiphenyls or PCBs, are a group of halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes) characterized by the biphenyl structure (two phenyl rings (C 6H5)2) and at least one chlorine atom substituted for hydrogen. The chlorine atoms can be attached at any of the ten available sites. In theory there are 209 congeners but only approximately 130 congeners have actually been used in chemical formulations (Holoubek, 2000). Typically 40-60% of the 10 possible substitution sites are occupied with chlorine atoms (four to six chlorine atoms) (Environment Canada, 1988). Some regulatory agencies only regulate those congeners that have at least two chlorine atoms attached. They are virtually insoluble in water and very resistant to thermal and biological degradation.

2.1.2 PCTs

Polychlorinated terphenyls, or PCTs, are also arenes and are very similar in chemical structure to PCBs except that they contain three phenyl rings instead of two and can therefore have up to 14 chlorine atoms attached. The number of possible congeners of PCTs is very large, however only a few have been synthesized commercially. PCTs have very similar chemical and physical properties to PCBs. One difference is that PCTs tend to have less volatility (higher boiling point) than PCBs. They are virtually insoluble in water and very resistant to thermal and biological degradation.

2.1.3 PBBs

Polybrominated biphenyls or PBBs are chemically identical to PCBs except that bromine atoms are substituted for hydrogen on the phenyl rings instead of chlorine. As with PCBs, there are 209 possible congeners of PBBs however only a few have been synthesized commercially (Melber et al, 1994). They are solids at room temperature and can be flakes, a powder or a waxy substance. They are virtually insoluble in water and very resistant to thermal and biological degradation.

2.2 PRODUCTION

2.2.1 PCBs

PCBs were manufactured for use in electrical equipment, heat exchangers, hydraulic systems, and several other specialized applications from 1930 up to the late 1970s in the United States and the early 1980s in Europe. They gained popularity, before being banned, because of their excellent dielectric properties, longevity, non-flammability, and resistance to thermal and chemical degradation. PCBs were rarely used at full strength. They were added in small quantities to ink, plastics, paints and carbon paper or were used in formulations up to 70% PCBs in hydraulic fluid, transformer fluid and heating fluids. They are oily liquids or waxy solids at room temperature.

6


Trade names of PCB products included:

Aroclor (US) Kanechlor (Japan)Pyranol (US) Santotherm (Japan)Pyroclor (US) Fenchlor (Italy)Phenoclor (France) Apirolio (Italy)Pyralene (France) Clophen (Germany)Sovol (USSR) Elaol (Germany)

In the Aroclor series a four digit number follows the word “Aroclor”. The first two digits of the number are either “10” or “12”. The number “12” indicates a “normal” Aroclor while the number “10” indicates a distillation product of an Aroclor. The second two digits of the four digit code indicate the percent chlorine in the mixture by weight. Therefore Aroclor 1254 contains approximately 54% chlorine by weight.

Commercial PCB products were sold for their industrial properties rather than chemical content (IPCS, 1992). They contained a number of impurities, were not guaranteed to have a certain PCB content, and were often mixed with solvents such as tri- and tetrachlorobenzenes. Those PCBs mixed with tri- and tetrachlorobenzenes were called “askarel”. Contaminants in commercial mixtures include chlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and chlorinated naphthalenes. Studies have found from 0.8 mg/kg to 40 mg/kg of PCDFs in commercial mixtures (IPCS, 1992).

It is estimated that the worldwide production of PCBs was 1.2 million tonnes (Headwater and GlobalTox, 2001).

2.2.2 PCTs

PCTs were manufactured in much smaller quantities than PCBs and were given the same, or very similar, trade names. They were used for the same sorts of applications as PCBs. In the US Aroclor series terphenyls are indicated by the digits 54 in the first two spaces of the four digit code (IPCS, 1992). Examples of trade names are:

Aroclor (US)Kanechlor KC-C. (Japan)

PCTs were produced in the United States, France, Germany, Italy and Japan until the early 1980s when all production is thought to have ceased. The total worldwide production is estimated to have been 60,000 tonnes between 1955 and 1980 (UNECE, 2002).

7


2.2.3 PBBs

Information on the production of PBBs is scarce. It is estimated that at least 11,000 tonnes of PBBs were produced worldwide but production figures from some countries known to have produced PBBs are not available (IPCS, 1994). PBBs were manufactured in the United States until 1979, in Germany until the mid-1980s and in France until at least the mid-1990s (may still be in production in France in small quantities).

2.3 USES

2.3.1 PCBs

PCBs were used in a very wide variety of applications in both industrial and consumer products. The WHO categorized the uses as completely closed, nominally closed and open-ended (IPCS, 1992). The uses can be summarized as:

Completely Closed Systemso Electrical transformerso Electrical capacitors (including lamp ballasts)o Electrical switches, relays and othero Electrical cables

Nominally Closed Systemso Hydraulic systemso Heat transfer systems (heaters, heat exchangers)

Open-ended Systemso Plasticizer in PVC, neoprene, and other artificial rubberso Ingredient in paint and other coatingso Ingredient in ink and carbonless copy papero Ingredient in adhesiveso Pesticide extendero Ingredient in lubricants and sealantso Fire retardant in fabrics, carpets, polyurethane foam, etc.

While electrical transformers containing PCBs are defined as a “completely closed” application, industrial practices caused these PCBs to be transferred to other types of equipment thus creating additional points of contact with the environment. A common practice was to ”top up” or recharge non-PCB (mineral oil) transformers with PCBs if no other fluid was available. Another practice involved servicing non-PCB transformers by removing the old mineral oil and adding new oil using pumps and tubing that had been previously used to service PCB transformers. Thus non-PCB, mineral oil transformers became contaminated with PCBs. This fluid is referred to as “contaminated mineral oil”.

8


Early attempts at removing this contaminated oil involved simply draining the oil from the transformer and adding new (non-PCB) mineral oil. However the PCB contaminated oil that remained in the windings of the transformer would then leach out into the new oil, contaminating it as well. For this reason it is now recommended to re-test the oil in a flushed transformer after several months to determine the PCB concentration. If the concentration of PCBs is above 50 ppm (or some other specified concentration) the transformer must be flushed and re-filled again.

Another contamination problem arose when PCB oils were added to or disposed with non-PCB fluids such as heating/cooling fluid, hydraulic fluid, brake fluid, engine oil, and off-specification fuels. There are numerous anecdotal reports of employees in electrical utilities using PCB fluids to wash their hands and taking PCB fluids home for use in home heaters, hydraulic systems, and motors (as a lubricant).

Since most fluorescent lamp ballasts made before PCBs were banned contained PCBs, most homes and businesses that installed fluorescent lamps unknowingly acquired PCBs.

2.3.2 PCTs

PCTs were used in almost exactly the same applications as PCBs but in much smaller amounts, however little is known about remaining quantities because inventories have not been developed (UNECE, 2002).

2.3.3 PBBs

The principal use of PBBs was as a fire retardant. PBBs were added to ABS plastic (10% PBB), coatings, lacquers and polyurethane foam (IPCS, 1994; Melber et al, 1994). The first compound produced was hexabromobiphenyl, which was commercially known as “FireMasterÒ” in the United States. FiremasterÒ was produced from 1970 to 1974. Analysis has shown that Firemaster Òactually contained up to 80% hexa- and up to 25% heptabromobiphenyl. In France a commercial mixture of PBBs was sold as “Adine 0102”. In Germany highly brominated PBBs were produced and sold as “Bromkal 80-9D”.

2.4 WASTES

PCBs, PCTs and PBBs wastes are found in a number of physical forms including:

1. Bulk oils, both pure products and contaminated oils (in barrels or tanks)2. Oils or solids within original electrical, hydraulic or heat transfer equipment3. Drained but still contaminated electrical, hydraulic or heat transfer equipment4. Contaminated soils and sediments, ranging from clays (fine particles) to sands (large

particles) to loams (organic material); 5. Contaminated rock and aggregates (eg. excavated bedrock, gravel, rubble, slag);6. Contaminated sludges, containing mainly industrially produced solids, chemicals and

liquids;

9


7. Contaminated solid waste (paper, metal products, glass, plastic, auto shredder fluff, painted objects, demolition debris, etc.)

8. Contaminated water (pumped groundwater, process water, firefighting water, etc.).9. Contaminated liquid waste

The Basel Convention is a general agreement on the international and transboundary movement of all hazardous wastes. PCBs, PCTs and PBBs are grouped together in this guideline because of their similar properties and methods of handling, transport and disposal. The Stockholm Convention lists PCBs but not PCTS or PBBs in its list of POPs to be phased-out. Therefore if a principle of the Stockholm Convention is used in this guideline document as being applicable to PCTs and PBBs this has been done to emphasize environmentally sound management. The reader should be aware that there is no formal requirement for phase-out or ESM of PCTs or PBBs under the Stockholm Convention.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HAZARDS

3.1 PATHWAYS TO THE ENVIRONMENT

All environmental contaminants have “routes of exposure” to living species. Each contaminant may have a different route of exposure based on its human uses, chemical and physical properties and the media into which it is introduced. The basic route of exposure for all compounds however can be simplified into three stages:

1. Direct Release to the Environment – spills, emissions, dumping, fires, etc.2. Local Migration – gravity-induced flow, advective flow in surface water, groundwater flow,

diffusion in water, dispersion in air, precipitation and settling in water and air, uptake and movement in non-migratory animals, anthropogenic activities, etc.

3. Long Range Transport – advective flow in water, advective flow in air, uptake and movement in migratory animals, precipitation and settling in water and air.

PCBs, PCTs and PBBs are all denser than water, semi-volatile or non-volatile, relatively non-water soluble and relatively viscous or solid at ambient temperatures. They are considered “DNAPLs” (dense non-aqueous phase liquids). Therefore these compounds in the environment will not disperse quickly in air or water, will sink in water and will not flow quickly over or through soil. Therefore spills to soil can be contained or cleaned up completely if the spill is discovered and acted upon promptly. However spills and other emissions that are not acted upon in a timely manner result in downward migration to the sediment layers of surface water or to the bedrock and groundwater in a soil-spill situation. The PCBs, PCTs or PBBs then move laterally and further downward under the force of gravity and laterally attached to solid particles that are suspended in the water or are moving with bedload.

10


3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Since the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, when it was first reported that PCBs and other persistent organic pollutants were accumulating in the tissues of Arctic wildlife, an overwhelming amount of research has been dedicated towards the characterization of the ecological impacts associated with PCBs around the world. Based on this research, it is strongly evident that PCBs are impacting a number of specific ecosystems, the most widely studied being Arctic terrestrial, freshwater and marine environments; specific migratory avian and mammalian ecosystems; and localized ecosystems in close proximity to PCB-destruction and disposal facilities (Health Canada, 2000; Brouwer et al., 1999; Government of Alberta, 1999; Muir et al., 1999; INAC, 1997). Though the significance and magnitude of the specific effects associated with these ecological impacts are still a matter of continuing investigation and scientific debate, there is evidence that suggests that exposure to PCBs may be associated, at least in part, with a number of wide-ranging adverse effects. The most significant effects are reproductive, immunotoxic and neurological and/or behavioural effects in a variety of species, including mammals, birds, fish and reptiles (Braune et al., 1999; Muir et al., 1999; INAC, 1997).

Though there are many convincing studies that support the conclusion that PCBs are associated with specific effects in certain species (i.e. immunosuppression, endocrine disruption, reproductive and developmental disorders in polar bears, beluga whales, narwhal, and some migratory birds such as the peregrine falcon), there is at present still a significant lack of dose-response data for such effects, and there are some studies which support conclusions to the contrary (ATSDR, 2000; Braune et al., 1999; Muir et al., 1999; ACSH, 1997).

The scientific findings of environmental toxicity are much the same for PBBs as for PCBs, although there are far fewer studies involving PBBs. There are very few published studies involving PCTs, and those that have been published are very inconclusive as to toxicity.

3.3 HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS

Human exposure to PCBs, PCTs and PBBs may occur through the ingestion of contaminated food and/or water, inhalation of PCB vapours in air, and through direct dermal contact. Much of the human acute toxicity information for PCBs comes from famous food contamination incidents in Yusho, Japan, Yusheng (Taiwan) and Belgium. These compounds are highly lipid soluble, and consequently biomagnify as they progress up the food chain. As a result, high levels of PCB, PCT and PBB exposure can occur through the ingestion of game animals or fish, and the ingestion of breast milk from mothers who draw a daily diet from game meat and fish (ATSDR, 1999; Brouwer et al., 1999; INAC, 1997).

Some of the human health effects believed to be, at least in part, associated with PCB exposure are summarized below (ATSDR, 1999):

immunotoxicity – immunosuppression, increased sensitivity towards infectious diseases, increased incidences of ear and upper respiratory tract infections, lower rate of successful immunization;

11


reproductive/developmental effects – failure to conceive, decreased birth weight, impairment of neurological development;

neurological/behavioural effects – impaired learning ability, attention and cognitive deficits, deficiencies in psychomotor development, leaning and memory deficits, impaired visual recognition; and

cancer – postulated that PCBs may be associated with liver, gastrointestinal, skin and biliary tract cancers.

The scientific findings of human toxicity are much the same for PBBs as for PCBs, although there are far fewer studies involving PBBs. There is a large body of work that resulted from the PBB spill into animal feed in Michigan in 1973. These studies suggest a strong dermal toxicity at high doses and symptoms of skin rash, fatigue, memory loss and hair loss. Chronic effects may include immune system suppression. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (1987) has stated that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that PBBs and PCBs are carcinogenic in experimental animals and that PCBs are a probable carcinogen in humans, but there is inadequate evidence to conclude that PBBs are carcinogenic in humans.

There are very few published studies involving PCTs, and those that have been published are very inconclusive as to toxicity. Since PCTs are chemically very similar to PCBs and PBBs they are assumed to be a similar health hazard and are managed in the same manner.

4 OPPORTUNITIES FOR WASTE AVOIDANCE, MINIMIZATION AND RECOVERY

The Basel Convention advocates waste avoidance, minimization and recovery of hazardous materials and wastes. However the Basel Convention does not advocate waste avoidance and recovery of PCBs, PCTs, and PBBs because these compounds are targeted for complete phase-out. They should not be recycled and they should be taken out of service and disposed or destroyed as quickly as possible. Amounts of waste containing these compounds can be minimized by avoiding spills of these substances that, in effect, create larger volumes of contaminated material (contaminated soil, groundwater, sediment, cleanup materials) and by good practices in the handling of these materials. Environmentally sound management is discussed in the next two sections. See also Section 7.2 :”Storage of Wastes”.

4.1 GLOBAL ESM IMPLEMENTATION

A guiding principle of the Basel Convention is “environmentally sound management” (ESM). ESM is specifically discussed in the text of the Convention and is also the subject of a separate declaration, the “Basel Declaration on Environmentally Sound Management” (1999). The Declaration on ESM contains statements regarding waste minimization. The applicable statements are:

12


Prevention, minimization, recycling, recovery and disposal of hazardous wastes subject to the Basel Convention Active promotion and use of cleaner technologies with the aim of prevention and minimization of hazardous and other wastes subject to the Basel Convention Enhancement of information exchange, education and awareness-raising in all sectors of society Cooperation and partnership at all levels between countries, public authorities, international organizations, the industry sector, non-governmental organizations and academic institutions Development of mechanisms for compliance with the monitoring and effective implementation of the Convention and its amendments.

One of the principle vehicles for the promotion of ESM is the preparation and dissemination of technical guidance documents such as this one. This is done through UNEP and other cooperating agencies.

The Basel Convention ESM principles are clearly designed to foster a global system of good management rather than giving guidance for local or regional authorities or for the producers of hazardous waste.

The Stockholm Convention of May 2001, dealing with Persistent Organic Pollutants also is designed to foster global good management of hazardous chemicals. The Stockholm Convention however goes further than the Basel Convention in that it calls for the protection of human health and the environment for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and specifically for the (virtual) elimination of designated POPs. The main (paraphrased) principles of the Stockholm Convention relating to waste minimization are:

Each nation will develop an implementation plan (within two years of the ratification of the Convention) that evaluates the national programmes, regulations, inventories and releases and provides for steps to bring the nation into compliance with the objectives of the Convention Each nation will promote measures to expeditiously achieve a meaningful level of release reduction or source elimination Each nation will promote the development of substitute products and processes that manufacturer the listed POPs Each nation will promote and require the use of best available technology for source control Each nation shall:

o Develop strategies for identifying and managing stockpiles in a safe , efficient and environmentally sound manner and treat stockpiles of chemicals listed in either Annex A or B as wastes o Handle, collect, transport and store wastes in an environmentally sound manner and taking into account relevant international guidelines

13


o Dispose of wastes in an environmentally sound manner, taking account of relevant international guidelines (including those developed in cooperation with the appropriate bodies of the Basel Convention)

o Avoid recovery, recycling, reclamation and reuse of POPs

o Identify contaminated sites and manage them in an environmentally sound manner

o Cooperate closely with the appropriate bodies of the Basel Convention, inter alia on methods for environmentally sound disposal and the necessary levels of destruction or transformation.

4.2 LOCAL AND REGIONAL ESM

Environmentally sound management, whether specifically named as such or not, has been adopted by numerous regional and local governments and private sector industry. At the local or facility level the management plans tend to be more “practical” and may not directly reference the Basel Convention or other global initiatives. Facility managers need to have flexibility within a master ESM plan so that local conditions, regulations and social factors are taken into account. The key principles of local management of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs (and any other hazardous materials) typically are:

Implement and update the local ESM plan to meet the spirit and intent of the agency (company) master ESM plan Maintain a safe and healthy workplace and develop and maintain a Health and Safety Plan Ensure, to the degree possible, compliance with all legislation relating to PCBs, PCTs and PBBs Label all PCBs, PCTs and PBBs clearly and denote the hazard Minimize the risk of spills or other releases of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs to the environment Minimize the risk of fires involving PCBs, PCTs and PBBs and maintain fire suppression systems in designated areas Maintain an inventory and emissions record of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs Phase-out in-service PCBs, PCTs and PBBs as soon as practicable or before regulatory phase-out dates Remove all PCBs, PCTs and PBBs for disposal or destruction as soon as practicable or before regulatory phase-out dates Maintain an emergency response system for exposure to PCBs, PCTs or PBBs and for spills and fires. Communicate regarding all activities related to PCBs, PCTs and PBBs to management, employees, local government officials and local emergency response personnel.

14


5.0 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

The Basel Declaration of 1999 (on ESM) paragraphs 6(g) and (h) state that the parties shall enhance information exchange, education and awareness-raising in all sectors of society and encourage cooperation and partnership between public authorities, international organizations, industry non-governmental organizations and academic institutions. The Basel COP Decisions V/13 and V/33 reaffirm these principles and authorized the creation of a public information system that is linked to the Basel internet site.

The Stockholm Convention, Article 10, calls for complete open dialogue with the public on issues relating to POPs. In summary, the Stockholm Convention calls on nations to promote and facilitate:

Awareness among policy and decision-makers Provision of all available information to the public Development of awareness and health monitoring programmes for women, children and the least educated Public participation in decision-making Training of workers, scientists, educators and technical personnel Development and exchange of educational and public awareness materials nationally and internationally Development and implementation of education and training programmes nationally and internationally.

The Rotterdam Convention commits parties to provide publicly available information on domestic regulatory affairs relevant to the Convention (Article 14.1(b)) and to ensure that the public has appropriate information on chemical handling, accident management and alternative chemicals that are safer for human health and the environment.

The Aarhus Convention, Articles 6, 7, 8, and 9, requires fairly specific types of activities to take place regarding public participation in specific government activities, the development of plans, policies and programmes, and the development of legislation, and calls for access to justice for the public with regard to the environment.

The participation of the “public” in the establishment of standards and regulations for POPs such as PCBs, PCTs and PBBs is essential. Any government planning new or changed regulations or policy should have an open process for soliciting comment from any and all person or groups. This means that a general invitation to comment is given through regular media outlets, the internet, or direct invitation. The individuals and groups who should be considered for direct invitation to comment are:

Individual citizens who have expressed interest, Local citizens’ groups (including local environmental groups) for local issues

15


Environmental groups (regionally, nationally or globally organized) Individual industries and businesses with a “stake” in the process Business associations Trade unions and associations Professional associations Other levels of government.

A public participation process may have several phases of public participation. The public and interest groups may be consulted before any changes or programs are considered, during the process of developing policy and after each of a the draft policy documents is prepared. Comments may be invited in person, in writing or through an internet web-site.

6.0 INVENTORIES AND CONTROL PROGRAMMES

6.1 DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL INVENTORIES

A national inventory of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs is necessary in order to establish a baseline quantity of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs, to establish an information registry that assists with safety and regulatory inspections and the preparation of emergency plans, and to track the progress of the phase-out of these chemicals. The development of a national inventory of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs requires the long-term commitment of the national government, cooperation of PCB, PBB and PCT owners and a sound administrative process for collecting information on an ongoing basis, storing the information in a computer database and preparing useful reports regarding the progress of phase-out and destruction. In some cases government regulations are required to ensure that PCB, PBB and PCT owners report their holdings and cooperate with government inspectors.

The first issue to consider before starting an inventory are the types of industries and locations that may be holding PCBs, PBBs and PCTs. This will help get a sense of the size of the inventory work and will develop a preliminary list of possible PCB owners. The experience of countries that have developed inventories of PCBs is that PCBs typically are found in the following industries, equipment and locations (if constructed before approximately 1980):

Electric utilities (generation stations and transmission companies) Communications equipment Industrial buildings, office buildings, apartment buildings, schools, hospitals, government buildings (PCBs in electrical equipment, PBBs in fire suppressing systems) Fluorescent light ballasts in any building Painted objects Insulation in underground electrical cablesJoints and valves of gas and oil pipelines

16


Ships and shipwrecks (electrical equipment, communications equipment, hydraulic equipment) Aircraft (electrical equipment, communications equipment, hydraulic equipment) Stored in barrels Mineral oil and other waste oils that may have become contaminated with PCBs Oil filled heaters Soil and groundwater (contaminated by spills) Sediment (contaminated by spills)

Dirt and gravel roads (contaminated when used PCB oil sprayed for dust control). recycled liquid paint

Step 1: Consult with Key Industries and Associations

Government officials should meet with representatives of industries that are likely to own a large amount of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs. Since the electrical industry and other large industries will have a large percentage of the country’s total PCBs they should be consulted first. It may be possible to meet with association representatives instead of meeting with each individual company. Industries and associations may have developed PCB, PBB or PCT inventory information already and may have ideas about gathering new information. The possibility of a government requirement to report PCB inventories should be discussed.Step 2: Train Government or Contract Staff

Government staff who are likely to be involved with the inventory and/or conduct inspections should be trained in all aspects of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs. The key elements of training should be learning how to identify PCBs, PBBs and PCTs, health and safety training, learning how to set up and maintain an inventory (computer) and learning how to conduct audits and inspections. Step 3: Conduct Several Trial PCB, PBB and PCT Audits

With the cooperation of a few of the industries contacted in Step 1, several facilities should be visited by government staff or contractors hired by the government (who will be involved in the inventory and inspections in the future). These visits will serve three purposes. Firstly they will familiarize government staff with the inventory process and actual on-site conditions. Secondly they will serve as another form of consultation with industry. Thirdly they will produce some inventory information that can be used as trial data for the development of the national inventory. At least one facility that already has a PCB, PBB or PCT inventory and at least one industry that does not have an inventory should be visited. All potential PCB, PBB and PCT equipment and items (in-service and in storage) should be identified and inventoried (or compared to the existing inventory). For equipment that has unknown contents but is suspected to be PCB, PBB or PCT, samples should be taken for analysis or serial numbers traced with the manufacturer of the equipment (this is becoming more difficult as PCB, PBB and PCT equipment manufacturers have disposed of older records). Individual site inventories should be developed from these visits. Step 4: Develop Policy or Regulation Requiring Owners to Report PCBs, PBBs and PCTs

17


Using the knowledge of other countries and the knowledge gained from initial industry consultation and trial audits, a draft policy or regulation regarding tracking PCBs, PBBs and PCTs and reporting to the government for inventory purposes can be developed. Consultation with stakeholders (PCB, PBB, PCT owners, citizens groups, environmental groups, etc.) should be carried out throughout process. The policy or regulation should require initial reporting of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs by a certain date and subsequent reporting when changes to inventory are made (PCBs, PBBs, PCTs added or destroyed).Step 5: Implement the plan

Before implementing the requirement to report inventories, the national inventory maintenance system should be set up. A computerized database should be ready for data input and staff should be trained and ready to input information. The government’s central inventory must be kept up to date as new information comes in. Typically national governments report annually on their inventory information. The government can assist PCB owners by providing information and advice (developing and distributing manuals, having a help telephone line or website). An inspection program will raise the profile of the inventory and ensure that information is correct. Inspection of PCB, PBB and PCT equipment in-service and storage sites will help ensure that the inventory information is correct and that these chemicals are being used, handled and stored safely.

6.2. PERMANENT PHASE-OUT AND PROHIBITION ON FUTURE USE

All of the countries in the European Union phased out all in-service PCB electrical equipment larger than 1 kW by 1995 as part of an EEC agreement. Most of these PCBs appear to have gone directly to destruction facilities meaning that storage inventories are quite small. The 1995 agreement also calls for the complete elimination of PCBs by 2010. Several non-European countries are currently establishing time-tables for PCB phase-out. The current target phase-out date in both countries is approximately 2009.

The Basel Convention urges all countries to eliminate all PCBs in use and in storage within a fixed time frame, and to institute programs to assist property owners in the remediation of sites contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs. The Stockholm Convention prohibits the production and use of PCBs except in equipment already in use and has set a deadline of 2025 for the elimination of this remaining use of PCBs. It also requires determined efforts leading to environmentally sound waste management of PCBs no later than 2028. These elimination requirements are subject to a quinquennial reporting obligation and a quinquennial review by the Conference of the Parties.

The 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (a Protocol to the 1979 UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution) currently covers a slightly wider group of POPs than those subject to the Stockholm Convention, including PCBs. Production of PCBs is banned from the date of entry into force of the Protocol, except in countries with economies in transition, which are allowed a grace period until end-2005. The use of PCBs is also banned except for those already in use, or produced during the grace period. The residual uses of PCBs are to be phased out by end-2010 (or end-2015 in countries with economies in transition). PCBs are to be destroyed or decontaminated in an environmentally sound manner as soon as possible and no later than end-2015 (or end-2020 in countries

18


with economies in transition). Under the Aarhus Protocol PCTs will be reassessed by 2004, and will also possibly be targeted for phase-out.

7.0 INTERIM MEASURES

7.1 HEALTH AND SAFETY OF PERSONNEL

In general there are three main ways to protect workers from chemical hazards (in order of preference):

1. keep the worker away from all possible sources of contamination2. control the contaminants so that the possibility of exposure is minimized,3. protect the worker using personal protective equipment.

All health and safety plans should adhere to the above principles and recognize local or national labour standards. The following should be included in PCB, PCT and PBB health and safety plans at a minimum:

The Health and Safety Plan (HASP) should be in writing. A copy should be posted at each site containing PCBs, PCTs, or PBBs. Each worker who is to have access to the “exclusion” zone (see below) should read the HASP and sign that they have read and understood it.

The HASP may be written to encompass all hazards at a site but should have a section or chapter specifically detailing procedures for PCBs, PCTs and/or PBBs.

Workers should only be present in an area containing PCBs, PCTs or PBBs (the exclusion zone) when absolutely necessary for the servicing or inspection of equipment or stored materials.

Workers entering an exclusion zone should have appropriate health and safety and operational training for chemical, physical and biological hazards. This training should be updated annually (annual refresher).

PCB, PCT and PBB exclusion zones should be routinely monitored for these contaminants in air. Workers entering an exclusion zone should be wearing appropriate respiratory protection (chemical

cartridge respirator, SCBA or supplied air respirator) and PCB-, PCT-, PBB-impermeable fabric covering the entire body (i.e. coveralls with hood, faceshield, gloves and boot covers or a full-body suit. If routine air sampling and analysis in the work area shows that the PCB, PCT and/or PBB concentrations in air are routinely “detectable” (above the method detection limit using the laboratory procedure specified by the jurisdiction) then a self-contained breathing apparatus or supplied air-respirator should be worn.

Spill cleanup kits and personal decontamination materials should be present in all areas containing PCBs, PCTs or PBBs.

An emergency response plan (see Section 10.3) should be prepared for areas containing PCBs, PCTs or PBBs and a summary of emergency procedures and contacts posted clearly at the site.

19


Workers who are, or are expected to be, routinely entering PCB, PCT or PBB exclusion zones or working with these substances should be medically monitored including a baseline medical examination.

Where PCBs, PCTs or PBBs are to be handled in an open system or where it is reasonably expected that the protective clothing of a worker may contact PCBs, PCTs or PBBs, a “contaminant reduction” zone should be established where workers can be decontaminated and remove their protective equipment. This equipment should be disposed or remain in the contaminant reduction zone for the next use.

The HASP and general work procedures should be reviewed at least annually and revised if necessary to enhance safety and health at the site.

7.2 STORAGE

Many countries have adopted PCB storage regulations or have developed guidance documents for PCB storage. Most do not have specific storage regulations or guidance for PCTs and PBBs however it can be assumed that the storage procedures should be identical to PCBs since the properties and toxicity of PCTs and PBBs are virtually the same as PCBs. While recommended practice varies somewhat from country to country, there are many common elements to safe storage of these wastes. The following recommended practices are based on the most current and best-available practice.

The Basel Convention recommended procedures for the storage of PCB, PCT and/or PBB waste are:

Storage sites inside multi-purpose buildings should be in a locked dedicated room or partition that is not in an area of high use.

Outdoor dedicated storage buildings or containers (often shipping containers are used) should be inside a lockable fenced enclosure.

“Sensitive sites” such as hospitals or other medical care facilities, schools, residences, food processing facilities, animal feed storage or processing facilities, agricultural operations, or facilities located near or within sensitive environmental sites should not store PCBs, PCTs and PBBs on the premises if possible. If transfer to another location or immediate destruction is not possible then the storage site should be a dedicated storage building situated as far away from the high-traffic and operational areas of the property as possible.

PCBs, PCTs and PBBs may be stored together but should not be stored with any other materials including other types of hazardous wastes. The exception to this rule is that other chlorinated organics similar to PCBs, PCTs and PBBs awaiting destruction and any materials resulting from the cleanup of PCB spills or fires may be stored in the same site with the approval of the appropriate government agency.

Storage rooms, buildings and containers should be ventilated to the outside air. If mechanical exhaust ventilation is used an organic vapour capture system (e.g. activated carbon) should be considered.

Dedicated buildings or containers should be in good condition and made of hard plastic or metal, not wood, fibreboard, drywall, plaster or insulation.

20


The roof of dedicated buildings or containers and surrounding land should be sloped so as to provide drainage away from the site.

Dedicated buildings or containers should be set on asphalt, concrete or durable (e.g. 6 mil) plastic sheeting.

The floors of storage sites inside buildings should be concrete or durable (e.g. 6 mil) plastic sheeting. Concrete should be coated with a durable epoxy.

Storage sites should have a fire alarm system. Storage sites inside buildings should have a fire suppression system; preferably a non-water system.

If the fire suppressant is water then the floor of the storage room should be curbed and the floor drainage system should not lead to the sewer or storm-sewer or directly to surface water.

Liquid wastes should be placed in containment trays or a curbed, leak-proof area. The liquid containment volume should be at least 125% of the liquid waste volume taking into account the space taken up by stored items in the containment area. The curbing or sides of the containment must be high enough, or the wastes kept back from the edge of the curbing far enough, that a leak in any drum or container would not “jet” over the edge of the curb or side.

1 Contaminated solids such as lamp ballasts, small capacitors, other small equipment, contaminated debris, contaminated clothing and spill cleanup material and contaminated soil should be stored in containers such as barrels or pails, steel waste containers (lugger boxes) or in specially constructed trays or containers. Large volumes of soil or other contaminated material may be stored in bulk in dedicated shipping containers, buildings or vaults as long as they meet the safety and security requirements as described herein.

A complete inventory of the PCB, PCT and PBB wastes in the storage site should be created and kept up to date as waste is added or disposed. A copy of the inventory should be kept at the site, another copy kept in the corporate offices and a copy filed with the emergency response plan.

The outside of the storage site should be labeled as a PCB, PCT and/or PBB site. Specific labeling requirements vary by jurisdiction but the intent is to notify anyone approaching the site of the contents of the site.

All containers of materials in the site should be labeled with hazard labels that clearly indicate the contents of the container.

The site should be subjected to routine inspection for leaks, degradation of container materials, vandalism, integrity of fire alarms and fire suppression systems and general status of the site.

Rusting or degrading drums or equipment bodies should be placed inside larger “overpack” drums instead of attempting to transfer the fluid to a new container.

Draining of equipment or drums should only be performed by a qualified and experienced individual or company.

All wastes created by transferring PCB, PCT or PBB wastes or by cleaning up spills or drips become wastes that must be stored for destruction or disposal.

PCB, PCT and PBB wastes should not be diluted in order to avoid a certain type of destruction unless the resulting diluted material is to be destroyed so that the same quantity of the PCBs, PCTs or PBBs are destroyed as would have been destroyed using the more advanced or expensive technique.

Wastes should be stored in a safe manner. Drums or pallets should not be stacked more than two high and only if this can be done safely (i.e. the drums are stackable).

The site should have an emergency response plan and a copy of this should be reviewed and kept on file by the local fire protection agency.

21


The site should have a health and safety plan if PCBs, PCTs and/or PBBs are not dealt with in the master health and safety plan for the property, company or agency.

7.3 HANDLING AND TRANSPORT

PCBs, PBBs and PBBs in service, and those in storage, must be prepared for transport and then transported to storage (Section 7.2), final destruction or disposal (Chapter 8). Handling and transport are critically important steps as there is as much or more risk of a spill, leak or fire during handling and transport than during the normal operation of the equipment. In addition, transport of hazardous wastes is carefully regulated under international (Basel Convention) agreement and national laws.

7.3.1 Maintenance of In-Service PCBs

In-service equipment containing PCBs may need to be maintained according to the manufacturer’s instructions for proper functioning or to clean-up or prevent releases of PCBs. It is not within the scope of this document to discuss routine maintenance of equipment. The maintenance issues that are of importance for PCB management are:

1. Transfer of liquid PCBs during maintenance2. Replacement of leaking seals and repair of cracks and holes3. Clean-up of minor leaks or spills during maintenance activities.

All work on PCB-containing equipment should be carried out in accordance with the site specific health and safety plan (Section 7.1) and applicable government regulations. Staff should be trained in the maintenance of the equipment and in the correct methods to handle hazardous materials.

If a piece of equipment containing liquid PCBs needs to have internal components “topped-up” or recharged, serviced or repaired (and is the type of equipment that is normally opened for servicing) serious consideration should be given to replacing the equipment or decontaminating it (removing the PCBs) and re-filling it with a non-PCB fluid. The Basel and Stockholm Conventions recommend phase-out of this equipment (under specific timelines) rather than continued use. Replacement fluids for electrical transformers include silicones, aliphatic hydrocarbons, poly-a-olefins, chlorinated benzenes and esters (Environment Canada, 1988).

If servicing of equipment is unavoidable, all work should be done with the objective of minimizing releases to the environment and minimizing the amount of contaminated material created through the servicing work. Recommended practice for this purpose includes:

Plan the servicing in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations, applicable regulations and codes and with the advice of experienced professional service persons.

Turn the equipment off and disconnect it from the power source. De-pressurize the equipment if necessary. Allow the equipment and PCB liquid to cool to ambient temperature. Servicing

22


equipment at ambient temperatures above 25oC should be avoided if possible due to the increased volatility of the PCBs at higher temperatures (i.e. more PCB vapours will be given off at higher temperatures).

Inspect the equipment before beginning service for leaks, holes, rust, low fluid level, high or low pressure (above or below specifications), high temperature (above specifications), malfunctions and gaseous emissions.

Inspect the opening valves, latches, lids, etc. for blockages, breakage or malfunction. Re-consider and re-plan the servicing plan if any leaks, holes, malfunctions etc. are found. Ensure that spill containment measures are in good shape and adequate to contain the PCB liquid if

spilled. It may be advisable to place plastic sheeting or absorbent mats under the equipment before opening it if the surface of the containment area is not coated with a smooth surface material (paint, urethane, epoxy, etc.).

Additional ventilation may be required to keep the atmospheric PCB level below the recommended levels and to provide adequate oxygen for workers.

Remove the liquid PCB either by removing the drain plug or by pumping with a peristaltic pump and Teflon or silicon tubing. Store the PCB liquid temporarily in one or more steel containers (drums) with tight-fitting lids or bungs. Leave a space of 8-10 cm at the top of the container for heat expansion and to avoid spillage when opening the container. Pumps, tubing and drums should be dedicated to the transfer of PCB liquids (not used for any other purpose).

Inspect the inside of the equipment for damage, rust and cracks. Complete the servicing and repairs. Replace any worn or broken seals. After completing the servicing replace the drain plug if applicable, replace the PCB liquid by

pumping, add make-up fluid if necessary, and re-seal the equipment. Clean up any spills with cloths or paper towels. Triple rinsing contaminated surfaces with a solvent

such as kerosene is usually necessary to remove all of the residual PCBs. All tools used for the servicing should be dedicated for PCB use. All absorbents, disposable protective clothing, plastic sheeting and removed components should be

treated as PCB waste.

7.3.2 Preparation of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs for Storage, Transport or Destruction

PCBs, PBBs and PCTs that are being removed from service must be prepared for storage, transport and/or destruction. For liquid-filled equipment that is made to be opened or drained the liquid should be removed and placed in double-bung steel drums. For transportation of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs regulations often specify containers of certain quality (e.g. 16 gauge steel coated inside with epoxy), therefore the containers used for storage should meet transport requirements if transport is anticipated in the future. The procedure for removing the liquid is the same as described in Section 7.3.1 except that inspection and repair of damage to the equipment is not necessary. After draining equipment should be re-sealed so that any remaining liquid does not drip out.

Large, liquid-filled equipment that is factory sealed (no lid or drain holes) may be drained by carefully drilling a hole in the top and pumping the liquid out. A second hole, for pressure relief, may be

23


necessary and should also be drilled in the top of the equipment. The equipment must be completely removed from service before draining and must be placed in a containment area. The liquid should be pumped directly into storage drums.

Large, drained equipment may be stored as it is or may be placed inside a large container or heavy plastic “wrap” if leakage is a concern. Small pieces of equipment such as capacitors and ballasts, drained or not, should be placed in drums with absorbent placed or poured in under and around the pieces of equipment. Numerous small pieces of equipment may be placed in each drum as long as an adequate amount of absorbent also is present in the drum. Loose absorbents may be purchased from safety suppliers but sawdust, vermiculite or peat-moss may also be used.

All drums, drained equipment and un-drained equipment must be clearly labeled with a hazard warning label and a label that gives the details of the equipment or drum. The details includes the date of packaging or removal from service, the contents of the drum or equipment (exact counts of equipment or volume of liquid), the type of liquid or type of equipment, the name and telephone number of the responsible person and the details of the equipment inside a drum if applicable (serial number, part number, other identifying information, etc.).

Drums and equipment may be placed on pallets for movement by forklift truck and for storage (keeping them off the ground will reduce the chance of rusting and of contamination by spillage of other stored materials). Equipment and drums should be strapped to the pallets prior to movement.

7.3.3 Transport of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs

Transportation of dangerous goods and wastes is regulated in most countries and the international shipment of wastes is controlled by signatories to the Basel Convention. PCBs, PBBs and PCTs are listed in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention and it is therefore required to give “prior informed consent” before any international shipment of these goods occurs (note that the Rotterdam Convention does not apply to wastes). It is not possible to reproduce all of the requirements and conditions of transport of hazardous wastes in this document, however the important points (in summary form) of the Convention are:

o Parties to the Basel Convention may not ship hazardous waste to or receive hazardous waste from a country that is not a party to the Convention.

o The country of origin of hazardous waste to be shipped to another country, the country of receipt and countries of transit must be notified and provide consent of the intent to ship the waste prior to the shipment occurring.

o All shipments of hazardous wastes must be accompanied by manifests and copies of notifications and approvals.

o All hazardous wastes for transport must be classified into hazardous waste classes and subclasses according to the hazardous properties of the wastes.

o All hazardous wastes for transport must be labeled clearly with the appropriate hazard labels.

24


All hazardous wastes for transport must be packaged according to protocols and shipped by appropriate modes of transport.

All shipments must be accompanied with the appropriate insurance Proof of final destruction of the hazardous waste is required

All persons transporting wastes within their own country should be qualified and/or certified as a shipper of hazardous materials and wastes. All persons proposing to ship hazardous wastes across an international border should notify their national regulatory agency of their intent and follow national and Basel Convention standards.

7.4 EMERGENCY RESPONSE

Emergency response plans should be in place for PCBs, PBBs and PCTs in-service, in storage, in transit and at a disposal or destruction site. While the emergency response plans will vary for each situation there are some common elements. The main elements of an emergency response plan are:

Planning of possible emergency situations and possible responses. Training of personnel in response activities including simulated response exercises. Maintaining mobile spill response capabilities or retaining the services of a specialized firm for spill response. Notification of fire department, police and other government emergency response agencies of the location of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs and the routes of transport. Installation of mitigation measures such as fire extinguishing systems, spill containment, fire-fighting water containment, spill and fire alarms and fire walls. Installation of emergency communication systems including signs indicating emergency exits, telephone numbers, alarm locations and response instructions. Installation and maintenance of emergency response “kits” containing sorbents, personnel protective equipment, portable fire extinguishers, and first aid supplies. Integration of local plans with regional, national and global emergency plans if appropriate.

8.0DESTRUCTION AND DISPOSAL

There are numerous types of PCB, PCT and PBB wastes and numerous methods to dispose or destroy them. Before beginning a discussion of disposal and destruction technologies it is useful to identify the types of wastes. For the purposes of disposal and destruction, PCB, PCT and PBB wastes can be grouped as follows:

Liquids From Products

25


Very high-concentration oils (mainly askarel PCB, but could be PCTs or PBBs) (>100,000 mg/L) High-concentration oils (10,000-100,000 mg/L) PCB contaminated mineral oil (<10,000 mg/L) Unused paint or ink containing PCBs Unused fire suppressants containing PBBs

Solids From Products

Solid pure PBBs or PCTs Contaminated solid equipment components including whole lamp ballasts (PCBs) Contaminated solid wastes (paper, metal products, absorbents and protective clothing used in

handling PCBs, PBBs or PCTs, glass, plastic, painted objects, auto shredder fluff, etc.)

Wastes From Contaminated Sites

Excavated contaminated soil, sediment, sludge, rock, rubble In-situ contaminated soil, sediment and bedrock (not removed from site) In-situ contaminated groundwater (not removed from site) Ex-situ contaminated water (pumped groundwater, process water, firefighting water, etc.)

Gases

Contaminated air or gas from processes that treat or remove PCBs, PBBs or PCTs.

8.1 PCB, PCT AND PBB WASTE MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES

The Basel Convention, as one of its most important principles, states that “hazardous wastes and other wastes are managed in a manner which will protect human health and the environment against adverse effects which may result from such wastes”. In support of this principle the Basel Convention provides the following prioritized means to prevent hazardous wastes from reaching the environment:

1. Avoid waste generation2. Where (1) is unavoidable, reduce to a minimum the amount of wastes produced3. Recover, reuse and recycle wastes that are amenable to reprocessing without introducing further

contamination4. Destroy or convert to a stable form any wastes not amenable to (3)5. Dispose of wastes if this is the best option or no other option exists.

As already discussed in this Guideline, priorities 1 through 3 are not appropriate for PCBs, PCTs and PBBs which are to be phased out and never used again (although note that the metal components of PCB

26


equipment and PCB, PCT or PBB contaminated soil are often recycled after removing the contaminants). Therefore by default destruction of these wastes is the preferred option with disposal being acceptable for certain types of wastes. Each country should determine what types of PCB, PCT and PBB wastes can be landfilled rather than destroyed, however in general only solid, non-leachable wastes should be considered for landfilling.

The Stockholm Convention advocates the management of PCBs on a priority basis also, but specifically targets very high concentration (>10% or 100,000 mg/L PCBs) wastes for priority action, then “medium” and high concentration (500 ppm – 10% PCB) wastes, and finally low concentration (50 – 500 ppm PCB) wastes for phase-out. Since in most inventories the high concentration wastes make up more than 90% of the total mass of PCBs, PCTs or PBBs, countries are encouraged to focus their initial efforts on the management and destruction of these wastes. The reader should refer to Annex A, Part II of the Stockholm Convention for details on the types of equipment and quantities to which the Convention applies.

Another way to prioritize actions is to assess the risk of environmental exposure of certain types of wastes. The highest risk is associated with high-concentration liquid PCBs, PCTs and PBBs. Liquids have an inherently higher risk to the environment than solids because, if spilled, they will move overland or down into the soil, water or sediment. Liquids are more difficult to clean-up after a spill and will cause more far-reaching environmental damage if the spill is undetected. Therefore all countries should ensure that liquid wastes are targeted for management and destruction as a first priority.

8.2 DESTRUCTION AND DISPOSAL CRITERIA

There are numerous different ways to control and regulate the use of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs. Regulations and control measures must meet the spirit of the Basel and Stockholm Conventions but also must be cognizant of the low risks associated with low-level products and wastes. The types of criteria that may be applied to PCBs, PBBs and PCTs follow.

8.2.1 Hazardous Material Criteria

PCBs, PBBs and PCTs of a certain hazard level should be defined as hazardous materials or wastes and handled, transported and disposed according to local, national and international laws and codes. There are a number of ways to define a product as a hazardous material or waste. These are:

Set a concentration limit. All material above this limit is defined as hazardous. The limit may be the same or different for liquids and solids. The limit should be consistent with the findings of human health risk assessments. The Basel Convention has adopted 50 ppm (50 mg/kg solids, 50 mg/L liquids) as the concentration limit above which PCBs are considered hazardous.

Set a leachate limit for solids such as soil, sediment and rubble. A leachate test is a test whereby water of a specific pH is percolated through the solid for a standard amount of time. At the end of the test the water (leachate) is submitted for chemical analysis. The test simulates conditions at a

27


contaminated site or landfill. The leachate limit is usually much lower than the concentration limit described above. The leachate limit should be consistent with the findings of human health and environmental risk assessments.

Set a surface concentration limit for bulky solids such as transformer parts, concrete pieces and construction materials. The surface limit will be expressed as mass per surface area. The limit should be consistent with the findings of human health risk assessments.

8.2.2 Control Criteria

Materials or wastes that are below the hazardous material criteria may still be controlled under regulation or policy, but a wider array of options may be used in managing and disposing of these materials. Control criteria typically give a bulk concentration range (e.g. 2-50 ppm) of the substance to be controlled or a leachate concentration range. Products with a concentration above the upper limit are hazardous, those below the lower limit are not regulated and those with a concentration within the range are controlled but not hazardous.

8.2.3 Contaminated Sites Criteria

If PCBs, PBBs or PCTs have been spilled into the environment the site may be considered a contaminated site and clean-up required. In addition to the hazardous material and control criteria, contaminated sites criteria may apply to the assessment and clean-up of the site. Contaminated sites criteria are developed using risk assessment techniques and, since the contaminant is directly in contact with the environment, these criteria tend to be considerably lower than even the control criteria. In addition most jurisdictions recognize that the criteria for site clean-up will vary depending on the site use. Typically a distinction is made between industrial land (highest criteria), residential land and agricultural or park land (lowest criteria). Separate criteria should be developed or adopted for soil, sediment and groundwater.

8.2.4 Treatment Criteria

Destruction of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs usually means destroying as much as necessary in the substance so that the substance is no longer a hazard after treatment. These types of criteria should be the goal when treating PCBs, PCTs or PBBs, however in addition the Basel Convention recommends treating all PCB, PCT and PBB-containing substances to the highest degree that is economically possible. This is referred to as the use of “best available control technology” (BACT).

Many countries require that technologies that destroy PCBs, PCTs or PBBs are required to demonstrate and achieve 99.9999% destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) in addition to treating materials to the applicable criteria. This means that of the PCBs, PCTs or PBBs that enter the process only one part in a million may leave the process in the treated material in the off-gases. Alternately the technology vendor can show that all of the emissions and residues from destruction have a “non-detectable” level or a legally specified criterion level of PCBs, PBBs or PCTs. “Non-detectable” means below the analytical detection limit using a standardized, approved analytical method. Processes that have been approved on

28


this basis will usually achieve contaminant levels in the treated material much lower than the treatment criteria. For this reason, and since the Basel Convention would like to completely eliminate PCBs, PCTs and PBBs, the Basel Convention recommends that all processes that destroy PCBs, PCTs and PBBs have a 99.9999% DRE, or reduce PCB, PBB and PCT levels to below a scientifically-based criterion, or reduce PCB, PBB and PCT levels to below detection in all emissions and residues.

8.3 DISPOSAL

The Basel Convention does not promote the landfilling of any PCB, PCT or PBB waste unless it is the best option for the environment. This means that if the risk associated with destruction of the material is greater than the risk associated with its disposal then disposal is the better option. Disposal may be considered for the following types of materials, when destruction of the PCBs, PBBs or PCTs is not the environmentally preferable option:

Non-leachable and non-hazardous excavated contaminated soil, sediment, sludge, rock, rubble Non-leachable and non-hazardous contaminated solids (painted demolition materials, auto-shredder

fluff, electrical cables (with no free liquid PCBs), etc.) In-situ “low-level” contaminated soil and bedrock.

The following sections describe the technologies and techniques for disposal of wastes. Table 4 then presents information on management requirements, health and environmental considerations, costs, availability, worker safety and health and community acceptability.

8.3.1 Hazardous Waste Disposal Facilities (With Landfill)

Hazardous waste disposal facilities usually have a number of treatment options plus a secure landfill. Each jurisdiction is different in the definition of hazardous waste, the concentration limits that differentiate hazardous waste from non-hazardous waste, and the disposal options available for each type of waste. Hazardous liquid PCBs, PCTs and PBBs should be destroyed and then the residue may be landfilled. The best option for some wastes may be immobilization of contaminants (see below) and then landfilling. Some wastes are deemed to be, in essence, already immobilized (e.g. contaminated painted materials, plastics, auto shredder fluff) and therefore may be placed directly in a secure landfill. The determination of the mobility of the PCBs, PBBs or PCTs is made by a leachate test (see Section 8.2.1).

In any case some residual PCBs, PCTs and PBBs are placed in a secure landfill. Secure landfills are designed to prevent the escape and migration of contaminants. Modern secure landfills have two or three liners (clay or plastic), leachate collection systems, and leak detection systems.

8.3.2 Industrial or Municipal Waste Disposal (Landfill)

Landfills that are designed to contain non-hazardous industrial solid waste or municipal solid waste currently receive PCBs, PCTs and PBBs that are not defined as hazardous but are controlled under regulation. Typically these articles would be solids and have identifiable PCB, PBB or PCT

29


concentrations or have a leachate value less than the hazardous criterion but still of some concern to the environment. An environmental and human health risk assessment should be performed for any landfill site accepting such material.

8.3.3 On-site Disposal/Containment

This option involves building a permanent disposal cell or landfill on site for the disposal of contaminated soil, sediment, rock, sludge or other solid waste materials. There are two distinct ways to achieve the objective. One is to excavate the material and place it in an engineered landfill site which is then capped. The other is to leave the material in-situ and build a barrier wall around it. Barrier walls may be made of steel sheet piles, grout curtains or slurry walls. On-site disposal or containment has been used in some countries but many jurisdictions do not allow its use for PCBs, PCTs or PBBs. An environmental and human health risk assessment should be performed for any site where containment is an option.

8.3.4 Immobilization by Fixation or Solidification

Immobilization is a treatment method that attempts to prevent contaminants from moving out of the solid matrix of the parent material. This is done either by chemically binding the contaminants to the solid particles (fixation) or physically preventing the contaminants from moving (solidification). In some cases a combination of physical and chemical immobilization is used. After this type of treatment, the material usually must be placed in a disposal site or used within a limited capacity (where allowed by law).

30

Table 4: Considerations in the selection of disposal techniques.

Technique Types of Wastes

Management Requirements

Health and Environmental Considerations

Costs (US$) Availability Worker Safety and Health

Community Acceptability

Hazardous Waste Disposal Facility (Landfill)

All types Long-term maintenance and monitoring.Monitoring of surrounding land, wildlife and humans.Initial risk assessment.

Environment surrounding facility at risk – chronic and catastrophic (spill, leak).Potential for POP emissions.

$100-$300 per tonne

Most industrialized countries have facilities. Facilities exist on each continent.Some countries will preferentially accept haz. waste from countries without haz. waste mgmt. facilities.

Need comprehensive worker health and safety plan.Should have health monitoring of employees.

Can have strong opposition to new sites. Can have continuing concerns and complaints during operation and after closure.Some communities have welcomed facilities.

Controlled Landfill

“Low-level”, non-leachable solids

Long-term maintenance and monitoring.Initial risk assessment.

Risk lower than for Haz. Waste Facility but some risk exists.

$20-$40 per tonne

Most countries have facilities but the conditions for acceptance of PCB, PBB, PCT waste vary.Some countries considering landfills to accept non-leachable wastes.

Need worker health and safety plan.May need health monitoring of employees for long-term work.

Can have opposition to new sites. Can have continuing concerns and complaints during operation and after closure.

In-situ Contain-ment

“Low-level” non-leachable soils and sediments

Long-term maintenance and monitoring.Initial risk assessment.

Some risk to environment and human health – very site specific.

$5-$40 per tonne

Site-specific; may be considered anywhere

Site-specific; depends on actual contaminant levels and method of containment.

Some concern but often community decides this is the best option.

Immobil-ization

Contaminated soils, sediments & sludges and other materials

Comprehensive testing of durability. Monitoring of site conditions.

Reduces short-term risk, possible to zero.Long-term risk difficult to predict.

$5-$20 per tonne

May be employed anywhere (very mobile).

Need worker health and safety plan.May need health monitoring of employees for long-term work.

Concerns relate to the disposal site not to the immobilization.

Fixation techniques are based on chemically fixing contaminants to prevent dispersion into the environment. There are a number of different approaches to fixation. One involves adding large quantities of hydroxyl-forming substances which raise the pH of the material and cause most of the contaminants (especially metals) to become immobile. Another technique uses a silica solution to “encapsulate” the contaminant/particle agglomerations. This technique is not always effective especially where high levels of organic contamination exist.

8.4 DESTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES AND TECHNIQUES (INCLUDING IRREVERSIBLE TRANSFORMATION) FOR OILS, SLUDGES AND SOLIDS

The Stockholm Convention promotes the complete elimination of POPs and therefore recommends the complete destruction or irreversible transformation of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs before the residue is landfilled (although again note that the Stockholm Convention applies to PCBs and not PCTs and PBBs). Complete destruction is generally considered to be 99.9999% complete or the achievement of a de minimus level of contaminant in the residue (based on the application of Best Available Control Technology). Destruction technologies are often approved based on testing that shows they can achieve this level of performance. Technologies that remove contaminants from a waste, rather than destroying or irreversibly transforming them, are normally expected to achieve a certain (de minimus) level of contaminant in the residual material and are not necessarily expected to achieve a 99.9999% DRE. Similarly, destruction technologies when treating lower concentration wastes are not expected to show a 99.9999% destruction efficiency in each case (because if the initial concentration of contaminant is low it is impossible to determine if 99.9999% destruction was achieved using standard analytical techniques).

Other treatment types exist other than those described in this guidance manual. These tend to be newer techniques that have been developed and may even be available commercially. Before any such un-proven technology is used it should be subjected to bench and pilot scale testing under the assessment of a third party auditor. Only when the acceptable treatment levels have been proven to be achievable should its use at full-scale be considered.

8.4.1 Pre-treatment Methods (Processing Methods)

Soil, sediment, rubble and certain equipment solids (e.g. lamp ballasts) contaminated with PCBs, PCTs and PBBs may benefit from some form or pre-treatment or processing. The goal of most pre-treatment technologies is to reduce the volume of material that requires further treatment or disposal and to improve the physical quality of the material for further handling and treatment. Some pretreatment techniques attempt to separate one fraction of the material, which is relatively clean, from the remainder which is relatively contaminated. Others separate water in the waste material from the solids.

The main categories of pretreatment are:

Dewatering;

Size separation; Washing; Density separation; Equipment splitting; and Washwater treatment.

By definition, separation techniques always produce a residue that has to be further treated or disposed. An important objective for separation is to minimize the amount of material to be disposed and to obtain reusable material. In many cases, separation technologies reduce the overall cost of the project. Companies that perform pre-treatment activities often collect the contaminated residues over a period of time in bulk containers until it is economically viable to ship them to a destruction facility. For this reason these facilities are sometimes referred to as transfer and/or bulking facilities.

8.4.2 Treatment Methods

The treatment methods in the following sections are presented in the approximate order of the mass of PCB, PCT and PBB wastes destroyed (historically) by each. Incineration is the first technology covered because it has been used to destroy virtually all high-level (over 10,000 ppm PCBs) worldwide and a significant portion of the lower concentration PCBs.

8.4.2.1 High-Temperature Incineration

High-temperature incineration is an established technique for all forms of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs. High-temperature incinerators, if properly operated, destroy all of the organic matter in the waste material by complete oxidation. Adequate temperatures and proper operation are very important. UNEP Chemicals, in co-operation with the Secretariat of the Basel Convention, have prepared a document “Inventory of Worldwide PCB Destruction Capacity” (December 1998). This states: “The most widely used and proven technology for destroying PCBs is high-temperature incineration. Properly done, this has been show to destroy PCBs at a destruction removal efficiency of at least 99.9999 per cent.” This document further notes that Europe alone has sufficient high-temperature incineration capacity to dispose of all of the world’s PCB wastes. The Stockholm Convention however in Annex C, Part II identifies waste incineration as a potential source of unintentionally produced POPs. Therefore each incinertator must be assessed very carefully for its ability to destroy contaminants and its gaseous, liquid and solid emissions.

Because the energy requirements for incinerators are high and air emission requirements are strict, incinerators tend to be the most expensive type of treatment. However incineration is the most common form of treatment for high concentration oils because it is very effective and because there are few alternatives with regulatory approval. While it is possible to treat soil, sediment and equipment solids in an incinerator, the high cost and the potential for process flow problems has limited the amount of these materials treated by incineration. There are numerous fixed location (permanent) incinerators around the world capable of destroying PCBs, PCTs, and PBBs however the majority of these are in the United States and Western Europe.

8.4.2.2 Chemical Treatment

Chemical treatment of contaminants in excavated material (soil, sediment) or in oil is based upon chemical-physical interactions such as adsorption/desorption, oxidation/reduction reactions, pH adjustment, and ion exchange. Chemical treatment can be broadly divided into two subcategories: (1) those techniques that attempt to extract contaminants and (2) those that attempt to destroy or alter contaminants in the waste material. In addition, the treatment methods for heavy metals are fundamentally different from those for organic contaminants.

The categories of chemical treatment are:

• Reactive- oxidizers – contaminant molecules in soil, sediment or oil are broken down by chemical

oxidation- dechlorination – see below

• Extraction - organic solvent – contaminants removed from soil or sediment by solvent that has high affinity

for them- water based solvent – water mixed with surfactants and other chemicals removes contaminants.

PCBs and PCTs can be subjected to a chemical dechlorination which removes the chlorine from the molecular structure. There are a variety of patented techniques, but most use an earth metal such as sodium or potassium to react with the chlorine atoms and render the organic molecules harmless. This technique has only been proven to be applicable to contaminated mineral oil (<10,000 ppm). High concentration oils are dangerous to treat this way (rapid, possibly explosive reaction with the earth metal) and also expensive. This technique has been used extensively for PCBs in mineral oil. The process could be used to treat the extract from a solvent extraction process used to clean contaminated soil, sediment or rubble. It is unknown if it has been used commercially for PCTs.

8.4.2.3 Thermal Desorption

Thermal desorption is the application of heat to volatilize and remove mainly organic contaminants from solids such as equipment components or soil. The volatilized contaminants can be condensed and collected as an oily residue of substantially less volume than the original sediment mass. Although no net destruction of contaminants is effected by this technology, the remaining volume of contaminated oil requiring further treatment is much smaller, thus potentially allowing the application of other (more expensive) destructive methods for the oils. Thermal desorption processes for equipment solids are very different in design than those for soils. Those for equipment solids are designed like a large oven and the solids are placed inside and “baked”. Those for soils have a feed system to continuously feed the soil through the heating unit.

8.4.2.4 Thermal Reduction

A relatively new type of thermal treatment is thermal reduction. Thermal reduction can be used for high and low concentration oils, off-gases, and for the extracted contaminants from soil, sediment, solids and sludges. In this technique, temperatures as high as those used in incineration are employed but a reducing atmosphere (i.e. no oxidizing agents such as oxygen are present) is present in the reactor. Hydrogen is injected into the reactor as a reducing agent if the reducing atmosphere created by the waste is not sufficient for complete destruction. The result is the chemical reduction of organic molecules into lower molecular weight and less toxic products. Chlorine and bromine in the waste form HCl or HBr (gases) that can be captured in a scrubber system. Chemical reduction is, in one sense, the opposite of incineration, which is an oxidative process.

8.4.2.5 Vitrification

Vitrification is a thermal process that is useful for soil and sediment. Vitrification may be performed on excavated material or in-situ. It is essentially a thermal desorber for PCBs, PBBs and PCTs but also immobilizes metal. contaminants if present The process is run at a temperature high enough to melt the silica and metals in the excavated material. Gaseous contaminants driven out of the soil or sediment are incinerated in an “afterburner”. After cooling, the excavated material is thereby turned into a hard slag-like product from which the metals will not leach. There are few documented cases of the use of vitrification for PCBs, PCTs and PBBs possibly due to the concerns for residual contamination in the vitrified matter.

8.4.2.6 Catalytic Oxidation

Catalytic oxidation is used to treat contaminated water, oil, air or off-gas. It is a low temperature thermal process that uses a catalyst such as platinum to facilitate oxidation of contaminants. It has been shown to be effective at destroying PCBs in waste motor oil and most contaminants in air.

8.4.2.7 Biological Treatment

Biological treatment has gained popularity in the last ten years as a technique for remediating soils and sediments. However very little success has been reported in the literature in bioremediating PCBs, PBBs and PCTs. Those compounds with low percentages of chlorine tend to break down to some degree biologically but the more chlorinated congeners are highly resistant to degradation. Despite the lack of scientific evidence for a biological degradation pathway for the highly chlorinated compounds, numerous private sector remediation firms claim to biodegrade PCBs. Since it is not a proven technology at this time it is not recommended for use.

Table 5: Considerations in the selection of extraction and destruction techniques.



Energy and Materials Required

Health and Environ-mental Considera-tions

Costs (US$)

Availability Portability Worker Safety and Health


Pre-treatment

Solids with surface contam.; soils, sediments; water

“Clean” residues” sent to landfill. Concentrated residues sent for destruction.Wash water to be treated.On-going monitoring required.

Low to medium energyMinimal material needs

Very low risk to environment and humans.

$5-30 per tonne solids

Common equipment available in many countries.

Very portable.

Moderate potential for exposure but must have health and safety plan.

Generally acceptable. May be some concern over potential releases and transport routes.

High-Temperature Incineration

All wastes Ash usually landfilled.Stack gases produced; must be monitored.Scrubber sludges to be disposed.

High energyMinimal materials

Some risk to environment and human health from air emissions and incomplete combustion.

Fixed Facilities $1300-$2500 per tonne askarel$500-$1000 per tonne solids

Available in many countries.

Transportable; may take 3-6 months to set up.

Significant potential for exposure; must have comprehensive health and safety plan.Should have worker health monitoring.

Often significant opposition mostly to potential air emissions and transport routes.

Chemical Treatment

Oils, soil, sediment, water

Clean oil, soil, water can be recycled.Usually a sludge produced that must be disposed.

Low energyChemicals required (may be large quantities)

Low risk to environment and humans.

$150-$300 per tonne mineral oil, soils or sediment

Available in many countries for contaminated mineral oil <10,000 ppm PCBs.Limited availability for high level oils, soils, sediment

Very portable.


Generally acceptable. May be some concern over potential releases, chemicals to be used for treatment and transport







Costs (US$)



and water routes.

Thermal Desorption

Solids, soils, sediment

Clean solids can be recycled.Concentrated oil sent for destruction.Can have gaseous emissions.Monitoring required.

Medium energyMinimal materials

Some risk to environment and human health from air emissions and incomplete desorption.

$40-$100 per tonne solids

Available in many countries.

Very portable.


May be some opposition due to potential air emissions and transport routes.

Thermal reduction

All wastes (need thermal desorption for solids)

Clean solids to be recycled. Often no other residuals; any sludges sent for disposal.

High energyHydrogen may be required

Some risk to environment and human health from air emissions and incomplete reduction.No dioxin formation in the reaction.

Mobile$4500-$6000 per tonne liquids

Operating units only in a few countries so far.



May be some opposition due to potential air emissions and transport routes. Dioxins and furans in the waste before treatment may not be treated by the process.

Vitrification Soils and sediments

Solidified slag material to be disposed or recycled. Stack gases produced; must be monitored.

High energyMinimal materials

Some risk to environment and human health from air emissions and incomplete combustion.

$500-$1000 per tonne solids

Limited availability.


Significant potential for exposure; must have comprehensive health and safety plan.

Often significant opposition mostly to potential air emissions and transport routes.







Costs (US$)



Scrubber sludges to be disposed.

Should have worker health monitoring.

Catalytic oxidation

Oils, water

May produce a sludge for disposal.Monitoring required.

Low to medium energyMinimal materials

Some risk to environment and human health from air emissions and incomplete destruction.

Unknown Used by private sector oil recycling firms. Limited commercial availability.



May be some opposition due to potential air emissions and transport routes.

Biological Treatment

Soils and sediments (not proven to work yet)

Proceed only after successful bench and pilot tests.Monitoring required.

Low energyRe-usable materials

Very low risk to environment and humans if containment and air emissions control in place.

No cost range established

Not yet available at commercial scale.

Very portable.


Generally acceptable. May be some concern over potential releases and transport routes.


8.4 TECHNOLOGIES FOR CLEAN-UP OF CONTAMINATED SITES

Soil and groundwater may become contaminated by PCBs, PBBs or PCTs through spills, historic disposal practices, leaks and fires. High-level contaminated soil and sediment may be excavated and treated by one of the technologies discussed above. Low-level contaminated soil and sediment may be excavated and disposed in a landfill or contained on-site as discussed in Section 8.2. However there are other methods available to remove contaminated liquids from a site, treat soil and sediment in-situ and to treat groundwater, process water and fire-fighting water. The most common methods are discussed below.

8.4.1 Soil Vapour Extraction/Air Sparging

Soil vapour extraction is used to remove organic contaminants from the vadose (unsaturated) zone of contaminated sites. Air injection and extraction wells are installed in the contaminated site and air is pumped through the pores of the soil. Volatile and semi-volatile contaminants desorb from the soil particles and enter the air phase to be captured or destroyed at the surface. Air sparging is a similar technique but used for the saturated zone (under the water table).

8.4.2 Pumping and Treating

Pump and treat is the technology most commonly used for contaminated groundwater. As the name implies, contaminated groundwater is pumped to the surface from extraction wells and treated on-site using one of the techniques described in this section. Extraction wells are placed strategically to prevent the escape of the “plume” of contamination in the groundwater. In some cases removal of contaminant is enhanced by “flushing” the site with water, or a water/surfactant/solvent mixture, injected either at the site surface or through injection wells placed in and around the source of contamination.

8.4.3 Free Product Collection

PCBs, PCTs and PBBs that are present in a contaminated site or immediately after a spill to land or water can be recovered by pumping, gravity interception (trench or sump), and the use of absorptive materials (booms, socks, granular). Pumping is often used in soil and sediment subsurface applications while the other two are used for surface applications.

8.4.4 Permeable Reactive Barriers

Permeable reactive barriers are trenches placed strategically in the ground to intercept a plume of contaminated groundwater. The trench is filled with a reactive material such as iron filings and/or compost. Groundwater passes through the barrier exposing the contaminants to the reactive material in the barrier. Organic contaminants, especially chlorinated and brominated compounds, are broken down very effectively if the barrier is correctly constructed and positioned.


8.4.5 Filtration

Filtration systems such as sand filters, membrane filters, and bio-filters all are effective in specific situations for removing suspended solids from water. Hydrophobic contaminants such as PCBs, PCTs and PBBs tend to adsorb to solid particles rather than dissolve in water or remain as a free-phase. In general filtration systems do not remove dissolved contaminants. The filter must be flushed or cleaned periodically and the recovered solids are disposed or destroyed using one of the methods described above.

8.4.6 Micro-Filtration or Membrane Processes

Water contaminated with dissolved PCBs, PCTs or PBBs may be treated with a variety of relatively new membrane processes that attempt to remove molecular contaminants. The principle is similar to regular sand or membrane filters except that the pore size of the membrane is smaller and usually an electric charge is placed on the membrane that is attractive to the contaminants of concern. The filter must be flushed or cleaned periodically and the recovered solids are disposed or destroyed using one of the methods described above. Alternatively the entire membrane can be sacrificed and destroyed by incineration.

8.4.7 Settling

Settling systems include clarifiers, upflow clarifiers, and settling basins. These are used to remove suspended solids from water. Flocculating chemicals, added upstream of a settling tank or basin, are often effective at increasing the rate of settling. Technologies which incorporate several different unit processes to achieve separation of fractions, washing, and dewatering are called “soil washing” technologies. Settled solids are then recovered, dewatered and decontaminated using one of the methods described above.

8.4.8 Adsorption

Adsorption systems remove dissolved (and small particulate) contaminants from water or air by chemically binding the contaminants as the water or air passes through the pore spaces. The most common of these systems is activated carbon. Carbon adsorption is the most popular choice of treatment for organic contaminants in the gas phase (US EPA, 1987). Activated carbon is often used after a sand filter for treating contaminated water. Activated carbon has a very large capacity to adsorb organic contaminants and can be regenerated for re-use by heating the carbon. During heating the contaminants are driven off as a vapour and either incinerated directly or cooled and recovered as a liquid for later destruction.

8.4.9 Advanced Oxidation (Ultraviolet Light)

Ultraviolet light of the correct intensity and wavelength is extremely effective at destroying organic contaminants including PCBs, PCTs and PBBs. However UV light will not penetrate into solids, sludges or even turbid water so its use is restricted to dissolved contaminants in low turbidity water. Water that


has high suspended solids content is filtered prior to treatment. In some cases a catalyst such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) or a chemical oxidant such as hydrogen peroxide is used to enhance the destruction.

8.4.10 Air Stripping and Steam Stripping

Air stripping is a simple process in which contaminated water (pumped groundwater, process water, etc.) is “tumbled” over or through a coarse, very permeable media. The water forms droplets and mist as it tumbles through the media and volatile and semi-volatile contaminants leave the water as a gas. This technology was used extensively in the past but its use as a stand-alone process has been curtailed because of air pollution concerns. Some systems are now used in combination with a destructive technique for the gases released from the water. Steam stripping is the same type of process except that steam is introduced into the stripper to promote the volatilization of higher-boiling point compounds (such as PCBs, PCTs, and PBBs).


REFERENCES

ACSH. 1997. Public health concerns about environmental polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). American Council on Science and Health. Downloaded from http://www.acsh.org/publications/reports/ pcupdate2.html. January 5, 2001.

ASTDR (1999). Toxicological Profiles: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. U.S. Public Health Service.

ASTDR (2000). Public implications of exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Downloaded from http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/DT/pcb007.html. January 5, 2001.

Braune, G., Muir, D., DeMarch, B., Gamberg, M., Poole, K., Currie, R., Dodd, M., Duschenko, W., Eamer, J., Elkin, B., Evans, M., Grundy, S., Hebert, C., Johnstone, R., Kidd, K., Koenig, B., Lockhart, L., Marshall, H., Reimer, K., Sanderson, J., and L. Shutt (1999). Spatial and temporal trends of contaminants in Canadian Arctic freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems: A review. Sci Total Envron 230:145-207.

Brouwer, A., Longnecker, M., Birnbaum, L., Cogliano, J., Kostyniak, P., Moore, J., Schantz, S., and G. Winneke (1999). Characterization of potential endocrine-related health effects at low-dose levels of exposure to PCBs. Environ Health Perspect 107(4):639–649.

Environment Canada. 1988. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) – Fate and Effects in the Canadian Environment. Environment Canada report EPS 4/HA/2, May, 1988.

Government of Alberta (1997). News Release. May 15, 1997. Downloaded from http://www.gov.ab.ca/can/199705/4888.html. January 5, 2001.

Headwater Environmental Services Corporation. 2000. “The PCB Waste Management Industry in Canada: Present Status and Future Outlook”. Report prepared for Environment Canada, Ontario Region, March 2000.

Headwater Environmental Services Corporation and GlobalTox International Consultants. 2001. Economic Impact Assessment of Proposed Amendments to the PCB Waste Export Regulations. Report prepared for Environment Canada, July 2001.

Health Canada (2000). It’s Your Health: PCBs and Human Health. Downloaded from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ehp/ehd/catalogue/general/iyh/pcb.htm. January 5, 2001.

Holoubek, I. (2000). Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) World-Wide Contaminated Sites. Downloaded from http://www.recetox.chemi.muni.cz/PCBs/content173.htm.

INAC. 1997. Canadian Arctic Contaminants Assessment Report. Northern Contaminants Program. Jensen, J., Adare, K., and R. Shearer (editors). Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Government of Canada.

International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1987. Overall Evaluations of carcinogenicity: An Updating of IARC Monographs, Volumes 1 to 42. Published by the r, 434 pp.


International Programme on Chemical Safety. 1992. Environmental Health Criteria 140: Polychlorinated

Biphenyls and Polychlorinated Terphenyls. Published by UNEP, ILO and WHO, Geneva,

International Programme on Chemical Safety. 1994. Environmental Health Criteria 152: Polybrominated Biphenyls. Published by UNEP, ILO and WHO, Geneva,

Muir, D., Braune, B., DeMarch, B., Norstrom, R., Wagemann, R., Lockhart, L., Hargrave, B., Bright, D., Addison, R., Payne, J., and K. Reimer (1999). Spatial and temporal trends and effects of contaminants in the Canadian Arctic marine ecosystem: A review. Sci Total Envron 230:83-144.

Pfirman, S., Crane, K., Kane, K., and T. Simoncelli (1999). The Arctic at Risk: A Circumpolar Atlas of Environmental Concerns, Draft. Environmental Defense Fund. Downloaded from http://rainbow.ldgo.columbia.edu/edf. January 5, 2001.

UNECE. 2002. Report on Production and Use of PCTs (draft). Prepared for the UNECE Expert Group on POPs.

UNEP. 1998. Inventory of Worldwide PCB Destruction Capacity. Published by the United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, Dec. 1998.


Documents

Basel Convention PCB, PCT and PBB Technical Guidelines (2002)archive.basel.int/techmatters/pcbguid_sep2002.doc · Web viewThese compounds are highly lipid soluble, and consequently