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Export Horticultural Production in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Incorporation of The Gambia

Author(s): HAZEL BARRETT and ANGELA BROWNESource: Geography, Vol. 81, No. 1 (January 1996), pp. 47-56Published by: Geographical AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40573191 .

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Export orticulturalProductionn Sub-SaharanAfricaThe ncorporationfTheGambia

HAZEL BARRETTAND ANGELA BROWNEABSTRACT:his rticle xamines heincorporationf ub-SaharanAfricanto heinternationalrade nfresh ruit, lowersndvegetables.his radehasaccelerated nrecentyearsdue tochanges n the nternationaltradingnvironmentnd theneed or-diversificationf he xport ase within frica.The actors hat avepropelledAfricanountriesinto his ectorwillbe examined n the ontextfa four-phasemodel fhorticulturalntegration.Using heGambia as a case study,etailsaregiven f heways nwhich orticulturalproductsreproduced nd marketed nd themechanisms hichink rowerso retailersnEurope.The conomic nd social impacts f hisexpanding griculturalectorn TheGambiaare discussed. conomic ffectsncludebenefitsto thenationaleconomy,mploymentopportunitiesnd the evelopmentf ontractfarming.ocial implicationsncludediscussion fgender nd resource llocation tthe ommunitynd householdevels.Horticulturalroductionrovides potentialopportunityor many ub-SaharanAfricancountrieso ncrease heir xport evenues.The xample fTheGambiademonstratesomeof he hallengeshis ew nternationalradeposes orruralAfrica.THE NEED FOR an internationalerspectivenfood supplies is demonstrated y the majorchanges takingplace in the world economyconsequentupon the reform f the EuropeanUnion'sCommonAgriculturalolicy,he recentGATTgreementnd formationf heWorld radeOrganisation (WTO) and the negotiationsassociatedwiththe Lome IV Convention LeHeron, 993;Cable,1994).The iberalisationf heworld conomys bringinghepoorerregions ftheworld, otablyub-Saharan frica, orefully

into theglobalfoodsupply ystem, ithpositiveand negative onsequencesforboth AfricanndEuropean roducers,radersnd consumers.Oneaspect f he nternationalisationrocessthathasgrownnsignificancenthe astfive earsis the importationinto Europe of freshhorticulturalroduce (fruit, egetables nd cutflowers) rom ub-Saharan frica. his has beendue to a combinationf factors,ncluding herelaxation f mport estrictionsnto theEU,thedevelopmentfcompetitiveong-haulefrigeratedairtransportnda growingemandfor resh ut-of-season or exotic produce by Europeanconsumers.At the same time African ountrieshavebeen keen to diversifyheir xport ase inorder o meetdebtrepaymentsnd tocompensatefor a dramatic eduction uring he 1980s and1990s ntheworldmarketrice ftheir raditionalagriculturalxports uch as cocoa, coffee,ottonand tea Oxfam,993).

The nternationalisationofhorticulturalproduction:heincorporationf ub-SaharanAfricaThe internationalisation of horticulturalproduction or the WesternEuropeanmarket,particularlyf perishablevegetables,has gonethrough number f distincthases nthe ast40years see Fig. 1). Prior o the 1960sproductionwas primarilyome-based,withtechnologyndtransportostsrequiringultivationo takeplacenear major markets.As a consequence freshvegetableswere availableseasonally,with fewimportedtems. s thedomesticmarketxpandedand demand increased, supplies from theMediterranean ringe,with its longergrowingseason and cheaper abour,ncreasingly etthisnew demand PhaseII). Countriesuch as Israel,Morocco ndSpainbecame mportantraders.In Phase III of this internationalisationprocess upplyources fperishableegetablesorEuropeanmarketshifted o sub-Saharan frica,where roductionf xotic nd out-of-seasonruitand vegetables egan to complementhe moretraditionalxports f tropical roduce'such ascocoa, coffee, ottonand palmoil. Demand inEuropeanmarkets or ear-roundupplies ffresh,exoticor,morerecently,abyvegetables,meantthat uppliers ooked to countrieswith uitable

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growingonditionsnd a comparativedvantagein production. ountries uch as Kenya, ambiaandZimbabwe, herewell-establishedommercialnetworks orexport griculturelready xisted,were the first ub-Saharan frican ountries obecome nvolved.Phase Vcovers more recent eriodwhenimportersave turned o theSahelianregion fWestAfricaocomplementhe easons neastandsouthernAfricand Europe.This is an area ofhighlyeasonal griculturalctivityssociatedwith'therains'. hemain griculturaleason occurs ntherainy eriod, une oOctober,when ash andsubsistence oodcropsare cultivated. he mostimportantfthese regroundnutsndcotton orexportmarkets nd maize, rice,sorghum ndmillet orocalconsumption.nthis egion hedryseason, from Novemberto May, s the mainhorticultural eason, a period when otheragriculturalctivities,nce harvestings over, reminimal.This complementarityf productionseasons nWestAfricanables he traditionaloodand cashcropsto be grown uring he rains ndthe abour orce, articularlyomen, o switch ohorticultureroduction nce the rainy easoncropshavebeen harvested.Phases III and IV would not have beenpossiblewithout echnologicalmprovementsnhandling,ow-temperaturetorage nd cheaper,faster,eliable ransportnabling roduceto besold at competitiverices n Europeanmarkets.Increasedmarket ize and economies f scale inhandling ave also beennecessaryonditions orthis international rade to flourish.However,demand nd technological evelopmentso notexplain whyAfricanountries,ncluding hosewhere roughtndmalnutritionreendemic, avebegun osupply orthern arkets ith igh-valuefruit,egetablesnd flowers.Falling prices for African conventionalagriculturalxportsnd ncreasinglydverse ermsof trade began to have serious economicconsequencesforthe region n the 1970s and1980s.The debtburden, owrequiring,or ub-SaharanAfrica s a whole, bout25 per cent ofexportrevenueper year simply o pay interestpayments,forces these countries to exportwhateverhey an to help service hiscripplingdebt World ank,1995). n the1980salmost llcountriesnsub-Saharanfrica,s a result ftheireconomic difficulties,dopted policy reformsunder the aegis of the World Bank andInternationalonetaryund Stewartt l., 1992).These StructuraldjustmentrogrammesSAPs),with heirmphasis n marketiberalisation,avereinforced he need for African ountriestodiversifyheirexportbase. In reality he only

choice open to manycountries s to expandagriculturalxports y findingew niches n theinternationalarket. orticulturalroductionitswell intothe social and economicconditions fthese ountriesndprovidesn additionalourceofforeignxchangewithout isplacingraditionalcashcrops.Theforeignapital roughtnto startup horticulturalroductionan serve s a doublebonus to African ountries: infrastructuresupgraded (at least around the internationalairport)ndexport evenues re enhanced.The droughts f the early1970sand 1980sacross the Sahelian one are also relevant o thisagricultural iversification.hese episodes soweakened he rural conomies f this egion hatboth the governmentsnd farmers ere easilypersuaded to adopt commercial horticulturalproductionforforeignmarkets,which wouldattractverseas nvestment.or xample, ver helast20years ainfallnThe Gambiahas decreasedby24-36percent with henumber frainy aysfallingybetween 4-24Schroeder,993, . 352).Althoughhis downward rendhas been notedsince1940 Carney,993, . 331) rainfallnthe astfewyearshasfluctuated,ith dryperiod ntheearly 980sbeing ollowedymuchwetter earsnthe1990s.Furthermore,hese reagrarianconomiesnwhich there is a long tradition f vegetableproduction among subsistence farmers,particularly omen,who grow vegetablesforfamilyse andtradingn ocal ndregionalmarkets(Barrett, 988; Schroeder,1993). Farmers retherefore amiliar ith abour-intensivearmingpractices nd are quickly aught he necessarymodern kills fplanting,rrigating,ertilisingndharvestingnew crops. Women recruitedtohorticulturalchemes re used to a ruralconomicsystem hatrequires hemto give their abourfreelyn their usbands' arms,r for ubsistenceproduction.Women thus accept extremelyowwages and will follow instructionswithoutquestionfrom orticulturalupervisors.lliteracy,which svery igh nthis egion about75-85percentamong women) (WorldBank,1995) and isoften seen as being a brake on development(Browne and Barrett, 994), is no barrier oparticipatingn these projectsbecause on-sitedemonstrationsnd a strict upervisory egimeensure hat armersollow he orrect rocedures.HorticulturalroductionnAfricaor xport,morerecentphenomenon, as been introducedwithin hree rincipalmodes ofproduction.irst,large-scalecommercialenterprises, ncludingprivatearmsnd estates wnedby gribusinesses,are theprincipal ype f horticulturalusiness neast and southernAfrica.Here Transnational

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CorporationsTNCs) are heavilynvolvedn thissector, perating ithin oth theproductionndmarketingtages f this radewith high evelofvertical ntegrationVan der Laan, 1993). InZimbabwe, orexample,150 large commercialfarms re involvedn theexport f horticulturalproduce,including ut flowers Smith,1990).These farmssewage abour ndcapital-intensivemethods of productionand marketing. hecroppingegimendqualityfproduce restrictlyregulatedndtheproduce s sold under ontractto arge ommercialuyers, uch f tdestined orEuropean upermarkethains. n some countriesestablishedagribusinesses/TNCsre replacingtraditional lantation rops with horticulturalproduce. n Kenya, or xample,BrookeBond isdiversifyingntoflowerndvegetable roduction.Second, in some countries, otablyKenya,small-scale armers ave been incorporatedntocommercial orticulturehrough ontractswithlarge ompanies r traders.his rade s facilitatedby co-operationbetween local entrepreneurs,foreignnvestorsnd the Kenyangovernment,through he Horticulturalrops DevelopmentAuthority,et up in 1967. Participationn thisactivityas beenextremelyidespread, ithmanygrowersperatingarmsfonly -3ha,ofwhichsmall proportion is devoted to vegetableproduction.he World ank 1989)reportshatnKenyahorticulturalultivationmploys bout20percent of the abourforce 1.8 million eople)duringhe harvest easons.Horticulturalroduceis nowthe hirdargestource fforeignxchangeamong griculturalxports, ith roduce oing osome30countries,he argestmarketeing heUKwith ome 40 per cent of market hare (WorldBank, 989;SchapirondWainaina,991).Thethirdmodeofproductionsvillage-basedcommunal production, often organised aswomen's co-operativeswith assistance fromforeign id agenciesand donors.This form fproduction s commonplace in the SaheliancountriesfWestAfricahere here recommunalland-userightsndno traditionnrural reasofindividualenure. his mode ofproductionelieson the co-operationof villagemembersandoperates as a formof share-cropping, ithparticipantsreceivingtheir remuneration tharvesttime.Alternatively,omen may farmindividual lots but combine their abour forscheme-wideasks. These projects re seen bygovernmentsnd donors s having dual role-income enerationorwomen nd a socialwelfarefocus - and are typicalof the 'Women inDevelopment'programmesescribedby Moser(1989; 1993). Forexample, n many chemes nThe Gambia health education, nutritional

information,hild care and literacyssues areaddressed in sessions for project members.Increasinglynthe1980s ndearly 990s, nd as aresponse to SAPs,co-operativeprojectswereabsorbed nto nternational arkets y contractarrangementsith ntrepreneurs.Horticulturalroductionin TheGambia

Until the 1970s vegetable production n TheGambiawas imited o thedry eason nd nvolvedsmall-scale roduction y individualwomen forhouseholduse andpetty rading. owevernthe1970svegetable roduction as revolutionisedythe Collective nionGrowingcheme ntroducedby heMinistryfAgriculture.hiswas anattemptto increase ocalproductionfonions norder oreduce the argequantities eing mported romEurope (mostly omingfrom he Netherlands).The mode ofproductionsedbythe chemewasbasedon collective/communalrinciples,tilisingwomen's expertiseand involvedconsiderablegovernmentnterventionnproductionmethods,pricingndmarketing.n 1971-72 emonstrationfarmswere set up at Gunjur nd Njougou.Sopopularwas the cheme hatnthefollowingear18 projectswereestablishedountry-wideithmembershipf over900farmers.y1977-78 ver4,000farmers ere participatingn the project,mostbeingwomen.Althoughhe chemewasadoptedwith reatenthusiasm y womenfarmershroughouthecountry,twasplaguedwith roblems.nadequatemarketing rrangements,he selection of anunsuitable arietyf seed, little uality ontrol,poor storageadvice and uncompetitive ricing(comparedwithmports) roduced isappointingresults.Muchof theharvest ufferedrom iseaseand had poor storagequality.n addition, ighproducer rices nd poorly rganisedmarketingmeant thaturban consumersfavouredhigherquality,heaper mportednions.Thus mportsfonionsfrom urope ontinuedo ncrease. y helate 1970s it was clear that the scheme wasexperiencingevere roblemsnd thegovernmentdecided to reduce tsdirectnvolvementBarrett,1988, hapter ).The CollectiveOnion GrowingScheme,which swidely egardeds a failure,id howeverfamiliarisefarmers,especially women, withcollectivemethods fproductionnddry easonagriculturalechniques,nablinghem o cultivateothervegetablesfter he market or nionshad


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Fig.2. Freshgreen chillipeppers beinggraded and packed inThe Gambia. These are thenairfreightedo markets n London.Photo: Hazel Barrett.collapsed.Butfollowinghe poor results f theoniongrowing rojectnterestythegovernmentand donors nvegetable ultivationas minimal.It was not until hemid-1980shat hepotentialeconomic benefits of communal productionmethodswererecognised nce again.Women'shorticulturalo-operativesbecame the focusof donor upportwithin hecountry,nlinewiththe Women n DevelopmentWID) philosophyof the time (Barrett, 995). Non-governmentalorganisationsNGOs)and multilateralonors uchas ActionAid, ethodistMission, he EU and theIslamicDevelopment ank ncreasinglyegantopromote and sponsor dry season vegetableproductionby women's groups (Barrett ndBrowne,989).Theseschemes, pto15hain izeandhavingsmanys 200members,oncentratedon vegetable roductionn thedry eason usingirrigation,hus allowingwomen to continuegrowingheir raditionalubsistencerops ntherainyeason. With he dual role of raising uralincomes nd ncorporatingomenmorefullyntothedevelopment rocess,women'svegetable o-operatives ere establishedll over thecountry,withhigher oncentrationsround urban areassuch as Banjul (the capital),Serrekunda thelargest urban centre) and the divisionalheadquarters, namely Brikama, Kerewan,Georgetownnd Basse.Vegetable roduction ytheseco-operativeswas nitiallyargetedt the ocalurban, xpatriateand touristmarkets. owever,timulatedythe

removal fexport axes n fresh roduce n 1986(Carney, 993) and the role of thegovernmentparastatalhargedwith uyingndmarketingreshproduce Citro-Products),omen'sco-operativesincreasinglyurned o exportproduction. ytheendof1993over enwomen's o-operativesereproducingor he xportmarket, ith hemajorityof thesewithin -1.5hours ourney ime, yroad,of he nternationalirport.ince hedisbandmentof Citro-Productsn 1989, in line with thegovernment's rivatisationolicy,horticulturalproducefrom hese schemes is now generallypurchased on an ad hoc basis by localentrepreneursndair-freightedoLondonfor aleinstreetmarketsndby ndependentetailers.A more recent evelopmentssociatedwiththis ector s themoveby exporterso contractwomen in theirco-operativeso grow specificcropsunder upervisednd regulatedonditionsfor xportmarkets. he contractorsdvance reditfor the purchaseof inputsand, using verbalcontracts,romise o purchase set quantityfspecific rops.Thisoption potentiallyolves theproblems of marketing nd credit amongstwomen'sco-operatives hich n the past havebeen limitingactorsfproductionSargent ndSey, 1986; Barrett nd Browne, 1989; RNSRD,1991).The most spectacular evelopmentn thehorticulturalector, owever, as been thegrowthincommercial arms wnedby ocal and overseasbusiness nterestsndproducingor nternational

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markets. iberalisationftrade, he relaxation flegalrestrictionsn rightsooperate and nd theexemptionfhorticulturalroductsndexportersfromxport axeshave acceleratedhis rend. naverage he farms re between 0 and 100ha inarea andproducefruitndvegetables ear-roundfor ocaltourist otels ndregionalmarketss wellas for xport. heseenterprisesre all located nthe peri-urbanone, close to the internationalairport. urrently,here are at least 20 privatefarms peratingn area of morethan1,000ha(Carney1992; authors'fieldwork),he largestbeing wnedby British NC.Thesefarmsmployabout 5,500people, 70 per cent of whom arewomen, uring hepeakseason from anuaryoMarch. emale abour,ccordingoCarney1992),has been criticaln the development f exportproduction n these commercial arms.Womenperform ost f he abour-demandingperationssuch s sowing, ransplanting,eeding, arvestingandgrading roduce ualityFig.2).The increase n horticulturalxportsfromThe Gambiaover the last fiveyearshas beenphenomenal.n 1989earnings rom heexport ffruitndvegetables as543,000 alasi (inexcessof50,000), figure0 percenthigher han heprevious year (Oyowe, 1990, p. 17). Exportscontinueto increase and have risen from200tonnesn1989 o over ,000 onnesn1993with nestimated alue of over500,000Carney, 993,p.41;Pagni, 993, . 23).The numberf xportershas increased steadily:there are now abouteighteen exporterswho export to Europe, asubstantialncrease inceCarney 1992) reportedthatn1990only woexportersontrolled5 percent fthe ir argo paceboundfor urope.TheUK importsover 95 per cent of Gambianhorticulturalxports,withBelgium,Germany,Norway,wedenand The NetherlandseingtheotherEuropeanmarkets.nitially roducefromThe Gambia wentmainly o smallretail utletsservingthnicminorityarkets utnowthe argerproducers nd TNCs are also sellingto majorsupermarkethains,ncludingafeway,ainsbury'sand,most ecent,Marks ndSpencer.The main ropsgrown or xport avevariedover heyearsnresponse o consumer emandnEurope, ompetitionrom ther xportingationsand developmentsin seed and productiontechnologyut there re several ropsthathaveestablished hemselves irmlyn The Gambia'sexport rade.These includeaubergines, uavas,mangoes, ruitsf hegenus apsicumndvariousfresh egetables.n 1991chrysanthemumsereintroducedor heexportmarketndquicklyoseto become the sixth ighest-earningorticulturalexport crop (Eurostat, 1994). Government

encouragement to diversify into exporthorticultureHadjimichaelt al., 1992) has thusseen positive esults.However he introductionand increasing output of export-orientedhorticultural roductionbringswith it manychallenges.Economic nd socialimpacts

Thenational conomyAtthenational evel diversificationftheexportsector s essentialn an economyheavilyndebtandundergoingtructuraldjustmentuch s TheGambia's.Boosting f tradeablegoods such ashorticulturalxports s an explicit im of thegovernment'siversificationolicy Hadjimichaelet al, 1992). Expandinghis ector an result nincreasedgovernmentevenue n the formofforeignxchange rom axes evied nexportsndcompanyprofits,irporthandling hargesandforeignnvestment.nitiallyhegains fexportingare offset y an increase in imports uch asirrigationquipment,eeds,fertilisers,esticidesand packaging. Infrastructuremprovements,including upgrading of roads, storage,warehousing and airport facilitiesare alsonecessary.InThe Gambia hese upposedgains reonlyslowly being realised,with tax incentives oinvestorsimitinghe revenue o the State, ndmost of the infrastructure,here it exists,provided y private apital nd aid packages. orexample herewere no public old stores t theairport ntil 993when a large old storefacilitywas constructedy UK TNC.The Gambiahasnonational irline o airfreights entirelyyforeigncarriers,ncluding cargo plane,charter lights(during he tourist eason) and two Europeanairlines. his s inmarkedontrastothe ituationin Kenya where horticultural xporters areencouraged o use KenyaAirways,hichhas notbeenprivatised,husyieldingignificantevenuesfor overnment.The experienceof Kenya and Zimbabwedemonstrate hat horticulturalroduction angenerate a considerablemultiplier ffect, orexamplenthehandpreparationndpackagingfproducewhich addsvalue' toagriculturalxportsin the country f production. his can in turnstimulateocal ndustrialevelopment,articularlythe manufacturef paperand plasticpackagingmaterials as has happened in Kenya andZimbabwe.UK supermarkethainsnow try opreparendpackage roducts eady or the helf


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inthecountryforigin singhigh ualityocallymanufacturedaterials.n The Gambiahoweverfewmultiplierffectsaveyetbeenrealised,withall packagingmaterialseing mported. he onlymultiplierffectsvident t present re in theservicingffarmquipmentndcargohandling.EmploymentAllhorticulturalchemes,whatever hemode ofproduction, create rural employmentopportunitiesorboth men and women.Thisincludes aidwage labouron commercial armsincluding ermanentnd seasonalwork.Withinpeasantystemstgives armersheopportunityoearn year-round ncome in highlyseasonalagriculturalystems.t shouldbe notedherethathorticulturalroductions a veryabour-intensiveactivity.t has been calculated that 1 ha ofhorticulturalrops reates n average .7full-timeand two seasonal jobs, one of the highestemployment/landatios n theagriculturalector(Smith,990).In The Gambia, he authors alculatethatapproximately,000 jobs are associated withexport-orientedorticulturalroduction. ostofthese are seasonal and spatiallypecific, eingconcentratednthedry easonmonthsfJanuarytoApril nd located n the westof the countrywithinheperi-urbanone.There s a clear enderdivisionf abour n commercialarms, ithmenemployed s permanent orkersn skilled'obssuch as mechanics,upervisorsnd drivers,ndwomen s casual unskilled' ieldworkers.Wagerates y nternationaltandardsreextremelyow,withdailywagesforcasualworkers f0.70to1.00and averageseasonal incomesof 45-55(Carney, 992,p. 78). However,work done byCarney1992)suggestshat he ncome arnedbywomen n the argerommercialarmss twice smuch as women earn on NGO-sponsoredhorticulturalo-operatives.he authors ave alsofound hatwomenon co-operativechemes arnlow ncomes20-30) ut re ableto combine ry-seasonvegetable roduction ith heir raditionalsubsistence oles (Barrett nd Browne,1991).What is clear is that women workers oncommercial arms re not benefitingrom hevalueof theexport ropsnorbeingrewarded ortheirkills s farmers. omen'sow-paidabour sa significantontributor o the 'comparativeadvantage' f The Gambia in the internationaltradingystem.ContractfarmingSchemes involvingverbal contractsbetweenwomen's o-operativesnd commercialxporters

havebecomecommonplaceince1986.These alsoutilisewomen's abour,nreturnornputsuch sseeds, fertilisersnd equipment.n theory heyoffer o-operatives guarantee f purchasefortheir roduce, husreducinghe uncertaintiesfmarketing.hrough heseagreementsxportersare bleto ensure hat hey illheirpaceoncargoor charter lanesand thusgeta good returnntheir investment.However,complaintsaboutbreach of contract y both partieshave beenwidespread.Growers omplain hatunder theseagreements the contractorshave no legalobligation o purchase ropsand in realityheyalso vary hepurchasepriceon an ad hoc basis.Theuse of 'qualitylause', nwhich ualitys notdefined,llows uyersorefuse opurchase ropsintimes fglut r to reduce he greedprice.Forexample, he uthors ave eengoodqualityhillipeppers nd okraperishingnthefields ue to abreakdownnsupposedlycontractual' arketingagreements. ncollected roducehas little r nore-salevalue because of seasonal glutsor verylimited ocal demand. The supposed financialadvantagesogrowers fenteringuchcontractsare thereforeoubtful.Growers re also known to break verbalcontracts. ne contract, egotiated etweenanexporternda women's o-operativeytheRoyalNorwegian Society for Rural Development(RNSRD),almost founderedwhen the womenabsented hemselves rom he fields or three-week period, when crops were ready to beharvested,n order to participaten a villageceremony.Vegetableswere left rotting, hecontractwas withdrawnnd the exporter venthreatenedegalaction.However,nterventionyRNSRD esultednthe actionbeingdropped ndthe contractbeing reinstated.This exampleillustrateshedifficultieshat urroundttemptsolink mall-scalerowers o international arkets.Participantsn women's groups combinetheirfarmingnd reproductiveasksand sometimesfamilyndvillage unctionsakeprecedence verproductive ork. xportersxpectproduce f thecorrect uality nd quantityo be delivered tprecise imes ndhavefound hatwomen's roupsare unreliable'nmeetingontracterms. orthisreason the number of such contractshasdecreased,withonlytwoor three o-operativesrunbyWomen'sHorticulturalo-operativesowengaged in contractual arrangementsandexporters lacingcontractswith the increasingnumberof commercial arms.Nowadaysmostwomen'sgroups ell to exportmarketshroughmarketinggentswhobuyproduce on thespot'on an ad hoc basis.

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Impacts t thehouseholdnd communitylevelThepoliticalconomy f horticulturalroductionat the household level is complexand oftenunpredictable.t has specific mplications orgender-resourceelationshipsecauseitprovidesan incomeforwomen nrural reas where herehave been limitedopportunitiesfor incomegeneration.n The Gambia, or xample, argentandSey 1986)showhowvillage nion chemesnthe late 1970s raised ruralhousehold ncomes.Barrett nd Browne (1991) demonstrate hatwomen'sco-operativechemesgeneratemodestbut useful enefits orparticipants,hileCarney(1992) gives stimatedarningsataforwomen ncommercial arms. chroeder 1993), studyingvegetable roductionntheNorth ankDivisionfthecountryor heSenegalesemarket,uggeststhat at the timeof the study, nusually,manyfemale rowersarnedmorefrom his rade hantheirhusbands arnedfrom he traditionalashcrop, roundnuts.Income generationby women is oftentranslatednto mproved ouseholdwelfare. anystudies,ncludinghe authors' wn work nTheGambia, emonstratehe inks etween egetablecultivation nd increased nutritional tatus.Women'sncome s more ikelyhanmen'sto bespent nfood, ealthcarend children'sducationand thus has a strong link with humandevelopmentYoon, 1983; Opena and Kyomo,1990). n addition, art f theproducegrown ywomen s used to supplement ouseholdfoodconsumption, dding to the qualityof familynutritionSchroeder,993).This s nkeepingwithwomen'straditional ole as providers f familyfood,ncluding egetables.Dry-seasonhorticultural roductiondoeshowever ead to increasedworkloads orwomen,nowworking ear-roundn agriculturalctivities,as well as maintaininghefamilynd household(Barrett and Browne, 1989; Carney, 1993;Schroeder,993).Horticulturalork,whether orlocal or international arkets,equires onstantdaily abour nput,particularlyor rrigation.ngardenswherewaterings undertakensing owtechnology,uch as buckets,women mustgoto their plots twice a day to water crops.In co-operativechemeswhere pray rrigationsused Fig. ) womenhavedeveloped lexible orkrotas, ivinghemtime ff which llows hem operformheir thertasks Barrettnd Browne,1991). n commercialchemesworkpracticesremorestrictlyegulated nd womenoftenworkfewer ours hanmen, s well as receivingower'unskilled' ay-rates,ndconsequentlyarnmuchlower veragewages (Carney, 992).This s also

the case on commercial chemes in Senegal(Mackintosh,989). This reinforceshe incomedifferentialetween men and women in ruralhouseholds, where both have obligationstoprovide or amilyeeds.The introductionfhorticulturalroductionhas implicationsor nter-householdocial andeconomic relationships.Men and women arebecomingmore nvolvedncashproductionnanindividual r household level,with communalvillagerrangementsreakingown. ncomefromwage abour nddry-seasongriculturesregardedbymostpeople in The Gambia s individualsopposed to household ncome,with ndividualcontrol ver how it is disbursedSannehet al.,1991).Thus,newsocialdivisionsnd tensionsreappearingwithin illages f theperi-urbanone,where individualncome-generatingork takespeopleaway romabour roups basedongender,age or lineage)towhich hey ormerlyelonged.Village lderscomplain hat n the peak seasoncommunalwork-groupsor ommunityasks rebecoming ifficulto muster.The transitiono capitalist roduction asalso altered social relationshipsased on age.Horticulturalorkfavours heyoung ndstrong,whereas traditional armactivities, rganisedcommunally, mbraced all members of thecommunity. s a result, ncome differentialsbetween oungnd old are ncreasing,rodinghetraditionalowerbalanceand the statusof theelders. n several illages tudiedbytheauthors,conflictsad arisen etweenwomen's roups ndthe traditional alehierarchy.n one village, orexample,male elders wantedto take over themanagementf women's egetablecheme nceit becameprofitable.his resultedn the donortemporarilyithdrawingupport ortheprojectuntilthis ssue was resolved. chroeder 1993)documents imilar onflictsn the NorthBankDivision n schemes supplying he Senegalesemarket.Conclusion

The potentialof export-orientedorticulturalproductions a means fraisingothnational ndhousehold ncomesdependson a vastrangeoffactors oth xternalnd nternaloany ndividualcountry.fricanountriesmustfind ommoditiesforwhichhey ave, lbeit easonally,comparativeadvantageand this is becoming increasinglydifficults more ountriesnthedeveloping orldenter hehorticulturalxportector.Manysub-SaharanAfrican ountrieshave


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a comparativedvantagenhorticulturalroduction,based both on resources advantages andinequalitiesnthe nternationalivision f abour.In the EuropeanwinterAfrican egetables anprovidenorthernustomerswithfresh roduce.This s a marketwhichhas expanded n recentyears, rimarilyhroughconomiesof scale andimproved echnologyn transport,andlingndretail sales. In the European summerAfricangrowers can export selected high-valuehorticulturalroductsnd still e competitiventhemarketlace.Thus he omplementarylimateregimes f theregion an supply he Europeanmarket ear-round.ow-incomeconomies uchas The Gambia re also attractiven internationaltradingterms because of their comparativeadvantageof labour costs. Gender roles andexpectationsssignmuch fhorticulturalabour ofemale orkers,ho, na countryikeThe Gambiawheregender disparitiesre great,receive owwagesfor heirwork.One author astermed his'the comparative advantage of women'sdisadvantage'Mackintosh,989) nd this sone ofthefactorshat llowsGambian roduce obe soldcompetitivelynEurope.Within frica,hemajor ssuesfor he futureappear to be transporting nd marketingof produce,withinfrastructureorperishablegoods and air cargo space reported to beproblematicn both Kenyaand The Gambia.However, nce a country as entered nto thistrade he economicbenefits o governmentnd

households can be significant.he economicbenefits are recognised by donors andinternational rganisationswho are activelyencouragingothproducersndgovernmentsoembrace his xport pportunity.he example fThe Gambiademonstratesome of theeconomicand social implications f the introduction fexport orticulturalroduction.hese nclude herelations of production and exchange atcommunityevel and within the household.Genderrelationshipsre particularlyighlightedby ubtle nd sometimesnforseenhangesnthedivision f abour,nworkloads nd in access tohousehold esources.Horticulturalroduction rovides potentialopportunityfor many sub-Saharan Africancountries to increase theirforeign xchangeearnings.n The Gambia thiscomplementsherainy-seasongriculturalalendar nd the labourrequirementsfor the principal cash crop,groundnuts,nd thecereal taples. t also accordswith the necessity o diversifyhe economy srequired y n indebted ountry ndeavouringoadjust ts conomy. s a newcomer o thismarket,The Gambia is still at an early stage in thedevelopmentf ts horticulturalndustry ith tsmarkets nd infrastructureittledeveloped incomparisonwith hose n Kenya nd Zimbabwe.It provides n interestingxampleof the new'internationalisation'f rural Africa nd theconsequences, challengesand conflictswhichaccompanyt.Fig. .Womenna co-operativeegetable rojectnThe Gambia ake t nturns o move he rrigationipes.Photo:Hazel Barrett.

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ReferencesBarrett,.R. 1988)TheMarketingfFoodstuffsn TheGambia, 400-1980:geographicalnalysis, ldershot:Avebury.Barrett, .R. (1995) 'Women n Africa:he neglecteddimensionndevelopment',eography,0, 3,pp.215-24.Barrett,H.R. and Browne,A.W (1989) 'Time fordevelopment?he case of women's horticulturalschemes in ruralGambia',ScottishGeographicalMagazine, 05, ,pp.4-11.Barrett,.R. ndBrowne, .W 1991) Environmentalndeconomic sustainability:women's horticulturalproductionnTheGambia', eography,6,3,pp.241-8.Browne, .W ndBarrett,.R. 1994) Women'sducationin sub-Saharan frican',eographyeview, , 3, pp.8-11.Cable, 1994)GATTnd fter',heWorldoday,0, ,pp.26-8.Carney,J. (1992) 'Peasant women and economictransformationn The Gambia',DevelopmentndChange,3,2,pp.67-90.Carney,. 1993) Convertinghewetlands,ngenderingheenvironment:he ntersectionfgenderwith grarianchangenTheGambia',conomic eography,9, ,pp.329-48.Eurostat1994) ECExternalrade,uxembourg:tatisticalOfficef heEuropeanommunities.Hadjimichael,.T. t al. (1992)The Gambia:Economicadjustmentn a small pen conomy, ashingtonC:Internationalonetaryund.Le Heron,R. (1993) GlobalizedAgriculture,xford:Pergamon.Mackintosh,. 1989)Gender,lass ndRuralTransitionagribusinessnd the oodcrisis n Senegal, ondon:Zed Books.Moser, O. (1989) Gender laningn theThirdWorld:meeting ractical ndstrategicender eeds',WorldDevelopment,7,11,pp.1799-1825.Moser, O. (1993)Gender lanning nd Development,London: outledge.

Opena,R.T and Kyomo,M.L. eds.) (1990) 'Vegetableresearch and developmentn SADCC countries',Proceedingsf workshopeld tArusha,anzania,uly.Oxfam1993)Africa make rbreak, xford:xfam.Oyowe, . 1990)TheGambia:marketorcesule, K',TheCourier, 19, pp.13-20.Pagni,. 1993) People ave obe able oprovideheirwnfood', interview ith OmarA. Jallow,MinisterfAgriculture,heCourier, 42, p.23-5.RoyalNorwegianociety orRuralDevelopment1991)personalommunication.Sanneh, .R. t l. (1991)WomennDevelopmentaselineReport o. 1, Banjul:Women's ureau, fficef thePresident.Sargent, J.and Sey,A.S. 1986) Cooperativeegetablegrowingnd marketingn TheGambia', griculturalAdministration,1,pp.67-79.Schapiro, .O. ndWainaina,. (1991) Kenya'sxportfhorticulturalommodities',ublicAdministrationndDevelopment,1, ,pp.257-61.Schroeder, .A. 1993) 'Shadypractice: ender nd thepoliticalcology f resource tabilisationn Gambiangarden/orchards',conomicGeography,9,4,pp.349-65.Smith, .(1990) Zimbabwe's orticulturalxport rade',Geography,5,2, pp.160-2.Stewart,. et al. (eds.) (1992)AlternativeevelopmentStrategiesnSub-Saharanfrica,ondon:Macmillan.VanderLaan,H.L. 1993) Boostinggriculturalxports?A 'marketinghannel' perspective n an Africandilemma',fricanffairs,2,pp.173-201.World ank 1989)Sub-Saharan frica from risis osustainablerowth, ashingtonC:World ank.World ank1995)Worldevelopmenteport995, xford:Oxfordniversityress.Yoon, .Y (1983) Women's arden roupsn Casamace,Senegal'Assignmenthildren,3/64,p.133-53.DrsH.R.BarrettndA.W rownereLecturersntheGeographyivision f the SchoolofNatural ndEnvironmentalciences, oventryniversity,rioryStreet,oventryV1 FB.

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